TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF

MOMBASA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
AND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
BSC: Mechanical Engineering
FLUID MECHANICS II NOTES 2021

BY: Eng. Patrick W. Munialo

i
 Course content and reference materials

The course content or modules is as per the arrangement in table of contents .Even though the
course content and reference materials are attached in appendix I

ii
Table of Contents
Cover page ............................................................................................................................................ i
Course content and reference materials................................................................................................. ii
CHAPTER ONE (MODULE ONE ): LAMINAR FLOW .................................................................... 1
1. 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF LAMINAR FLOW ....................................................................... 1
1.3 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPES—HAGEN POISEUILLE
LAW AND PRESSURE DROP ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe ...................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Shear stress distribution and velocity distribution a cross a pipe section ............... 3
1.3.3 Maximum velocity of flow in circular pipes .............................................................. 4
1.3.4 Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity. ............................................................... 5
1.3.5 Drop of Pressure for a given Length (L) of a pipe ........................................................... 5
1.3.6 Flow of viscous fluid through an annulus ....................................................................... 10
1.3.7 Concept of “hydraulic diameter”: (D h). ......................................................................... 12
1.3.8 Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates ..................................................... 13
1.3.8.1 One Plate Moving and Other at Rest—Couette Flow .................................................... 13
1.3.8.2. Both Plates at Rest ........................................................................................................ 15
1.3.8.3. Both Plates Moving in Opposite Directions .................................................................. 15
1.3.9 Velocity Distribution. ....................................................................................................... 17
1.3.10 Drop of Pressure head for a given Length. ................................................................... 19
1.3.11 Shear Stress Distribution. ............................................................................................. 19
1.3.12 Kinetic Energy correction and Momentum Correction factors .................................. 21
1.3.12.1 Kinetic Energy Correction factor .............................................................................. 21
CHAPTER TWO (MODULE TWO): TURBULENT FLOW ............................................................ 24
2.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 24
2.1.1Comparison Between Laminar and Turbulent flow....................................................... 24
2.1.2 Classification of the Turbulent flow................................................................................ 25
2.2 REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT .................................................................................................. 26
2.2.1 Experimental Background .............................................................................................. 26
2.2.2 Experimental Apparatus ................................................................................................. 26
2.2.3 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................. 26
2.2.4 Observations made ........................................................................................................... 27
2.2.5 Conclusions made............................................................................................................. 27

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 2.3 REYNOLDS NUMBER AND ITS EFFECTS.......................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Experiment on Energy (head ) loss in a pipe .................................................................. 28
2.3.2 Observations made and Conclusions .............................................................................. 28
2.3.3 Critical Reynolds number: ....................................................................................... 29
2.4 FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW (DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION)................... 30
2.4.1 Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes.( Darcy –Welsbach Equations ........ 31
2.4.2 Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress. ......................... 33
2.5 SHEAR STRESS IN TURBULENT FLOW ....................................................................... 34
2.5.1 Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress. ......................................................... 35
2.5.2 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress. ................................. 35
2.6 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES .................................. 36
2.6.1 Hydrodynamic ally Smooth and Rough Boundaries, .................................................... 37
2.6.2 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent flow in Smooth Pipes..................................... 39
2.6.3 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes. .................................... 40
CHAPTER THREE (MODULE THREE): FLUID FLOW AND POWER TRANSMISSION
THROUGH PIPILINES...................................................................................................................... 41
3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 41
3.2 MAJOR AND MINOR ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW ...................................... 42
3.3 MAJOR (HEAD) ENERGY LOSSES ...................................................................................... 42
3.4 MINOR (HEAD) ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW ...................................................... 43
3.4.1.1 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Expansion and Enlargement .......................................... 43
3.4.1.1.1 Loss of head due to Sudden expansion................................................................. 43
3.4.1.1.2 Loss of head due to sudden Enlargement ................................................................. 44
3.4.1.2 Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction. ............................................................... 45
3.4.1.3 Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe. ................................................................... 48
3.4,1,4 Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe. ..................................................................................... 49
3.4.1.5 Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction in a Pipe. ........................................................... 49
3.4.1.6 Loss of Head due to valves, fittings and Bend in Pipe. .............................................. 50
3.4.1.7 Loss of couplings in various pipe fittings. .................................................................... 51
3.4.1.8 Loss of head at submerged discharge: ......................................................................... 51
3.5 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE ......................................... 52
3.5.1. Hydraulic Gradient line. .................................................................................................... 52
3.5.2 Total Energy Line. ............................................................................................................. 52
3.6 FLOW THROUGH SYPHON .................................................................................................. 58
3.7. FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES OR FLOW THROGH COMPOUND PIPES .. 62
3.8 ANALYSIS OF EQUIVALENT PIPE .................................................................................. 65

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 3.9 FLOW THROUGH PARALLEL PIPES .................................................................................. 66
3.10 FLOW THROUGH BRANCHED PIPES ........................................................................... 67
CHAPTER 4 ( MODULE 4) : POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES ................................ 69
4.1. POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES ...................................................................... 69
4.2 FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE AT THE END OF A PIPE .................................................. 71
4·2·1 Power Transmitted through the Nozzle ......................................................................... 72
4·2·2 Condition for Transmission of Maximum Power Through Nozzle .............................. 72
4.3·DIAMETER OF THE NOZZLE FOR TRANSMITTING MAXIMUM POWER............ 73
4.4 . WATER HAMMER IN PIPES ............................................................................................ 74
4·4·1 Gradual Closure of Valve ............................................................................................... 74
4·4·2 Instantaneous Closure of Valve in Rigid Pipes .............................................................. 75
4·4·3 Instantaneous Closure of Valve in Elastic Pipes ........................................................... 76
4·4·4 Time required by Pressure Wave to travel from the Valve to the Tank and from
Tank to Valve ............................................................................................................................ 77
4.5 FLUID METERS (MEASUREMENT) MODULE FOUR CONTINUATION .................. 78
4.6 APPENDIX I COURSE CONTENT AND REFERENCE MATERIALS .......................... 78
APPENDIX I

v
CHAPTER ONE (MODULE ONE ): LAMINAR FLOW

1. 1 INTRODUCTION
Newtonian fluids flows can be classified as (i) laminar (or viscous), and (ii) turbulent, depending on
characteristic Reynolds number = Where l is the characteristic length. In a pipe, Laminar flow
occurs when Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000 and a turbulent flow occurs When Re >
4000.

This module will deal with the flow of fluids which are viscous and flowing at very
low velocity. At low velocity the fluid moves in layers. Each layer of fluid slides over
the adjacent layer. Due to relative velocity between two layers the velocity gradient
exists and hence a shear stress. acts on the layers. The following cases will
be considered in this module:

1) Characterization of laminar flow

2) Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe.
3) Flow of viscous fluid through an annulus
4) Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates.
5) Kinetic energy correction and momentum correction factors

1.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF LAMINAR FLOW

Laminar flow is characterized by
(i) Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000
(ii) ‘No slip’ at the boundary.
(iii) Due to viscosity, there is a shear between fluid layers, which is given by
.
(iv) The flow is rotational.
(v) Due to viscous shear, there is continuous dissipation of energy and for
maintaining the flow ,energy must be supplied externally.
(vi) Loss of energy is proportional to first power of velocity and first power of
viscosity.
(vii) No mixing between different fluid layers (except by molecular motion, which is
very small).
(viii) The flow remains laminar as long as is less than critical value of Reynolds
number.
Examples of laminar/viscous flow:
(i) Flow past tiny bodies.
(ii) Underground flow.
(iii) Movement of blood in the arteries of a human body.

1
 (iv) Flow of oil in measuring instruments.
(v) Rise of water in plants through their roots etc.

1.3 FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPES—HAGEN

POISEUILLE LAW AND PRESSURE DROP

1.3.1 Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe

Hagen–Poiseuille theory is based on the following assumptions:
1. The fluid follows Newton’s law of viscosity.
2. There is no slip of fluid particles at the boundary (i.e. the fluid particles
adjacent to the pipe will have zero velocity).
For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution across a
section, the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress
distribution and drop of pressure for a given length is to be determined. The flow
through the circular pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the Reynolds number (Re*) is
less than 2000. The expression for Reynold number is given by

Where , ,

Fig. 1.1 Viscous flow through a pipe.

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. the viscous fluid is flowing from left to right
in the pipe as shown in figure 1.1 (a). Consider a fluid element of radius r, sliding in
a cylindrical fluid element of radius (r+dr). let the length of fluid element be Δx. If ‘p’
is the intensity of pressure on the face AB, is the shear stress on the surface of the
fluid element then the force acting on the fluid element:

1. The pressure force,

2. The pressure force, ( ) on the face DC.
3. The shear force, τ x 2πr on the surface of fluid element. As there is no
acceleration, hence summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be

2
 zero i.e., ( )

or, or,

Therefore,

1.3.2 Shear stress distribution and velocity distribution a cross a pipe section

The shear stress across a section varies with ‘r’ as across a section is constant.
Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear as shown in figure 1.2a
When r=R then equation 1.1 becomes

Figure 1.2 shear stress and velocity distribution across a section of a pipe

To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the value of shear stress
is substituted in equation (1.1).

But in the relation ,y is measured from the pipe wall. Hence

Substituting this value in (1.1), we get,

Integrating this above equation w.r.t. 'r ', we get

3
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary
condition that at r = R and u = 0. Therefore, ,

hence , , Substituting this value of C in equation (1.3), we get

[ ]

In equation (1.4), values of µ, and R are constant, which means the velocity, u
varies with square of r. thus equation (1.4) is an equation of parabola. This shows
that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity
distribution is shown in figure 1.2(b).

1.3.3 Maximum velocity of flow in circular pipes

. The maximum velocity occurs at the centre and is given by,

From eqns. (1.4) and (1.5), we have: [ ( ) ]

Eqn. (1.6) is the most commonly used equation for the velocity distribution for laminar flow
through pipes. This equation can be used to calculate the discharge as follows:
The discharge through an elementary ring of thickness at radial distances r is given by:
[ ( ) ]

∫ ∫ [ ( ) ] ∫( )

* + * +

Eqn. (1.7) shows that the average velocity is one-half the maximum velocity. Substituting the
value of from eqn. (1.5), we have

: or,

Nb Alternative way of getting centerline velocity or maximum velocity is also shown below
section 1.3.4

4
1.3.4 Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity.
The velocity is maximum when r = 0 in equation (1.4). Thus maximum velocity

Umax is obtained as

……………………………………………………………………( 1.5b)

The average velocity u is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid across the
section by the area of the pipe ( ). The Discharge (Q) across the section is obtained
by considering the flow through a circular ring element r and the thickness dr as
shown in figure 1.1 (b). the fluid flowing per second through this elementary ring

[ ] ∫ ∫ [ ]

( * ∫ ( * ∫

( * 0 1 ( * 0 1 ( *

( *

( )
Therefore, average velocity,

or,
( )

Dividing equation (1.5) by equation (1.8),

( )

Therefore, Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity = 2.0.

