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THEORIES OF EMOTION
WHAT IS EMOTION……………………………………………………………………………..2
THE PHSIOLOGY OF EMOTION………………………………………………………………3

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MAJOR THEORIES OF EMOTION

What is emotion?
Іn 384-322 BСЕ, Аrіѕtоtlе dеѕсrіbеd еmоtіоnѕ аѕ "thоѕе fееlіngѕ thаt ѕо сhаngе
mеn аѕ tо аffесt thеіr judgmеntѕ, аnd thаt аrе аlѕо аttеndеd bу раіn оr рlеаѕurе.
Ѕuсh аrе аngеr, ріtу, fеаr аnd thе lіkе, wіth thеіr орроѕіtеѕ." Thеѕе аrе mеntаl
ѕtаtеѕ оr fееlіngѕ thаt оссur ѕроntаnеоuѕlу аnd nоt bу іntеntіоn. Thеѕе fееlіngѕ аrе
оftеn ассоmраnіеd bу рhуѕіоlоgісаl rеасtіоnѕ. Thеѕе оссurrеnсеѕ аrе іn rеѕроnѕе
tо оur реrсерtіоn оf whаt іѕ hарреnіng оr whаt wе ѕее оr hеаr реr-tіmе. Еmоtіоnѕ
hеlр uѕ undеrѕtаnd оur еxреrіеnсеѕ. Wе wоuld nеvеr knоw thаt thе dеаth оf а
lоvеd оnе іѕ а ѕаd еxреrіеnсе іf wе hаvе nеvеr fеlt ѕаdnеѕѕ. Wе wоuld nеvеr knоw
thаt ѕоmеоnе dеѕtrоуіng оur lаwn іѕ аn аnnоуіng еxреrіеnсе іf wе hаvе nеvеr fеlt
аngrу. Fееlіng еmоtіоnѕ hеlр uѕ саtеgоrіzе оur еxреrіеnсеѕ аnd rеасt ассоrdіnglу.
Роѕіtіvе еmоtіоnѕ rеgіѕtеr аn еxреrіеnсе wе аrе hаvіng оr аrе аbоut tо hаvе аѕ
gооd аnd wоrth hаvіng. Whеn wе ѕау wе lооk fоrwаrd tо thе еxреrіеnсе, іt іѕ nоt
thе еxреrіеnсе wе lооk fоrwаrd tо реr ѕée. Іt іѕ mоrе thе еmоtіоnѕ аѕѕосіаtеd
wіth thаt еxреrіеnсе thаt wе lооk fоrwаrd tо hаvіng. Оn thе оthеr hаnd, nеgаtіvе
еmоtіоnѕ аlеrt uѕ оf unрlеаѕаnt оr роtеntіаllу unрlеаѕаnt еxреrіеnсеѕ. Wе knоw
wе ѕhоuld dо сеrtаіn thіngѕ оr nоt dо сеrtаіn thіngѕ іf wе wоuld аvоіd ѕuсh
еxреrіеnсеѕ. Fоr еxаmрlе, whеn wе аrе fасеd wіth а ѕuddеn thrеаt, wе fееl fеаr
оf lоѕѕ оr раіn. Thе еmоtіоn оf fеаr trіggеrѕ а fіght оr flіght rеасtіоn. Whаt wе
rеаllу аrе trуіng tо аvоіd іѕ thе lоѕѕ оr раіn, nоt thе оссurrеnсе іtѕеlf. Wіthоut
еmоtіоnѕ, thеrе wоuld bе nо еmоtіоnаl іntеllіgеnсе аnd wіthоut еmоtіоnаl
іntеllіgеnсе, wе wоuld nоt bе аblе tо tеll рrесіѕеlу thе kіndѕ оf еxреrіеnсеѕ wе
wаnt tо hаvе аnd thе kіndѕ wе dоn't wаnt tо hаvе.
The Latin word meaning “to move” is the source of both words used in this
chapter over and over again-motive and emotion. Emotion can be defined as the
“feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by certain physical arousal,
certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner
awareness of feelings. Thus, from this short definition, we can understand that
there are three elements of emotion: the physiology, behavior and subjective
experience.