1.3.5 Drop of Pressure for a given Length (L) of a pipe

From equation (1.8), we have ( ) ( )

5
Integrating the above equation w .r.t. x, we get,

Figure 1.3

Therefore, [ ] [ ] [ ]

{ }

, - or

Hence Loss of pressure head , Therefore,

Equation (1,9) is called Hagen Poiseuille Formula.

The pressure difference between two sections 1 and 2 at distance and (see Fig. 1.3). is
given by ∫ ∫ ,or,

or,

Where, D is the diameter of the pipe, and L is the length. Eqn. (1.8) is known as the Hagen-
Poiseuille equation.

Example 1.1.
An oil of viscosity 9 poise and specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal pipe of 60
mm diameter. If the pressure drop in 100 m length of the pipe is 1800 kN/m2, determine:
(i) The rate of flow of oil;
(ii) The center-line velocity;

6
(iii) The total frictional drag over 100 m length;
(iv) The power required to maintain the flow;

(v) The velocity gradient at the pipe wall;

The velocity and shear stress at 8 mm from the wall. Solution. Viscosity of the oil,

10 Sp. gr. of the oil = 0.9

Diameter of the pipe, D = 60 mm = 0.06 m

Therefore, Area of the pipe,

Pressure drops in 100 m length of the pipe,

(i) The rate of flow, Q:

or,

As Re is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

(ii) The centre-line velocity, :

(iii) The total frictional drag over 100 m length, :

Wall shear stress, [ ]

Now, therefore,

∴ Frictional drag for 100 m length,

(iv) The power required to maintain the flow, P:

(v) The velocity gradient at the pipe wall,

( ) ( ) or, ( )

(vi) The velocity and shear stress at 8 mm from the wall:

7
Here, But , Therefore

Therefore

Also Therefore,

Problem 1.2

A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a
horizontal circular pipe of diameter 100 mm and of length I0 m. Calculate the
difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if 100 kg of the oil is collected in a
tank in 30 seconds.

Solution Given, , relative density

Therefore , Diameter of pipe

, ass of oil collected, Time

Calculate difference of pressure or ( )

The difference of pressure ( ) for viscous or laminar flow is given by

Now, mass of oil/sec

Therefore, Therefore, ,

For laminar or viscous flow, the Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000. Let us
calculate the Reynolds number for this problem.

, where p = = 900, V = u = 0.471, D = 0.1 m, µ =

0.097

therefore,

As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

8
 ,

Problem 1.3

An oil of viscosity 0.1 Ns/m2 and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a circular
pipe of diameter 50 mm and of length 300 m. The rate of flow of fluid through the
pipe is 3.5 litres/s. Find the pressure drop in a length of 300 m and also the shear
stress at the pipe wall.

Solution, Given. ,Relative density,

Therefore,
, ,

Find

(i) pressure drop,

(ii) shear stress at pipe wall,

(i) Pressure drop ,

The Reynolds number (R ) is given by, , Where,

, Therefore, , As
Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is viscous or laminar,
Therefore,

(ii) Shear Stress at the pipe wall ( )

The shear stress at any radius r is given by the equation (1.1),i.e., ,

Therefore, Shear stress at pipe wall, where is given by

Now,

9
1.3.6 Flow of viscous fluid through an annulus
Let us consider an annulus (horizontal) of outer radius R 1 and inner radius R2 through which
steady laminar flow of an incompressible fluid is taking place. A fluid element having a
shape of small concentric cylindrical sleeve of length dx and thickness dr considered at a
radial distance r is chosen as a free body. The forces acting on the fluid element as shown in
Fig. 1.4, in the direction of flow, are:

Figure. 1.4 Laminar flow through an annulus.

1. Normal pressure forces over the end areas,
( *
2. Shear forces over the inner and outer curved surfaces,
( *

Since the flow is steady and uniform, the summation of the forces on the free body in the
direction of flow must be zero.

Therefore,

[( * ] [( * ]

Simplifying, we get: ( )
Neglecting the last term which is of higher order, and dividing throughout by the volume of
the element , we get: or,

Since p is dependent on x and τ on r, the above equation may be expressed as:

……………………………………………………………………( 1.12)

10
Integrating w.r.t. r, we get: ∫ ∫ (where, = constant of

integration) ( ) ( )

( ) Dividing the expression throughout by r, we get:( )

Integrating w.r.t. r, we get:( )

(where, = second constant of integration). The two constants of integration (i.e., and
) can be evaluated from the known boundary conditions; i.e., at

After substituting these conditions and solving for and , we obtain the velocity
distribution as:
( )[ ( )]
( )

In order to locate the point where maximum velocity occurs we differentiate eqn. (1.14) w.r.t.

r and equate it to zero. Thus, we have ( )0 1

( )

Therefore r, 0 1
( )

By substituting this value of r in eqn. (1.16), the value of maximum velocity may be obtained.
The discharge through the annulus,

∫ ( )0 1
( )

The average velocity of flow through the annulus is given by,

( *[ ]
( )

The shear stress is given by,

From eqn. (1.17), the velocity gradient may be obtained as

: ( )0 ( )1 ( ). / ∴ Shear stress
( ) ( )

distribution is given by:

or, ( )0 1
( )

11
Example 1.4.
A uniform circular tube of bore radius has a fixed co-axial cylindrical solid core of radius
. An incompressible viscous fluid flows through the annular passage under a pressure
gradient ( ) Determine the radius at which shear stress in the stream is zero given that
the flow is laminar under steady state condition.

Solution. Bore radius of circular tube = ,Radius of the solid core = ,Pressure gradient =
( )

Radius at which shear stress is zero: The shear stress distribution is given by,

( *[ ] [ ]
( )

For zero shear stress, and we have: or

( ) ( )

or, 0 . /1
( )

1.3.7 Concept of “hydraulic diameter”: (D h).

The frictional force is observed to depend on the area of contact between the fluid and the
surface. For flow in pipes the surface area is not a direct function of the flow. The flow is a
direct function of the sectional area which is proportional to the square of a length parameter.
The surface area is proportional to the perimeter. So for a given section, the hydraulic
diameter which determines the flow characteristics is defined by equation 1.6a and is used in
the calculation of Reynolds number.

Dh = 4A/P--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.19
where Dh is the hydraulic diameter, A is the area of flow and P is the perimeter of the section.
This definition is applicable for any cross section. For circular section Dh = D, as the equals
(4πD2/4πD). For flow through ducts the length parameter in Reynolds number is the
hydraulic diameter. i.e.,
Re = Dh × u/v

Example 1.5
In model testing, similarity in flow through pipes will exist if Reynolds numbers are equal.
Discuss how the factors can be adjusted to obtain equal Reynolds numbers.
Reynolds number is defined as Re = uDρ/µ. For two different flows

12
 ……………………………………………………...( i)

As the kinematic viscosities v1 and v2 are fluid properties and cannot be changed easily
(except by changing the temperature) the situation is achieved by manipulating u2 D2 and u1
D1
…………………………………………………………………………………( ii)

this condition should be satisfied for flow similarity in ducts. Reynolds number will increase
directly as the velocity, diameter and density. It will vary inversely with the dynamic
viscosity of the fluid.
Reynolds number can be expressed also by Re = G.D/µ where G is the mass velocity in kg
/m2s. So, Reynolds number in a given pipe and fluid can be increased by increasing mass
velocity. For example, if flow similarity between water and air is to be achieved at 20 °C then
(using v values in eqn. Above)

If diameters are the same, the air velocity should be about 15 times the velocity of water for
flow similarity. If velocities should be the same, the diameter should be 15 times that for
water. For experiments generally both are altered by smaller ratios to keep u × D constant.

1.3.8 Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates

1.3.8.1 One Plate Moving and Other at Rest—Couette Flow

Let us consider laminar flow between two parallel flat plates located at a distance b apart
such that the lower plate is at rest and the upper plate moves uniformly with a constant
velocity U as shown in Fig. (1.5.) A small rectangular element of fluid of length dx, thickness
dy and unit width is considered as a free body (see Fig. 1.5). The forces acting on the fluid
element are:

Fig. 1.5 Couette flow

1. The pressure force, on the left end,
2. The pressure force, ( ) on the right end,

13
 3. The shear force, on the lower surface, and
4. The shear force, ( ) on the upper surface.
For steady and uniform flow, there is no acceleration and hence the resultant force in the
direction of flow is zero. Therefore, ( ) ( )

or, Dividing by the volume of the element , we get:

Eqn. (1.20) shows the interdependence of shear and pressure gradients and is applicable for
laminar as well as turbulent flow. Accordingly, the pressure gradient, in the direction of flow,
is equal to the shear gradient across the flow. According to Newton’s law of viscosity for
laminar flow the shear stress, substituting for τ in eqn. (1.20), we get:

Since is independent of y, integrating the above equation twice w.r.t. y gives:

where, and are the constants of integration to be evaluated from the known boundary
conditions. In the present case the boundary conditions are: at;

The eqn. (1.18) indicates that the velocity distribution in Couette flow depends on both and ( ).
However, the pressure gradient ( ) in this case may be either positive or negative. In a particular
case when ( ) equals zero, there is no pressure gradient in the direction of flow, then, we have
which indicates that the velocity distribution is linear. This particular case is known as
simple (or plain) Couette flow or simple shear flow.The discharge per unit width (q) may be obtained
as follows:

∫ ∫[ ]

The distribution of shear stress across any section may be determined by using Newton’s law
of viscosity. Thus,

[ ]

The type of flow discussed above (i.e., flow of viscous fluid between two plates-one
stationary and the other moving) is known as generalized Couette flow.

14
1.3.8.2. Both Plates at Rest
In this case the equations for velocity, discharge q and the shear stress can be obtained from
similar equations for generalized Couette flow by putting U = 0. Thus for flow between two
stationary parallel plates, shown in Fig. 1.6, we have:

Fig 1.6 Flow between stationary plates

Velocity,

[Eqn. (1.25) represents the plane Poiseuille flow] Discharge per unit width

1.3.8.3. Both Plates Moving in Opposite Directions

For flow between parallel plates, the velocity distribution is given by:

In the present case the boundary conditions are: –

Substituting these boundary conditions in eqn. (1.21), we

get:– – and, or,

Therefore, Hence the eqn. (1.21) becomes:

15
Fig. 1.7 flow between parallel horizontal plates, both the plates moving in opposite
directions.

[ ]

The distance y at which the velocity u is zero may be determined as follows:

Rearranging the above equation, we have: ( )

Solving this quadratic equation, we have:

[ ] √( *

[ ] √( * ( *

The above equation will yield two values of y, one which is +ve and less than b will be
accepted and the other one rejected.
The discharge per unit width of plates is given by,

∫ ∫ [ ]

* + * + [ ] * +

16
The distribution of shear stress across any section may be determined by using Newton’s law
of viscosity. Thus, * +

0 1 . /

( *

The distance y at which the shear stress will be zero is obtained by putting eqn. (1.28) to zero.

Thus, ( ) or, ( ) or,

∴ . /

1.3.9 Velocity Distribution.

To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the value of shear stress
from Newton’s law of viscosity for laminar flow is substituted in equation (1.16).

Therefore,

( ) Therefore, Integrating the above equation w.r.t. y,

we get , -

Integrating again

Where and are constants of integration. Their values are obtained from the two
boundary condi-tions that is (i) at y = 0, u = 0 (ii) at y = t, u = 0.

The substitution of

The substitution of

Therefore,

Substituting the values of and in equation (9.8) ( )

or, [ ]

17
In the above equation, It means u varies with the square of y.
Hence equation (1.30) is a equation of a parabola. Hence velocity distribution across
a section of the parallel plate is parabolic. This velocity distribution is shown in Fig.

1.8 (a).

Fig. 1.8 Velocity distribution and shear stress distribution across a section of
parallel plates

(ii) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity. The velocity is maximum, when
y = t/2. Substituting this value in equation (1.30), we get

0 ( * 1

0 1

The average velocity, u, is obtained by dividing the discharge (Q) across the section
by the area of the section (t x 1). And the discharge Q is obtained by considering the
rate of flow of fluid through the strip of thickness dy and integrating it. The rate of
flow through strip is

[ ]

Therefore, ∫ ∫ [ ] * + * +

Dividing equation (1.26) by equation (1.27), we get

18
1.3.10 Drop of Pressure head for a given Length.
From equation (1.28), we have

Integrating this equation w.r.t. x, we get, ∫ ∫ or,

[ ] [ ]

or, [ ]

If is the drop of pressure head, then ,

Figure 1.9

1.3.11 Shear Stress Distribution.

It is obtained by substituting the value of u from equation ( 1.1) into

Therefore, * + * +

[ ]

In equation (1.35), and tare constant. Hence t varies linearly with y. The shear
stress distribution is shown in Fig. 1.8 (b). Shear stress is maximum, when y = 0 or t
at the walls of the plates. Shear stress is zero, when y = t/2 that is at the center line
between the two plates. Max. shear stress (τ0) is given by

19
Example 1.5.
Determine the direction and amount of flow per metre width between two parallel plates
when one is moving relative to the other with a velocity of 3 m/s in the negative direction, if
and poise and distance between the plates is 1 mm.

Solution, Given;
We know that,

[ ]

Substituting the values, we have:

Hence, amount of flow per metre width = 0.2068 m 3/s. (Ans.) Positive direction (i.e. in the
direction opposite to that of the moving plate). (Ans.)

Problem 1.7
Calculate: (i) the pressure gradient along flow, (ii) the average velocity, and (iii) the
discharge for an oil of viscosity 0.02 Ns/m 2 flowing between two stationary parallel plates 1
m wide maintained 10 mm apart. The velocity midway between the plates is 2 m/s.

Solution Given,

,(i) Pressure gradient Using

equation (1.30), ( )

Therefore, (ii) Average velocity (u) Using

equation (1.5b),

(iii) Discharge (Q)

Problem 1.8
Determine (i) the pressure gradient, (ii) the shear stress at the two horizontal parallel plates
and (iii) the discharge per metre width for the laminar flow of oil with a maximum velocity of
2 mis between two horizontal parallel fixed plates which are 100 mm apart. Givenµ= 2.4525
N s/m2

Solution Given,

20
Find Pressure gradient,

(i) (ii) Shear stress at the wall,

(ii) Discharge per metre width, Q.

(i) Pressure gradient, Maximum velocity, is given by equation (1.30)

Substituting the values or

Therefore,

(ii) Shear stress at the wall,

(iii) Discharge per meter width, Q

1.3.12 Kinetic Energy correction and Momentum Correction factors

1.3.12.1 Kinetic Energy Correction factor
Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the flow per
second based on actual velocity across a section to the kinetic energy of the flow per second
based on average velocity across the same section. It is denoted by a. Hence mathematically,

1.3.11.2 Momentum Correction factor

Momentum Correction Factor. It is defined as the ratio of momentum of the flow per second
based on actual velocity to the momentum of the flow per second based on average velocity
across a section. It is denoted by β Hence mathematically,

Problem 1.9
Show that the momentum correction factor and energy correction factor for laminar flow
through a circular pipe are 4/3 and 2.0 respectively.

21
Solution(I )Momentum Correction Factor or β,
The velocity distribution through a circular pipe for laminar flow at any radius r is given by
equation (1.3), or, ( )

Consider an elementary area dA in the form of a ring at a radius r and of width dr, then

Figure 1.9
Rate of fluid flowing through the ring

Momentum of the fluid through ring per second

Therefore, Total actual momentum of the fluid per second across the section

∫ Substituting the value of u from (1) ∫ * ( ) +

* ( )+ ∫ [ ]

( * ∫ ( * ∫

( * 0 1 ( * 0 1

( * ( * ( *

Momentum of the fluid per second based on average velocity

where A= Area of cross-section

( * { ( * } ( *

Therefore, Momentum/sec based on average velocity

22
 [ ( * ] ( *

( *

( *

( *

(iii) Energy Correction Factor, a. Kinetic energy of the fluid flowing through the
elementary ring of radius 'r' and of width 'dr' per sec
(iv)

Therefore, Total actual kinetic energy of flow per second

∫ ∫ [ ( * ]

[ ( *] ∫ [ ]

( * ∫ ( * ∫

( * ∫

( * 0 1

( * [ ] ( *

K.E of the flow based on average velocity.

Substituting the value of and, ( ) ,Therefore, Kinetic energy of the

flow/sec * ( ) +

( * ( *

( *

( *

23
CHAPTER TWO (MODULE TWO): TURBULENT FLOW

2.1. INTRODUCTION
The laminar flow has been discussed in module 1. In laminar flow the fluid particles move
along straight parallel path in layers or laminae, such that the paths of individual fluid
particles do not cross those of neighboring particles. Laminar flow is possible only at low
velocities and when the fluid is highly viscous. But when the velocity is increased or fluid is
less viscous, the fluid particles do not move in straight paths. The fluid particles move in
random manner resulting in general mixing of the particles. This type of flow is called
turbulent flow.

A laminar flow changes to turbulent flow when (i) velocity is increased or (ii) diameter of a
pipe is increased or (iii) the viscosity of fluid is decreased. Reynold was first to demonstrate
that the transition from laminar to turbulent depends not only on the mean velocity but on the
quantity this quantity is a dimensionless quantity and is called Reynolds number
(Re).
In a pipe, a turbulent flow occurs when Reynolds number is greater than 4000. In a turbulent
flow, the fluid motion is irregular and chaotic and there is complete mixing of fluid due to
collision of fluid masses with one another. The fluid masses are interchanged between
adjacent layers. As the fluid masses in adjacent layers have different velocities, interchange
of fluid masses between the adjacent layers is accompanied by a transfer of momentum which
causes additional shear stresses of high magnitude between adjacent layers. The shear in
turbulent flow is mainly due to momentum transfer. The contribution of fluid viscosity to total
shear is small and is usually neglected. In case of laminar flow, because of definite functional
relationship ‘between shear stress due to viscosity and velocity’ it has been possible to derive
a mathematical relationship for evaluation of energy dissipation or frictional head but such a
simple relationship does not exist for turbulent flow. However to solve some of the practical
problems, efforts have been made to evolve semi-empirical theories of turbulence.

2.1.1Comparison Between Laminar and Turbulent flow

In case of circular pipe if the flow is said to be laminar and if , the

flow is said to be turbulent. If lies between 2000 to 4000, the flow changes from laminar
to turbulent.

24
Fig 2.1 Velocity Distribution curves for laminar and turbulent flow in pipe
Following points are worth noting about turbulent flow:
(i) The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more uniform than in laminar flow.
(ii) In turbulent flow the velocity gradients near the boundary shall be quite large
resulting in more shear.
(iii) In turbulent flow the flatness of velocity distribution curve in the core region away
from the wall is because of the mixing of fluid layers and exchange of momentum between
them.
(iv) The velocity distribution which is paraboloid in laminar flow, tends to follow power law
and logarithmic law in turbulent flow.

(v) Random orientation of fluid particles in a turbulent flow gives rise to additional
stresses, called the Reynolds stresses.
(vi) Formation of eddies, mixing and curving of path lines in a turbulent flow results in
much greater frictional losses for the same rate of discharge, viscosity and pipe size.

2.1.2 Classification of the Turbulent flow

The turbulent motion can be classified as follows:

1. Wall turbulence. It occurs in immediate vicinity of solid surfaces and in the

boundary layer flows where the fluid has a negligible mean acceleration.

2. Free turbulence. It occurs in jets, wakes, mixing layers etc.

3. Convective turbulence. It takes place where there is conversion of P.E into K.E. by
the process of mixing (e.g. the turbulent flow in the annular space between the concentric
rotating cylinders, conventional flow between parallel horizontal plates etc.).

25
2.2 REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
2.2.1 Experimental Background
Osborne Reynolds in 1883, with the help of a simple experiment (see Fig.2.2), demonstrated
the existence of the following types of flows:
1. Laminar flow (Reynolds number, Re < 2000)

2. Turbulent flow (Reynolds number, Re > 4000)

3. (Re between 2000 and 4000 indicates transition from laminar to turbulent flow)

2.2.2 Experimental Apparatus

Fig.2.2 Reynolds apparatus.