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1)The pphysiology of emotion - when a person experiences an emotion, there

is physical arousal created by the sympathetic nervous system. The heart rate
increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils of the eye dilate, and the
moth may become dry. emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another
based on outward bodily reactions alone. The physiology of emotion involves a
complex interplay of neural, hormonal, and physiological processes that underlie

To emote is to
the experience and expression of emotions

give expression, particularly

through acting (Definition of
emote, 20
1)The pphysiology of emotion We all know how it feels to have our heart
beat fast with fear. This physiological response is the result of the autonomic
nervous system’s reaction to the emotion we’re experiencing. The autonomic
nervous system controls our involuntary bodily responses and regulates our fight-
or-flight response. According to many psychologists, our physiological responses
are likely how emotion helped us evolve and survive as humans throughout history.

Interestingly, studies have shown autonomic physiological responses are strongest

when a person’s facial expressions most closely resemble the expression of the
emotion they’re experiencing. In other words, facial expressions play an important
role in responding accordingly to an emotion in a physical sense.

It's important to note that the physiology of emotion is highly interconnected with
cognitive processes, personal experiences, and social factors. Emotions are not
solely determined by biological mechanisms but are also influenced by individual
differences, cultural norms, and learned behaviors. As research continues to
advance, our understanding of the physiology of emotion will likely become more
nuanced, providing new insights into the complex nature of human emotions.

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2)The behavior of emotion- tells us how people behave in the grip of an

emotion. There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate
to others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expressions combine with
hand gestures, the turning of one‘s body, and spoken words to produce an
understanding of emotion. People fight, run, kiss, and yell, along with countless
other actions stemming from the emotions they feel. Facial expressions can vary
across different cultures, although some aspects of facial expression seem to be
universal. The behavioral response aspect of the emotional response is the actual
expression of the emotion. Behavioral responses can include a smile, a grimace, a
laugh or a sigh, along with many other reactions depending on societal norms and
personality.

While plentiful research suggests that many facial expressions are universal, such
as a frown to indicate sadness, sociocultural norms and individual upbringings play
a role in our behavioral responses. For example, how love is expressed is different
both from person to person and across cultures.

Behavioral responses are important to signal to others how we’re feeling, but
research shows that they’re also vital to individuals’ well-being. A study in
the Journal of Abnormal Psychology found that while watching negative and positive
emotional films, suppression of behavioral responses to emotion had physical
effects on the participants. The effects included elevated heart rates. This suggests
that expressing behavioral responses to stimuli, both positive and negative, is
better for your overall health than holding those responses inside. Thus, there are
benefits of smiling, laughing and expressing negative emotions in a healthy way.

The physiological and behavioral responses associated with emotions illustrate that
emotion is much more than a mental state. Emotion affects our whole demeanor
and our health. Furthermore, our ability to understand others’ behavioral
responses plays a huge role in our emotional intelligence, which will be discussed in
more detail later.

The behavior of emotion refers to the observable actions, expressions, and

responses that individuals exhibit in reaction to their emotional experiences.
Emotions can significantly influence behavior, influencing how people interact
with others, make decisions, and respond to various situations. The behavior of

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emotion is a multifaceted and dynamic process influenced by a combination of

biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors.
Studying the behavior of emotion provides valuable insights into the complex
interplay between biological processes, psychological functioning, and social
dynamics in shaping human behavior.

3)Subjective experience or labeling emotion is the third component of

emotion and it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label:
anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise and so on.
Another way of labeling this component is to call it the “cognitive component”,
because the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar
experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a
solution- a label. The label a person applies to a subjective feeling is at least in
part a learned response influenced by that person‘s language and culture. Such
labels may differ in people of different cultural backgrounds.

Overall, the subjective experience and labeling of emotions are integral

components of emotional processing. Understanding how individuals subjectively
perceive and label their emotions provides valuable insights into the complexity of
human emotional life, as well as its impact on cognition, behavior, and social
interactions.
In emotional psychology, emotions are split into two groups: basic and
complex. Basic emotions are associated with recognizable facial expressions and
tend to happen automatically. Charles Darwin was the first to suggest that emotion-
induced facial expressions are universal. This suggestion was a centerpiece idea to
his theory of evolution, implying that emotions and their expressions were
biological and adaptive. In fact, emotions have been observed in animals by
researchers for several years, suggesting that they’re pivotal to survival in other
species as well. Basic emotions are likely to have played a role in our survival
throughout human evolution, signaling to those around us to react accordingly.