Reynolds experiment:
Apparatus:
Refer to Fig. 2.1. Reynolds experiment apparatus consisted essentially of the following:

1. A constant head tank filled with water,

2. A small tank containing dye (sp. weight of dye same as that of water),
3. A horizontal glass tube provided with a bell mouthed entrance, and

4. A regulating valve.

2.2.3 Experimental Procedure

Procedure followed:
The water was made to flow from the tank through the glass tube into the atmosphere and the
velocity of flow was varied by adjusting valve. The liquid dye was introduced into the flow at
the bell mouth through a small tube as shown in Fig. 2.1.

26
Fig 2.3 Appearance of dye filament in laminar flow (b) transition and ( c) turbulent flow

2.2.4 Observations made

Observations made:
1. When the velocity of flow was low, the dye remained in the form of a straight and
stable filament passing through the glass tube so steadily that it scarcely seemed to be
in motion. This was a case of laminar flow as shown in Fig. 10.2 (a).
2. With the increase of velocity, a critical state was reached at which the dye filament
showed irregular-ties and began to waver (see Fig. 10.2 b). This shows that the flow is
no longer a laminar one. This was a transitional state.
3. With further increase in velocity of flow the fluctuations in the filament of dye
became more intense and ultimately the dye diffused over the entire cross-section of
the tube, due to the inter-mingling of the particles of the flowing fluid. This was the
case of a turbulent flow as shown in Fig. 2.2 (c).

2.2.5 Conclusions made

On the basis of his experiment Reynolds discovered that;

1. Laminar flow (Reynolds number, Re < 2000)

2. Turbulent flow (Reynolds number, Re > 4000)

3.(Re between 2000 and 4000 indicates transition from laminar to turbulent flow)

(4) In case of laminar flow: The loss of pressure head ∝ velocity.

27
(5) In case of turbulent flow: The loss of head is approximately ∝ V2 [More exactly the
loss of head ∝ Vn where n varies from 1.75 to 2.0]

2.3 REYNOLDS NUMBER AND ITS EFFECTS

2.3.1 Experiment on Energy (head ) loss in a pipe

Fig. 2.4 shows the apparatus used by Reynolds for estimating the loss of head in a pipe by
measuring the pressure difference over a known length of the pipe.
(i) The velocity of water in the pipe was determined by measuring the volume of
water (Q) collected in the tank over a known period of time
( ) .

Fig 2.4 Loss of head in pipes

(ii) The velocity of flow (V) was changed and corresponding values of hf (loss of
head) were obtained.

2.3.2 Observations made and Conclusions

A graph was plotted between V( velocity of flow) and h f (loss of head). Such a graph is
shown in figure 10.4.
It may be seen from the graph that:
(a) At low velocities the curve is a straight line, indicating that the hf (loss of
head) is directly proportional to velocity the flow is laminar (or viscous),
(b) At higher velocities the curve is parabolic; in this range hf α V n, where the
value of n lies between 1.75 to 2.0 the flow is turbulent.
(c) In the intermediate region, there is a transition zone. This is shown by dotted
line.

28
Fig 2.5 Laminar,

Reynolds from his experiments found that the nature of flow in a closed conduit depends
upon the following factors:
(i) Diameter of the pipe (D),
(ii) Density of the liquid (ρ),
(iii) Viscosity of the liquid (µ), and
(iv) Velocity of flow (V).
By combining the above variables Reynolds determined a non-dimensional quantity equal to
which is known as Reynolds number (Re).

(In general case D is replaced by L, known as characteristic length and we have,

It may also be expressed as: Where, ( )

Where,
Re < 2000…………………the flow is lainar (viscous)
Re > 4000…………………the flow is turbulent.

Re between 2000 and 4000 the flow is unpredictable.

2.3.3 Critical Reynolds number:

All experiments agree that a lower limit of critical value of (Re)cr exists (though there
appears to be no definite upper limit of the critical value of (Re)cr which characterises
full attainment of turbulence) and its value is approximately 2000 (for circular pipe). This
lower critical Reynolds number is of greater engineering importance as it defines the limit
below which all turbulence, no matter how severe, entering the flow from any source will
eventually be damped out by viscous action.

29
 It has been observed that the upper limit of critical Reynolds number (Re)cr depends upon
the following factors:
(i) Initial turbulence in the flow (approach),
(ii) Shape of the pipe entrance, and

(iii) Roughness of pipe.

Reynolds found the upper limit of (Re)cr to lie between 12000 < (Re)cr < 14000; these values
are of little practical interest and we may consider the upper limit of (Re) cr to be defined by
2700 < (Re)cr < 4000.
For demarcating the regimes of laminar and turbulent flows, the concept of critical Reynolds
number proves quite useful.

The lower critical Reynolds number for some important cases are as under:
(i) (Re)cr = 1 ... for sphere.
(ii) (Re)cr = 50 ... for open channels.
(iii) (Re)cr = 1000 ……..for parallel plates.

In various engineering fields we encounter with the problems which involve the flow of fluid
around submerged bodies/objects. In such problems either a fluid may be flowing around a
stationary submerged body or a body may be flowing through a large mass of stationary fluid
or both the body and the fluid may be in motion. Some of the examples are:

(i) Motion of very small objects/bodies such as fine sand particles in air or water,
(ii) Very large bodies such as airplanes, submarines, automobiles, ships etc. moving
through air or water, and
(iv) The structures such as buildings, bridges etc. which are submerged in air or water,

2.4 FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW (DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION)

When a liquid is flowing through a pipe, the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to the pipe
wall is zero. The velocity of liquid goes on increasing from the wall and thus velocity
gradient and hence shear stresses are produced in the whole liquid due to viscosity. This
viscous action causes loss of energy which is usually known as frictional loss.
On the basis of his experiments, William Froude gave the following laws of fluid fraction for
turbulent flow.
The frictional resistance for turbulent flow is :
(i) Proportional to Vn, where n varies from 1.5 to 2.0,

(ii) Proportional to the density of fluid,

(iii) Proportional to the area of surface in contact,

30
(v) Independent of pressure,
(vi) Dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.

2.4.1 Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes.( Darcy –Welsbach Equations
In case of turbulent flow through pipes it has been observed through experiments that the
viscous friction effects associated with fluid are proportional to:

Fig. 2.3 Uniform horizontal pipe.

Let,,

Under equilibrium conditions:

Propelling force = Frictional resistance force.

31
 Dividing both sides by weight density w, we have:( )

Or, ( ) Or, ( )

The ratio is called the hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius, denoted by m (or R).

The term has dimensions of hf and thus the term is a non-dimensional quantity

and let us replace it by another constant f.

[ ]

Substituting this value in eqn. (2·2),We get:

(The factor f is known as Darcy coefficient of friction.)

Eqn. (2.3) is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation and it holds good for all types of flows
provided a proper value of f is chosen.

…………………………………………………………………………… 2.4}

where, f1 is known as friction factor (f1 = 4f)

Alternatively, Applying Bernoulli's equations between sections 1-1 and 2-2, we have
Total head at 1-1 = Total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1 and 2-2

or, but,

Therefore,

But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be reduced in the
direction of flow by frictional resistance.

or, [ ]

32
 [ ]

The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are : 1. pressure force at section
1-1 where A = Area of pipe

2. Pressure force at section 2-2

3. Frictional force Fi as shown in Fig. 2.3.shown by arrows on cylinder surface facing to the
left
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have

Or [
]

Or But from equation

Equating the value of , we get

or,

Equation (2.9), becomes as

Equation (2.9) is known as Darcy-Welsbach equation. This equation is commonly used for
finding loss of head due to friction in pipes.
Sometimes equation (2.10) is written as

Then is known as friction factor.

2.4.2 Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress.

33
The equation (2.7) gives the forces acting on a fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 of Fig. 2.3
in horizontal direction as or,

or,

Cancelling from both sides, we have or,

Equation (2.12) can be written as

or,

Equating the value of in equations (2.12) and (2.13`),

or, or,

2.5 SHEAR STRESS IN TURBULENT FLOW

The shear stress in viscous flow is given by Newton's law of viscosity as

Similar to the expression for viscous shear, J. Boussinesq expressed the turbulent shear in
math-ematical form as

Where

The ratio of ƞ (eddy viscosity) and p (mass density) is known as kinematic eddy viscosity and
is denoted by E (epsilon). Mathematically it is written as

If the shear stress due to viscous flow is also considered, then the total shear stress becomes
as

34
The value of ƞ = 0 for laminar flow. For other cases the value of ƞ may be several thousand
times the value ofµ. To find shear stress in turbulent flow, equation (2.17) given by Bossiness
is used. But as the value of ƞ (eddy viscosity) cannot be predicted, this equation is having
limited use.

2.5.1 Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress.

Reynolds in 1886 developed an expression for turbulent shear stress between two layers of a
fluid at a small distance apart, which is given as

Where =fluctuating component of velocity in the direction of x and y due to turbulence.

As u' and v' are varying and hence 't will also vary. Hence to find the shear stress, the time
average on both the sides of the equation (2.18) is taken. Then equation (2.18) becomes as

The turbulent shear stress given by equation (2.1) is known as Reynold stress.

2.5.2 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress.

In equation (2.19, the turbulent shear stress can only be calculated if the value of u' v' is
known. But it is very difficult to measure u'v'. To overcome this difficulty, L. Prandtl in 1925,
presented a mixing length hypothesis which can be used to express turbulent shear stress in
terms of measurable quantities.

According to Prandtl, the mixing length l, is that distance between two layers in the
transverse direction such that the lumps of fluid particles from one layer could reach the other
layer and the particles are mixed in the other layer in such a way that the momentum of the
particles in the direction of x is same. He also assumed that the velocity fluctuation in the x-
direction u' is related to the mixing length l as (since

Hence

And v', the fluctuation component of velocity in y-direction is of the same order of magnitude
as u' and hence

Now becomes ( ) ( ) ( ) Substituting the value of u' v' in

equation (2.19), we get the expression for shear stress in turbulent flow due to Prandtl as

( *

35
Thus the total shear stress at any point in turbulent flow is the sum of shear stress due to
viscous shear and turbulent shear and can be written as

( *

But the viscous shear stress is negligible except near the boundary. Equation (2.19) is used
for most of turbulent fluid flow problems for determining shear stress in turbulent flow.
2.6 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
In case of turbulent flow, the total shear stress at any point is the sum of viscous shear stress
and turbulent shear stress. Also the viscous shear stress is negligible except near the
boundary. Hence it can be assumed that the shear stress in turbulent flow is given by equation
(2.19). From this equation, the velocity distribution can be obtained if the relation between l,
the mixing length and y is known. Prandtl assumed that the mixing length, l is a linear
function of the distance y from the pipe wall i.e., l = ky, where k is a constant, known as
Karman constant and= 0.4.

Substituting the value of l in equation (2.17), we get ( )

or, ( ) ( )

or, √ √

For small values of y that is very close to the boundary of the pipe, Prandtl assumed shear
stress 't to be constant and approximately equal to 'to which presents the turbulent shear stress
at the pipe boundary. Substituting’t = 'to in equation (2.23), we get

In equation (2.20), √ has the dimensions √ √ is velocity and hence

√ has the dimension of velocity, which is known as shear velocity and is denoted by u.

thus, √ then equation. (2.20) becomes

For a given case of turbulent flow, u* is constant. Hence integrating above equation, we get

Where C = constant of integration. Equation (2.25) shows that in turbulent flow, the velocity
varies directly with the logarithm of the distance from the boundary or in other words the
velocity distribution in turbulent flow is logarithmic in nature. To determine the constant of

36
integration, C the boundary condition that at y = R (radius of pipe), u = is substituted in
equation (2.25).

Hence,

Substituting the value of C in equation (2.25), we get

( ) [ ]

( )

Equation (2.26) is called 'Prandtl's universal velocity distribution equation for turbulent flow
in pipes. This equation is applicable to smooth as well as rough pipe boundaries. Equation
(2.26) is also written as ( )

Dividing by , we get, ( ) ( ) *

( ) ( )+

or, ( )

In equation (2.27), the difference between the maximum velocity and local velocity u at
any point i.e., ( ) is known as „velocity defect'.

2.6.1 Hydrodynamic ally Smooth and Rough Boundaries,

Let k is the average height of the irregularities projecting from the surface of a boundaryas
shown in figure 2.4. if the value of k is large for a boundary then the boundary is called rough
boundary and if the value of k is less, then boundary is known as smooth boundary. In
general, this is the classification of rough and smooth boundary based on boundary
characteristics. But form proper classification, the flow and fluid characteristics are also to be
considered.

37
Fig. 2.4 Smooth and rough boundaries.
For turbulent flow analysis along a boundary, the flow is divided in two portions. The first
portion consists of a thin layer of fluid in the immediate neighborhood of the boundary,
where viscous shear stress predominates while the shear stress due to turbulence is negligible.
This portion is known as laminar sub-layer. The height up to which the effect of viscosity
predominates in this zone is denoted by δ1. The second portion of flow, where shear stress
due to turbulence are large as compared to viscous stress is known as turbulent zone.
If the average height k of the irregularities, projecting from the surface of a boundary is much
less than δ1, the thickness of laminar sub-layer as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a), the boundary is called
smooth boundary. This is because, outside the laminar sub-layer the flow is turbulent and
eddies of various size present in turbulent flow try to penetrate the laminar sub-layer and
reach the surface of the boundary. But due to great thickness of laminar sub-layer the eddies
are unable to reach the surface irregularities and hence the boundary behaves as a smooth
boundary. This type of boundary is called hydrodynamic ally smooth boundary.

Now, if the Reynolds number of the flow is increased then the thickness of laminar sub-layer
will decrease. If the thickness of laminar sub-layer becomes much smaller than the average
height k of irregularities of the surface as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b), the boundary will act as
rough boundary. This is because the irregularities of the surface are above the laminar sub-
layer and the eddies present in turbulent zone will come in contact with the irregularities of
the surface and lot of energy will be lost. Such a boundary is called hydrodynamically rough
boundary.
From Nikuradse's experiment:

the boundary is called smooth

boundary.

38
 2. if is greater than 6.0, the boundary is rough,

3. if 0.25 < <6.0, the boundary is in transition.

In terms of roughness Reynolds number

1. if boundary is considered smooth,

2. if lies between 4 and 100, boundary is in transition stage, and

3. if > 100, the boundary is rough.

2.6.2 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent flow in Smooth Pipes

The velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth or rough pipe is given by equation
(.2.25) as . It may be seen that at y = 0, the velocity u at wall is - ∞ This
means that velocity u is positive at some distance far away from the wall and - ∞ (minus
infinity) at the wall. Hence at some distance from wall, the velocity will be equal to zero. Let
this distance from pipe wall is . Now the constant C is determined from the boundary
condition i.e., at y = y', u = 0. Hence above equation becomes as

Substituting the value of C in the above equation, we get,

( *

Substituting the value of k = 0.4, we get, ( ) ( )

( ) There fore [ ]
( ) ( )

or, ( )

For the smooth boundary, there exists a laminar sub-layer as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a). The
velocity distribution in the laminar sub-layer is parabolic in nature. Thus, in the laminar sub-
layer, logarithmic velocity y' is proportional to, where o' is the thickness distribution of
laminar does not sub-layer. hold good. From Thus it Nikuradse's can be assumed experiment
that the value of y' is given as

Where

39
Therefore, , Substituting this value of y' in equation (10.19), we
obtain

( )

( ) ( )

[ ]

2.6.3 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes.

In case of rough boundaries, the thickness of laminar sub-layer is very small as shown in Fig.
2.4 (b). The surface irregularities are above the laminar sub-layer and hence the laminar sub-
layer is completely destroyed. Thus y' can be considered proportional to the height of
protrusions k. Nikuradse's experiment shows ,the value of y' for pipes coated with uniform
sand (rough pipes) as . Substituting this value of y' in equation (2.29), we get,

( ) * ( ) +

( ) ( )

Problem 2.1
A pipe-line carrying water has average height of irregularities projecting from the surface of
the boundary of the pipe as 0.15 mm. What type of boundary is it? The shear stress developed
is 4.9 N/m2. The kinematic viscosity of water is 0.01 stokes.
Solution. Given Average height of irregularities, k = 0.15 mm= 0.15 x 10-3 m

√ √

40
CHAPTER THREE (MODULE THREE): FLUID FLOW AND POWER TRANSMISSION
THROUGH PIPILINES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
1. In modules 1 and 2 , laminar flow and turbulent flow have been discussed.
We have seen that when the Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe
flow, the flow is known as laminar flow whereas when the Reynolds
number is more than 4000, the flow is known as turbulent flow. In this
module, the turbulent flow of fluids through pipes running full will be
considered. In this module the following will be covered:-
1. Major( Head ) Energy loses,

2 Minor ( Head ) Energy loses

, 3.Hydraulic Gradient and total Energy (head )lines ( Head flow rate( H-Q),

4. Flow through Syphon

5. Analysis of pipes in series (Flow through pipes in series or through

compound pipes)

6. Analysis of equivalent pipe, 6.Analysis of pipes in parallel ( flow though

parallel pipes),

7, Flow of pipes in parallel

8. Flow through branched pipes

, 9.Hydraulic lines in series and parallel,

10. Power Transmission through pipes,

11Flow through nozzles,

12. Water hammer in pipes

13 Pipe net works

41
 3.2 MAJOR AND MINOR ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to
which some of the energy of fluid is lost. This loss of energy ( head) is classified as :

ENERGY LOSSES

1. Major Energy Losses 2. Minor Energy Losses

This is due to friction and it is This is due to

calculated by the following formulae:
(a)Sudden expansion of pipe
(a)Darcy-Weisbach Formula
(b)Sudden contraction of pipe
(b)Chezy's Formula
( c)Bend in pipe

( d)J Pipe fittings etc.

Fig.3.1 Energy (Head) losses in pipe flow (e) An obstruction in pipe . etc

3.3 MAJOR (HEAD) ENERGY LOSSES

The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-
Welsbach equation which has been derived in the previous modules 2 and is given
by Where,

42
 ,

L = length of pipe, V = mean velocity of flow, d = diameter of pipe.

3.4 MINOR (HEAD) ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while the loss of energy
due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss of energy.
The minor loss of energy (or head) includes the following cases:

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,

2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction,

3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe,

4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe,

5. Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe,

6. Loss of head due to bend in the pipe,
7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings.

8 .Loss of head at submerged discharge

In case of long pipe the above losses are small as compared with the loss of head due to
friction and hence, they are called minor losses and even may be neglected without serious
error. But in case of a short pipe, these losses are comparable with the loss of head due to
friction.

Problem 3.1
Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 50 m, through
which water is flowing at a velocity of 3m/s using Darcy formula,
Take v for water = 0.01 stoke.

Solution. Given: ,
, ,(i) Darcy Formula is given by equation as
where 'f' = co-efficient of friction is a function of Reynolds number, But is

given by Therefore, value of

. Therefore, head lost

3.4.1.1 Loss of Head Due to Sudden Expansion and Enlargement.

3.4.1.1.1 Loss of head due to Sudden expansion:

43
 Here the sudden expansion creates pockets of eddying turbulence
leading to losses. The loss of head hf is given by Loss of head = (u1 –
u2)2 / 2g. (7.12.1) where u1 and u2 are the velocities in the smaller and
larger sections. Gradual expansion will reduce the losses.

3.4.1.1.2 Loss of head due to sudden Enlargement

Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe which has sudden enlargement as

shown in Fig. 3.3. Consider two sections (1)-(1) and (2)-(2) before and after the
enlargement.

Fig. 3.3 Sudden enlargement.

Let,

, and = corresponding values at section 2-2.

Due to sudden change of diameter of the pipe from to , the liquid flowing from the
smaller pipe is not able to follow the abrupt change of the boundary. Thus the flow separates
from the boundary and turbulent eddies are formed as shown in Fig. 33. The loss of head (or
energy) takes place due to the formation of these eddies. Let,

Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1-1 and 2-2,

But Therefore, or

, ( ) ( )

44
Consider the control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Then the force acting on
the liquid in the control volume in the direction of flow is given by

But experimentally it is found that

Therefore,

Momentum of liquid/sec at section 1-1 = mass x velocity

Momentum of liquid/sec at section 2-2

Therefore, Change of momentum/sec

But from continuity equation, we have

Therefore, Change of momentum/sec

[ ]

Now net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow must be equal to the rate
of change of momentum or change of momentum per second. Hence equating (ii) and (iii)

[ ]or, Dividing by g on both sides, we

have Substituting the value of

in equation (i), we get

( ) Therefore,

3.4.1.2 Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction.