Emotional psychologist Paul Ekman identified six basic emotions that could be
interpreted through facial expressions. They included happiness, sadness, fear,
anger, surprise and disgust. He expanded the list in 1999 to also include
embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction and amusement,
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though those additions have not been widely adapted. Similarly, in the 1980s,
psychologist Robert Plutchik identified eight basic emotions which he grouped into
pairs of opposites, including joy and sadness, anger and fear, trust and disgust, and
surprise and anticipation. This classification is known as a wheel of emotions and
can be compared to a color wheel in that certain emotions mixed together can
create new complex emotions.

More recently, a new study from the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology at
the University of Glasgow in 2014 found that instead of six, there may only be
four easily recognizable basic emotions. The study discovered that anger and
disgust shared similar facial expressions, as did surprise and fear. This suggests
that the differences between those emotions are sociologically-based and not
biologically-based. Despite all the conflicting research and adaptations, most
research acknowledge that there are a set of universal basic emotions with
recognizable facial features.

Complex emotions have differing appearances and may not be as easily

recognizable, such as grief, jealousy or regret. Complex emotions are defined as
“any emotion that is an aggregate of two or more others.” The APA uses the
example of hate being a fusion of fear, anger and disgust. Basic emotions, on the
other hand, are unmixed and innate. Other complex emotions include love,
embarrassment, envy, gratitude, guilt, pride, and worry, among many others.
5.2.2. Theories of emotion
As we’ve explored, emotion is multifaceted and debatable. Thus, many theories of
emotion exist. While some theories directly refute others, many build upon each
other. Here are some common theories of emotional psychology that have helped
shape the field and how humans view emotions.

I. James- Lang Theory of Emotion.

This theory of emotion is based on the work of William James (1884, 1890, 1894),
who was also the founder of the functionalist perspective in the early history of
psychology and a physiologist and psychologist in Denmark, Carl Lang (1885),
came up with an explanation of emotion so similar to that of James that the two
names are used together to refer to the theory –the James- Lang theory of emotion.
The James-Lange theory of emotion suggests that physical change in the
body happen first,which then leads to the experience of emotion. In other
words, James and Lange would say, “I feel afraid because I tremble”. If a person
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sees a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest that
the person would tremble and then realise that, because they are trembling, they are
afraid. The James-Lange theory of emotion, proposed by psychologist William
James and physiologist Carl Lange in the late 19th century, suggests that emotions
are the result of physiological responses to external stimuli. According to this
theory, when an individual encounters a stimulus, the body first experiences a
physiological response, such as increased heart rate, sweating, or trembling. It is
only after these bodily changes occur that the individual becomes aware of the
corresponding emotion, such as fear, anger, or happiness.

Complex emotions vary greatly in how they appear on a person’s face and don’t
have easily recognizable expressions. Grief looks quite different between cultures
and individuals. Some complex emotions, such as jealousy, may have no
accompanying facial expression at all.

The James-Lange theory posits that different patterns of physiological responses

lead to different emotional experiences. For example, if an individual's body
experiences the physiological changes associated with fear (e.g., increased heart
rate, trembling), they will interpret these bodily changes as fear. Conversely, if the
body experiences the physiological changes associated with joy (e.g., smiling,
increased energy), they will interpret these changes as happiness.

Critics of the James-Lange theory have argued that physiological responses are
not specific enough to account for the wide range of emotional experiences and
that emotional experiences can occur without noticeable physiological changes.
Additionally, research in the field of emotion has revealed that the relationship
between physiological responses and emotional experiences is more complex
than proposed by the James-Lange theory. According to James, his theory is that
the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact. Our feelings
of the same changes as they occur and this is called the emotion Essentially,
emotions stem from your interpretation of your physical sensations. For
example, your heart beating wildly would lead you to realize that you are

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afraid. In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for example, the large snarling dog)
produces a physiological reaction. This reaction, which is the arousal of the “fight-
or-flight” sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run), produces bodily
sensations such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing. James
and Lang believed that physical arousal led to the labeling of the emotion (fear).
Simply put, “I am afraid because I am aroused,” “I am embarrassed because my
face is red, “I am nervous because my stomach is fluttering,” and “I am in love
because of my heart rate increases when I look at her or him.”

Physiological arousal (High blood

Stimulus (e.g. snarling dog) Emotion (fear)
pressure, high heart rate, sweating)

II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, proposed by psychologist Walter Cannon and physiologist
Philip Bard in the early 20th century, presents an alternative perspective on the relationship
between physiological responses and emotional experiences. This theory suggests that
emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently in response to
external stimuli, rather than the physiological response being the cause of the emotional
experience, as proposed by the James-Lange theory.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory, the sequence of events leading to an emotional

experience is as follows:

1. Encounter with a stimulus: The individual encounters a stimulus, such as a threatening

situation or a joyful event.