Sudden contraction: When the pipe section is suddenly reduced, loss coefficient
depends on the diameter ratio. Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe which has a
sudden contraction in area as shown in Fig. 3.4. Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2
before and after contraction. As the liquid flows from large pipe to smaller pipe,
the area of flow goes on decreasing and becomes minimum at a section C-C as
shown in Fig. 3.4. This section C-C is called Vena-contractual. After section C-C,
a sudden enlargement of the area takes place. The loss of head due to sudden
contraction is actually due to sudden enlargement from Vena-contract to smaller
pipe.

45
Fig. 3.4 Sudden contraction.
Let ,

Now he = actual loss of head due to

enlargement from section C-C to section 2-2 and is given by equation (11.5) as

[ ]

From continuity equation, we have

[ ]
( )

Substituting the value of in (i), we get * +

* + If the value of Cc is assumed to be equal to 0.62, then

* + Then becomes as ,If the value of is

not given then the head loss due to contraction is taken as

Problem 3.2
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to a diameter of
400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 litres/s.

Solution. Given;

46
Therefore, Dia. of large pipe,

Therefore, ,Discharge,

Velocity, Velocity,

Loss of head due to enlargement is given by equation …………………………3.3

As

Problem 3.3
At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the hydraulic
gradient rises by JO mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
Solution. Given : Dia. of smaller pipe,

Area, ,Dia. of large pipe,

Therefore, Area, ,Rise of hydraulic gradient*, i.e., ( ) ( )

Let the rate of flow = Q Applying Bernoulli's equation to both

sections, i.e., smaller pipe section, and large pipe section.

But head loss due to enlargement,

From continuity equation, we have

Therefore, ( ) ( )

Substituting this value in (ii), we get

Now substituting the value of and in equation (i),

or, ( ) ( ) But hydraulic gradient rise

( ) ( ) ,Therefore,

47
 Therefore, √

Therefore discharge, ,

3.4.1.3 Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe.

These are additional frictional losses which occur at pipe entry, valves and fittings, sudden decrease
or increase in flow area or where direction of flow changes. The frictional losses other than pipe
friction are called minor losses. In a pipe system design, it is necessary to take into account all such
losses. These losses are generally expressed as hf = C um2/2g where C is constant,
the value of which will depend on the situation and is called the loss coefficient. The expression is
applicable both for laminar and turbulent flows.

i) Loss of head at entrance: At the entrance from the reservoir into the pipe, losses take
place due to the turbulence created downstream of the entrance. Three types of entrances are
known.

(a) Bell mouthed: This is a smooth entrance and turbulence is suppressed to a great extent
and C = 0.04 for this situation.
(b) Square edged entrance: Though it is desirable to provide a bell mouthed entrance it will
not be always practicable. Square edged entrance is used more popularly. The loss
coefficient, C = 0.5 in this case.
(c) Reentrant inlet: The pipe may sometimes protrude from the wall into the liquid. Such an
arrangement is called reentrant inlet. The loss coefficient in this case is about 0.8.

Fig.3.2 Types of entrance

48
This is the loss of energy which occurs when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected to a
large tank or reservoir. This loss is similar to the loss of head due to sudden contraction. This
loss depends on the form of entrance. For a sharp edge
entrance, this loss is slightly more than a rounded or bell mouthed entrance. In practice the
value of loss of head at the entrance (or inlet) of a pipe with sharp cornered entrance is taken
= 0.5 . where ,

This loss is denoted by

3.4,1,4 Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe.

This is the loss of head (or energy) due to the velocity of liquid at outlet of the pipe which is
dissipated either in the form of a free jet (if outlet of the pipe is free) or it is lost in the tank or
reservoir (if the outlet of the pipe is connected to the tank or reservoir). This loss is equal to
, where Vis the velocity of liquid at the outlet of pipe. This loss is denoted therefore,

Where, where V = velocity at outlet of pipe.

3.4.1.5 Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction in a Pipe.

Whenever there is an obstruction in a pipe, the loss of energy takes place due to reduction of
the area of the cross-section of the pipe at the place where obstruction is present. There is a
sudden enlargement of the area of flow beyond the obstruction due to which loss of head
takes place as shown in Fig. 3.3 (a)

Fig. 3.5 (a) An obstruction in a pipe.

49
Consider a pipe of area of cross-section A having an obstruction as shown in Fig. 3.5 (a).
, ,

As the liquid flows and passes through section 1-1, a vena-contracta is formed beyond section
1-1, after which the stream of liquid widens again and velocity of flow at section 2-2
becomes uniform and equal to velocity, Vin the pipe. This situation is similar to the flow of
liquid through sudden enlargement.

Let,

Then loss of head due to obstruction = loss of head due to enlargement from vena-contracta
to section 2-2.

(ii)

where

If Then

Therefore, Substituting this value in (ii), we get

Substituting this value of in equation (i), we get

Head loss due to obstruction

( *
( *

3.4.1.6 Loss of Head due to valves, fittings and Bend in Pipe.

Valves and fittings: Losses in flow through valves and fittings is expressed in terms of
an equivalent length of straight pipe. For gate valves L = 8D, and for globe valves it is
340 D. For 90° bends it is about 30 D.
When there is any bend c in a pipe, the velocity of flow changes, due to which the
separation of the flow from the boundary and also formation of eddies takes place. Thus,
the energy is lost. Loss of head in pipe due to bend is expressed as
where = loss of head due to bend, V = velocity of flow, k = co-
efficient of bend The value of depends on
Angle of k bend,(ii) Radius of curvature of bend, (iii)Diameter of pipe.

50
3.4.1.7 Loss of couplings in various pipe fittings.

The loss of Head in etc., is various expressed Pipe as Fittings. The loss of head in the various
pipe fittings such as valves, couplings e.t.c.., is expressed as

where V = velocity of flow, k = co-efficient of 2g pipe fitting.

Problem 3.4
Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200 mm at a velocity of 3 m/s. A
circular solid plate of diameter 150 mm is placed in the pipe to obstruct the flow. Find the
loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe if Cc = 0.62.

Solution. Given:

The head lost due to obstruction is given by equation (3.4) as

( *

[ ]
[ ]

[ ]

3.4.1.8 Loss of head at submerged discharge:

When a pipe with submerged outlet discharges into a liquid which is still (not moving) whole
of the dynamic head u2/2g will be lost. The loss coefficient is 1.0. The discharge from
reaction turbines into the tail race water is an example. The loss is reduced by providing a
diverging pipe to reduce the exit velocity.

51
 3.5 HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE

The concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in the study of flow
of fluids through pipes. They are defined as :

3.5.1. Hydraulic Gradient line.

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head ( ) and datum head (z) of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is obtained
by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of a flowing fluid
in a pipe from the center of the pipe. It is briefly written as H.G.L. (Hydraulic Gradient Line).

3.5.2 Total Energy Line.

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of
a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the line
which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure
head and kinetic head from the center of the pipe. It is briefly written as T.E.L. (Total Energy
Line).

Problem 3. 5
A pipe of diameter 20 cm and length 50 m, has one end of the pipe connected to a tank and
other end of the pipe is open to the atmosphere. The pipe is horizontal and the height of water
in the tank is 4 m above the Centre of the pipe Considering all minor losses and take f =
0.009 in the formula , and with well labelled diagram , Determine
i. The rate of flow of water through a pipe
ii. Draw the Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.) and
iii. Draw the Total Energy Line (T.E.L.).

52
Figure 3.6
Solution.

Applying Bernoulli's equation at the top of the water surface in the tank and at the outlet of
pipe, we have [Taking point 1 on the top and point 2 at the outlet of pipe].

Considering datum line passing through the centre of pipe

or, But the velocity in pipe = V,

Therefore,

From equation ( 11.8),

and from equation (11.1) is given as

Substituting these values, we have *

+ [ ]

53
Therefore, √

Therefore,

ii) draw the Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.) and iii)Total Energy Line (T.E.L.).

Solution Given.

Velocity, V through pipe is calculated in problem 11.16 and its value is V = 2. 734 m/s Now,

Fig. 3.7

and = Head loss due to friction,

(a) Total Energy Line (T.E.L.). Consider three points, A, Band Con the free surface of water
in the tank, at the inlet of the pipe and at the outlet of the pipe respectively as shown in Fig.
11.8. Let us find total energy at these points, taking the Centre of pipe as reference line.

1. Total energy at

2.

3. Total energy at

Hence total energy line will coincide with free surface of water in the tank. At the inlet of the
pipe, it will decrease by hi ( = 0.19 m) from free surface and at outlet of pipe total energy is
0.38 m. Hence in Fig. 11.8,

( i) Point D represents total energy at A

(ii) Point E, where DE= h;, represents total energy at inlet of the pipe

54
(iii) Point F, where CF = 0.38 represents total energy at outlet of pipe. Join D to E and E
to F. Then DEF represents the total energy line.

(iii) Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.). H.G.L. gives the sum of (p/w + z) with reference to
the datum-line. Hence hydraulic gradient line is obtained by subtracting from total energy

line. At outlet of the pipe, total energy = By subtracting from total energy at this point,
we shall get point C, which lies on the centre line of pipe. From C, draw a line CG parallel to
EF. Then CG represents the hydraulic gradient line.

Problem 3.6
The rate of flow of water pumped into a pipe ABC, which is 200 m long, is 20 litres/s. The
pipe is laid on an upward slope of 1 in 40. The length of the portion AB is 100 m and its
diameter is 100 mm, while the length of the portion BC is also 100 m but its diameter is 200
mm. The change of diameter at B is sudden. The flow is taking place from A to C, where the
pressure at A is 19.62 N/cm2 and end C is connected to a tank. Find the pressure at C and
draw the hydraulic gradient and total energy line. Take f = .008.
Solution. Given :
,

Velocity of water in pipe AB,

Velocity of water in pipe BC, ,Applying Bernoulli's

equation to points A and C,

Total loss from A to C = Loss due to friction in pipe AB + loss of head due to enlargement at
B +loss of head due to friction in pipe BC. (ii)

Now loss of head due to friction in pipe AB,

Loss of head due to friction in pipe BC,

55
Loss of head due to enlargement at B,

Total loss from

Substituting this value in (i), we get

Taking datum line passing through A, we have

Also, ,

Substituting these values in (iii), we get,

or, Therefore,

Therefore, or,

Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Line

Fig. 3.9
Pipe AB. Assuming the datum line passing through A, then total energy at A

Also,

Total Energy Line. Draw a horizontal line AX as shown in Fig. 11.11. The centre-line of the
pipe is drawn in such a way that slope of pipe is 1 in 40. Thus, the point C will be at a height

56
of from the line AX. Now draw a vertical line AD equal to total energy at A,
i.e., AD = 20328m. from point D, draw a horizontal line and from point B, a vertical line,
meeting at Q. From Q take vertical distance

draw a horizontal line and from C, f, a vertical line meeting at R. From R take RG=hfi =
0.323 m. Join = F to G. Then DEFG represents the total energy line. Hydraulic Gradient
Line. Draw the line LM parallel to the line DE at a distance in the downward direction equal
to 0.328 m. Also draw the line PN parallel to the line GF at a distance of Join
point M to N. Then line LMNP represents the hydraulic gradient line.

Problem 3.7
A pipe line, 300 mm in diameter and 3200 m long is used to pump up 50 kg per second of an
oil whose density is 950 kg/m3 and whose kinematic viscosity is 2.1 stokes. The centre of the
pipe line at the upper end is 40 m above than that at the lower end. The discharge at the upper
end is atmospheric. Find the pressure at the lower end and draw the hydraulic gradient and
the total energy line.
Solution. Given:

,
,

Therefore, ,Therefore, Co-efficient of friction,

Applying the Bernoulli's equation at the lower and upper end of the pipe and taking datum
line passing through the lower end, we have

Substituting these values, we have,

57
Therefore, [ ]

H.G.L. and T .E.L.

Figure 3.9
Draw a horizontal line AX as shown in Fig. 11.12. From A, draw the centre line of the pipe in
such a way that point C is a distance of 40 m above the horizontal line. Draw a vertical line
AB through A such that AB = 58.05 m. Join B with C. Then BC is the hydraulic gradient
line.
Draw a line DE parallel to BC at a height of 0.0282 m above the hydraulic gradient line. Then DE is
the total energy line.

3.6 FLOW THROUGH SYPHON

Syphon is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at a higher
elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when the two reservoirs are separated by a hill
or high level ground as shown in Fig.3. 11

58
Figure 3.11
The point C which is at the highest of the syphon is called the summit. As the point C is
above the free surface of the water in the tank A, the pressure at C will be less than
atmospheric pressure. Theoretically, the pressure at C may be reduced to - 10.3 m of water
but in actual practice this pressure is only - 7.6 m of water or 10.3 - 7.6 = 2.7 m of water
absolute. If the pressure at C becomes less than 2.7 m of water absolute, the dissolved air and
other gases would come out from water and collect at the summit. The flow of water will be
obstructed. Syphon is used in the following cases :
1. To carry water from one reservoir to another reservoir separated by a hill or ridge.
2. To take out the liquid from a tank which is not having any outlet.

3. To empty a channel not provided with any outlet sluice.

Problem 3.8
A syphon of diameter 200 mm connects two reservoirs having a difference in eleva-tion of 20
m. The length of the syphon is 500 m and the summit is 3.0 m above the water level in the
upper reservoir. The length of the pipe from upper reservoir to the summit is 100 m.
Determine the discharge through the syphon and also pressure at the summit. Neglect minor
losses. The co-efficient of friction= .005.

Solution. Given:

59
Fig. 3.12 Syphon
If minor losses are neglected then the loss of head takes place only due to friction. Applying
Bernoulli's equation to points A and B,

or, [
]Therefore, But,

Therefore, Therefore, √

Discharge,

Pressure at Summit.
Applying Bernoulli's equation to points A and C,

[ ]

Therefore, [ ]

Problem 3 .9
A syphon of diameter 200 mm connects two reservoirs having a difference in elevation of 15
m. The total length of the syphon is 600 m and the summit is 4 m above the water level in the
upper reservoir. If the separation takes place at 2.8 m of water absolute, find the maximum
length of syphon from upper reservoir to the summit. Take f = .004 and atmospheric pressure
= 10.3 m of water.

60
Solution. Given :

Figure 3.10 (a)

Applying Bernoulli's equation to points A and C and taking the datum line passing through,
A,

Substituting the values of pressures in terms of absolute, we have

Therefore,

Applying Bernoulli's equation to points A and Band taking datum line passing through B,

61
But, ,

,Therefore,

, or,

Substituting this value of Vin equation (i), we get

But,

where = inlet leg of syphon or length of syphon from upper reservoir to the summit.

, Substituting this value in equation (ii),

Therefore,

3.7. FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES OR FLOW THROGH COMPOUND

PIPES

FIG.3.12. Pipes in series

Fig. 3.12 shows a system of pipes in series.

Let, D1 , D2 , D3 = Diameters of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively,
L1 , L2 , L3 = Lengths of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively,

62
 V1 , V2 , V3 = Velocities of flow through pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively
F1 , f2 , f3 = Co-efficient of friction for pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively, and
H = Difference of water level in the two tanks.

As the rate of flow (Q) of water through each pipe is same, therefore,

Also, The difference in liquid surface levels = Sum of the various head losses in the
pipes i.e

where, ,

Substituting the values in (i), we have:

If minor losses are neglected, , then above equation becomes:

If, then : * +

Example 3.10

Three pipes of diameters 300 mm, 200 mm and 400 mm and lengths 450 m, 255 m and 315
m respectively are connected in series. The difference in water surface levels in two
tanks is 18 m. Determine the rate of flow of water if co-efficients of friction are 0·0075,
0·0078 and 0·0072 respectively considering :
I. Minor losses also, and
II. Neglecting minor losses.
Solution.

Pipe 1 : L1 = 450 m, = D1 = 300 mm = 0·3 m, f1 = 0·0075

Pipe 2 : L2 = 255 m, D2 = 200 mm = 0·2 m, f2 = 0·0078
Pipe 3 : L3 = 315 m, D3 = 400 mm = 0·4 m, f3 = 0·0072
Difference of water level, H = 18 m.
(i) Considering minor losses :

63
 Let V1, V2, V3 be the velocities in 1st, 2nd, 3rd pipe respectively.
From continuity considerations, we have:

( *

( )
And, ( )
( )

We know that :

[ ]

18=

Or √ ⸫

(ii) Neglecting minor losses :We know that,

[ ]

Or √ Discharge, Q = A1V1 =(

64
3.8 ANALYSIS OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
This is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equal to the
loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different lengths
and diam-eters. The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the
pipe. The length of equivalent pipe is equal to sum of lengths of the compound pipe
consisting of different pipes. Let
,
,
,H = total head loss

L = length of equivalent pipe ,d = diameter of the equivalent pipe ,

Total head loss in the compound pipe, neglecting minor losses

Discharge,

Substituting these values in equation (11.14A), we have

( * ( * ( *

Headloss in the equivalent pipe,

[ ]

where

( )
Therefore, * +

Head loss in compound pipe and in equivalent pipe is same hence equating equations (3.7)
and (3.8), we have

0 1 [ ]

or,

65
Equation (3.9) is known as Dupuit's equation. In this equation L = + + and d" and
. are known. Hence the equivalent size of the pipe, i.e., value of d can be obtained.

Problem 3.11
Three pipes of lengths 800 m, 500 m and 400 m and of diameters 500 mm, 400 mm and 300
mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are to be replaced by a single pipe of
length 1700 m. Find the diameter of the single pipe.
Solution. Given.

Let the diameter of equivalent single pipe = d,Applying equation (11.17),

, or,

Therefore,
,

3.9 FLOW THROUGH PARALLEL PIPES

Consider a main pipe which divides into two or more branches as shown in Fig.
11.17 and again join together downstream to form a single pipe, then the branch
pipes are said to be connected in parallel. The discharge through the main is
increased by connecting pipes in parallel.

Figure 3.13 parallel pipes

The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch
pipes. Hence from Fig. 11.17, we have

66
In this, arrangement, the loss of head for each branch pipe is same. :. Loss of head for
branch pipe 1 = Loss of head for branch pipe 2

or,

if,

Problem 3.12

A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as shown in Fig.
11.17. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and 1.0 m respectively,
while the length and diameter of 2nd parallel pipe are 2000 m and 0.8 m. Find the rate of flow
in each parallel pipe, if total flow in the main is 3.0 m3 Is. The co-efficient of friction for each
parallel pipe is same and equal to .005.
Solution, Given.

Let, , ,From equation (3.10),

(i)
Using equation (11.19), we have

or,

Now * +

and,

Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in equation (i), we get

or, [ ] , Substituting this value in equation (ii),

Hence,

3.10 FLOW THROUGH BRANCHED PIPES

When three or more reservoirs are connected by means of pipes, having one or more
junctions, the system is called a branching pipe system. Fig. 11.26 shows three

67
reservoirs at different levels con-nected to a single junction, by means of pipes which
are called branched pipes. The lengths, diameters and co-efficient of friction of each
pipes is given. It is required to find the discharge and direction of flow in each pipe.
The basic equations used for solving such problems are :
1. Continuity equation which means the inflow of fluid at the junction should be
equal to the outflow of fluid.

2. Bernoulli's equation, and

3. Darcy-Welsbach equation

Also it is assumed that reservoirs are very large and the water surface levels in the
reservoirs are constant so that steady conditions exist in the pipes. Also minor losses
are assumed very small. The flow from reservoir A takes place to junction D. The
flow from junction D is towards reservoirs C. Now the flow from junction D towards
reservoir B will take place only when piezometric head at D

( which is equal to ) is more than the piezometric head at B (i.e., ). Let us

consider that flowis from D to reservoir B.

Figure 3.14

For flow from A to D from Bernoulli's equation

For flow from D to B from Bernoulli’s equation

For flow from D to C from Bernoulli’s equation

From continuity equation, Discharge through AD = Discharge through DB +

Discharge through DC

Therefore, ,or,

There are four unknowns i.e., and there are four equations (i), (ii), (iii)
and (iv).
68
CHAPTER 4 ( MODULE 4) : POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES

4.1. POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES

The transmission of power through pipes carrying water or other liquids is commonly used
for working of several hydraulic machines. The hydraulic power transmitted by a pipe
however depends on (i) the discharge passing through the pipe and (ii) the total head of water
(or liquid).Consider a pipe AB connected to a high level storage tank as shown in Fig. 12·43.
Let, H = Head of water available at the inlet of pipe, m,
L = Length of the pipe, m,
D = Diameter of the pipe, m, Tank
V = Velocity of water in the pipe m/s,
f = Co-efficient of friction, and A B
hf = Loss of head in the pipe AB, due to friction, m. Weight of water flowing
through the pipe per second

Fig.4.1 Power transmission through pipes

(where, Q = discharge of water through the pipe, m3/s)

and, net head of water available at B (neglecting minor losses)
Also, The efficiency of transmission, And

Power, P =, -

( ) ( )

69
 . /

It is evident from eqn. (iii) that power transmitted depends upon the velocity of water (V), as
the other things are constant.∴ Power transmitted will be maximum, when:
Or * ( )+ Or ( ) Or

Or Or It means that power transmitted through the pipe is maximum, when

head lost due to friction inthe pipe is equal to of the total supply head.
The maximum efficiency would correspond to the maximum power transmitted and hence

maximum efficiency,

Example 4.1.
A 2500 m long pipeline is used for transmission of power. 120 kW power is to be transmitted
through the pipe in which water having a pressure of 4000 kN/m2 at inlet is flowing. If the
pressure drop over the length of pipe is 800 kN/m2 and f = 0·006, find :
(i) Diameter of the pipe, and
(ii) Efficiency of transmission.
Solution.
Length of the pipeline, L = 2500 M,Power transmitted, P = 120 kW,Pressure at inlet, p =
4000 kN/m2

Pressure drop = 800 kN/m2, ∴ Loss of head, hf=

∴Co-efficient of friction, f = 0·006.