2. Simultaneous response: In response to the stimulus, the individual's body undergoes specific
physiological changes, such as increased heart rate, changes in breathing pattern, or release of
stress hormones. At the same time, the individual experiences the corresponding emotion.

The key distinction between the James-Lange theory and the Cannon-Bard theory is that in the
latter, the physiological response and emotional experience are seen as independent and
occurring simultaneously. In other words, according to the Cannon-Bard theory, encountering a

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stimulus triggers both the physiological response and the emotional experience at the same
time.

One of the central tenets of the Cannon-Bard theory is that emotions are generated in the
brain's subcortical structures, particularly the thalamus, which relays sensory information to
both the cerebral cortex (responsible for conscious thought and decision-making) and the
autonomic nervous system (responsible for regulating involuntary bodily functions). This
suggests that emotional experiences are not solely dependent on bodily changes but are also
influenced by cognitive and perceptual processes.

Critics of the Cannon-Bard theory have argued that it oversimplifies the complex interplay
between physiological responses and emotional experiences. Additionally, subsequent research
has shown that there is a bidirectional relationship between physiological responses and
emotional experiences, with each influencing the other in a dynamic manner.

In summary, while the James-Lange theory emphasizes the role of physiological responses as
the primary cause of emotional experiences, the Cannon-Bard theory proposes that emotions
and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently in response to external
stimuli. Both theories have contributed to our understanding of emotions, and contemporary
research continues to explore the intricate connections between physiological responses and
emotional experiences. Physiologists Walter Cannon and (1927) and Philip Bard (1934)
theorized that the emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at the same time.
Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal mechanisms, did not feel that the physical changes
aroused by different emotions were distinct enough to allow them to be perceived as different
emotions. Bard expanded on this idea by stating that the sensory information that comes into
the brain is sent simultaneously (by the thalamus) to both the cortex and the organs of the
sympathetic nervous system. The fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore, experienced at
the same time-not one after the other. “I am afraid and running and aroused!” The Cannon-
Bard theory of emotion, proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in the 1920s and 1930s,
suggests that emotional and physiological responses occur simultaneously in response to a
stimulus. According to this theory, when an individual encounters a stimulus, the brain
processes the information and triggers both a physiological response (such as increased heart
rate or sweating) and an emotional experience (such as fear or happiness) at the same time.
This theory suggests that the physiological and emotional responses are independent of each
other, but they occur simultaneously due to the brain's processing of the stimulus. This is in
contrast to the James-Lange theory, which proposes that physiological responses precede the
emotional experience.

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For example: I see a snake —> I am afraid —> I begin to tremble.

According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we react to a stimulus and
experience the associated emotion at the same time. The Cannon Bard theory of
emotion differs from other theories of emotion such as the James Lange theory of
emotion, which argues that physiological responses occur first and this in turn
cause the emotions. The questions in regard to the emotions that arise are for
instance Where do our emotions come from? What is it about the human body
and mind that has the capacity to form emotions and reactions to such a variety
of situations? Even more important, Why do we form these emotions? According
to Cannon-Bard, emotions do not come as a response to physiological conditions.
However, at the same time, neither do emotions come and then the body creates
a physical reaction to the said emotions. When we consider this philosophy we
realise that according to Cannon-Bard “emotions and physiological responses
occur at exactly the same time.” When both these theories (James Lange and
Cannon Bard’s) are considered, the issue arises is that which of these theories is
closer to the truth. Until recent decades, most of the psychologists believed that
Cannon-Bard theory was more accurate. They reached this conclusion on the basis
of several forms of evidence. More recently though the pendulum of scientific
opinion has begun to swing the other way and certain aspects of James-Lange
approach have gained increasing acceptance. Additional support for the James-
Lange theory of emotion is provided by studies of the facial feedback hypothesis
according to which changes in our facial expression sometimes produce shifts in
our emotional experiences rather than merely mirroring them. In other words, as
James would suggest, we feel happier while we smile, sadder when we frown, and
so on. While there are many complexities in examining the hypothesis, the results
of several studies offer support for accuracy.

Schachter-Singer Theory
This theory, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer, introduces the
element of reasoning into the process of emotion. The theory hypothesizes that
when we experience an event that causes physiological arousal, we try to find a
reason for the arousal. Then, we experience the emotion. The Schachter-Singer two-
factor theory of emotion is a theory outlining two components of emotion, an initial

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physiological arousal and a subsequent cognitive process. The cognitive identification or label
of the emotion is assigned based on the person's immediate environment. This theory was
introduced by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in the 1960s.

One principal component of this theory is the interplay between physical arousal and the
cognitive identification of that arousal. According to the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion, in
order to feel an emotion, a person must both feel a physiological arousal and label the arousal.
In this context, physiological arousal describes physical processes of the body like increased
heart rate, perspiration, trembling, blushing, or appearing pale.

Physical reaction cognitions emotion

The Schachter-Singer theory explains that emotion is formed from physiological arousal and a cognitive label.

This theory also explains that a person's emotional response is formed from an
interpretation of their immediate environment. When a person has a physiological
response, they can use their proximate environment to interpret the emotion. The
theory explains that if a person has an apparent emotional explanation of their bodily
response, the person is unlikely to look for another justification from the environment.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Richard Lazarus pioneered this theory of emotion. According to the Cognitive
Appraisal Theory, thinking must occur before experiencing emotion. Thus, a person
would first experience a stimulus, think, and then simultaneously experience a
physiological response and the emotion.

These are far from the only theories of emotion that exist, but they provide great
examples of how the ideas about how emotion is generated differ from each other.
What all theories of emotion have in common is the idea that an emotion is based
off some sort of personally significant stimulus or experience, prompting a
biological and psychological reaction.

Benefits Of Understanding
Emotions
As discussed, emotions have helped humans evolve and survive. According to
Ekman, who developed the wheel of emotion, “It would be very dangerous if we

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didn’t have emotions. It would also be a very dull life. Because, basically, our
emotions drive us — excitement, pleasure, even anger.” That is why it’s important
that we’re able to understand emotions as they play such an important role in how
we behave.

Ekman argues that emotions are fundamentally constructive. They are influenced
by what is good for our species overall and what we learned during our upbringing.
They guide our behavior in a way that should lead us to a positive outcome.
However, emotions can become destructive if the emotions we’ve learned are the
correct response no longer fit our situation, or if subconscious emotions cause
reactions that we are unable to understand. Being in touch with your emotions and
turning your understanding into action is called emotional awareness. Being able to
do this with others as well is referred to as emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. The
term was first coined by researchers Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer and found
popularity through Dan Goleman’s 1996 book. They define it as the ability to
recognize, understand and manage our own emotions as well as recognize,
understand and influence those of others. The study of emotional intelligence has
gained much popularity since the mid-1990s, with business professionals,
relationship coaches and more using the term to encourage others to improve their
lives. Many researchers believe that emotional intelligence can be improved over
time, while some argue that it’s a trait we’re born with or without.

The components of emotional intelligence include:

 Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others: Recognizing or

expressing verbal or nonverbal cues about emotion

 Regulating emotion in the self and others: Managing emotions so that all parties
are motivated towards a positive outcome.

 Using emotions in adaptive ways: Using emotion and the interpretation of

emotions to result in positive outcomes.

Those who have emotional intelligence open themselves to positive and negative
emotional experiences, identify the emotions and communicate those emotions
appropriately. Emotionally intelligent people can use their understanding of their
emotions and the emotions of others to move toward personal and social growth.
Those with low emotional intelligence may unable to understand and control their

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emotions or those of others. This could leave others feeling badly when they don’t
understand their emotions, feelings, or expressions.

Clearly, there are personal and professional benefits to improving your emotional
intelligence. In Forbes, Co-Chair of Nobel Peace prize-nominated campaign and
New York Times best-selling author Chade-Meng Tan addressed the benefits of
improving emotional intelligence. He pointed out that high emotional intelligence
correlates with better work performance, makes people better leaders and creates
the conditions for personal happiness. He stated, “There are also compelling
personal benefits, and the most basic of those occur in three categories: calmness
and clarity of mind, resilience and more satisfying relationships.”

Emotional intelligence plays a role in overall success much like traditional

intelligence. In fact, some researchers argue that it plays a bigger role. In his 1995
book “Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ,” psychologist Daniel
Goleman introduced the idea of an EQ. Much like an IQ, an EQ is a measurement
for individuals’ emotional intelligence aptitude. Goleman argues that EQ counts
twice as much as IQ and technical skills combined when it comes to becoming
successful.

Whether or not that is true is certainly debatable, but emotional intelligence has
served humans well throughout our evolution and history. It played a role long
before it was officially defined, and likely will for years to come.

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