(i) Diameter of the pipe, D :

Head available at the end of the pipe, H – hf = 407·7 – 81·5 = 326·2 m
Now, power transmitted is given by : P = wQ (H – hf) kW, 120 = 9·81 × Q × 326·2
where, Q = Discharge through the pipe in m3/s, andand, w = Specific weight of
water = 9·81 kN/m3, ,But ⸫

Or The head lost due to friction, But,

⸫

Or Or
Or

70
 (ii) Efficiency of transmission, η :

4.2 FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE AT THE END OF A PIPE

Refer to Fig. 4.2. A nozzle is a tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet end of a
pipe. The total energy at the end of the pipe consists of pressure energy and kinetic energy.
By fitting the nozzle at the end of a pipe, the total energy is converted into kinetic energy. A
high velocity is required in the fields of power development, fire fighting, mining, etc.

Fig.4.2 Flow through a nozzle fitted to the end of the

Let, D = Diameter of the pipe,

L = Length of the pipe,
d = Diameter of the nozzle,
V = Velocity of flow in pipe,
v = Velocity of flow at the outlet of the nozzle,
f = Co-efficient of friction for the pipe, and
H = Height of water level in the reservoir above the centre-line of the nozzle. Head lost due
to friction in pipe, ∴ Head available at the base of the nozzle

Assuming the minor losses and losses in the nozzle to be negligible, we have:
Total head at the nozzle outlet = ⸫

From continuity consideration, we have: AV = aν

(where A and a are the areas of the pipe and area of the nozzle at outlet respectively)
Substituting the value of V in eqn. (i), we get:

( ) √

⸫ ∴ Discharge through the nozzle = a×v

71
4·2·1 Power Transmitted through the Nozzle

Mass of liquid flowing per second at the outlet of the nozzle, m = ρav The K.E. of the jet at
outlet of the nozzle ∴ Power available at the outlet of
nozzle = Also, power available at the inlet of pipe = wQH
∴ Efficiency of power transmission through the nozzle,

But,
∴

[ ] √
[ ]

4·2·2 Condition for Transmission of Maximum Power Through Nozzle

We know that, Or …………………………4.2

But power transmitted through the nozzle, * (

)+ ( )……………………………………………………….4.3
From continuity consideration, we have:

Substituting the value of V in eqn. (12·22), we get: Power transmitted through nozzle =wav
( ) Power transmitted will be maximum, when

. /

* ( )+ Or

Or ( )…………………..4.4

( )

72
 The eqn. (4.3) indicates that the power transmitted by a nozzle is maximum when the
head lost due to friction in pipe is equal to one-third the total head supplied at the inlet
of pipe.

4.3·DIAMETER OF THE NOZZLE FOR TRANSMITTING MAXIMUM POWER

We know that, But, ⸫

For continuity consideration, we have:

⸫

√ ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,4.5

Eqn. (4.5) gives the ratio between the areas of the supply pipe and the nozzle for maximum
power transmission.Substituting the values of A and a in eqn. (12·24) and squaring both
sides, we have:

( )

Or
⸫,

. /

Example 4.2.
A nozzle is fitted to a pipe120 mm in diameter and 250 m long, with co-efficient of friction
as 0·01. If the available head at the nozzle is 100 m find the diameter of the nozzle and the
maximum power transmitted by a jet of water discharging freely out of a nozzle.
Solution.
Diameter of the pipe, D = 120 mm = 0·12 m, Length of the pipe, L = 250 m
Co-efficient of friction, f = 0·01,Head of water, H = 100 m.

(i) Diameter of the nozzle for maximum power, d :

Using the relation : * + ( )

i.e.,
d = 33·4 mm (Ans.)

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 (ii) Maximum power transmitted by the jet, P :
We know that for the maximum transmission of power, the head lost due to friction ∴
Available head, h = 33
∴ Velocity of water through the nozzle,
√ √

Now using the relation, P = wQH, we have:

i.e., P = 20·74 kW (Ans.)

4.4 . WATER HAMMER IN PIPES

In a long pipe, when the flowing water is suddenly brought to rest by closing the valve or by
any similar cause, there will be a sudden rise in pressure due to the momentum of water being
destroyed. A pressure wave is transmitted along the pipe. A sudden rise in pressure has the
effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon of sudden rise in
presssure is known as water hammer or hammer blow. The magnitude of pressure rise
depends on :
(i) The speed at which valve is closed,
(ii) The velocity of flow,
(iii) The length of pipe, and
(iv) The elastic properties of the pipe material as well as that of the flowing fluid.
The rise in pressure in some cases may be so large that the pipe may even burst and therefore
it
is essential to take into account this pressure rise in the design of the pipes.

4·4·1 Gradual Closure of Valve

Consider a long pipe carrying liquid (Fig. 4.3)) and provided with a valve which is closed
gradually.

Let, A = Area of cross-section of the pipe,

L = Length of the pipe,
V = Velocity of flow of water in the pipe,
t = Time required to close the valve (in seconds), and p = Intensity of pressure wave
produced.The mass of liquid contained in the pipe is = ρAL Assuming that the rate of

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closure of the valve is so adjusted that the liquid column in the pipe is brought to rest with a
uniform retardation; from an intial velocity V to zero in time t seconds, we have:
…………………………………………………4.7

∴The axial force available for producing retardation

Also, force due to pressure wave is = p.A

Equating the two forces given by eqns. (i) and (ii), we have:
Or ………………………………………………………………..4.8
……………………………..4.9

i.e

(i) The closure of valve is said to be gradual when t >

(ii) The closure of valve is said to be instantaneous when t
<

4·4·2 Instantaneous Closure of Valve in Rigid Pipes

Eqn. (4.7) indicates that when the valve is closed instantaneously (i.e., t = 0), the
inertia head should rise to infinity. However, in practice, it is not possible to close the
valve instantaneously, as it always takes some time. Thus, even fo…..r a very rapid
closure of the valve, as observed during experimentation, the pressure rise is quite
finite and measurable. Moreover, eqn. (4.7) has been derived on the assumption that
the liquid is incompressible. This assumption is incorrect, because at very high
pressures even liquids get compressed to some extent and behave like compressible
fluids.

Consider a pipe of length L and area of cross-section A (Fig. 4·45) carrying water
which is flowing through it at a velocity V. When the valve is closed instantaneously
the K.E. of the flowing water is converted into strain energy of water (neglecting
effect of friction and assuming the pipe wall to be perfectly rigid).
.. 4.12

( ) …………….4.13

[
]

Equating the loss of K.E. to the gain of strain energy, we get:

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 , Or ⸫

√ √ √

Or

( √ )

4·4·3 Instantaneous Closure of Valve in Elastic Pipes

As shown in Fig. 12·45, consider a pipe of length L, diameter D, thickness t (small compared
to diameter). Let, p = Increase of pressure due to water hammer, E = Modulus of elasticity of
pipe material, and = Poisson’s ratio for pipe material. M
When the valve is closed instantaneously, rise of pressure takes place due to which
circumferential and longitudinal stresses are produced in the pipe wall; these stresses are
given as (from knowledge of strength of materials):

Where,
Also, strain energy stored in the pipe material per unit volume is
( * [ ]

[ ]

Assuming, Strain energy per unit volume =

0 1

Total strain energy stored in pipe material

*
+

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Loss of K.E. OF Water = Gain of strain in water= ( )

Also, The loss of K.E. of water = Gain of strain energy in water + strain energy
stored in material. ⸫

Dividing both sides by ( ),

( )

Or

√ √
( ) ( )

4·4·4 Time required by Pressure Wave to travel from the Valve to the Tank and from
Tank to Valve
Time taken, t =

Where,

Example 4.3.
In a pipe 600 mm diameter and 3000 m length, provided with a valve at its end,
water is flowing with a velocity of 2 m/s. Assuming velocity of pressure wave C =
1500 m/s, find :
I. The rise in pressure if the valve is closed in 20 seconds, and
II. The rise in pressure if the valve is closed in 2·5 seconds. Assume the pipe to
be rigid one and take bulk modulus of water as 2 GN/m2.
Solution.
Diameter of the pipe, D = 600 mm = 0·6 m,Length of the pipe, L = 300 m
Velocity of water, V = 2 m/s,Velocity of pressure wave, C = 1500 m/s.
(i) Rise in pressure, p :

Time taken to close the valve, t = 20 s,Now,

The close of valve is said to be gradual if, [ ]

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 Hence, the valve is closed gradually. The rise in pressure (p), for gradual

closure of valve, is given by;

(ii) Rise in pressure, p :

Time taken to close the valve, t = 2·5 s Bulk modulus of water, K = 2 GN/m 2

Velocity of pressure wave is given by, √ √ ,

Thus, the valve is closed intantaneously [From eqn. (12·29)]

When pipe is rigid, the rise in pressure due to instantaneous closure of the valve is

given by (eqn. 12·30),

4.5 FLUID METERS (MEASUREMENT) MODULE FOUR CONTINUATION

Notes attached as pdf

Volume-flux measurements: Mass measurement (weighing tanks, tilting traps). Volume

measurement (volume tanks, reciprocating pistons, rotating slotted rings, sliding vanes, etc.).
Bernoulli type head loss metering devices (types of devices: thin plate orifice, flow nozzle,
Venturi tube). Friction loss devices (capillary tubes, porous plug).

Fluid meters: Trajectory of floats or neutrally buoyant particles. Rotating Mechanical

devices. Cup anemometer. Savonius motor. Propeller meter. Turbine meter.
Pitot tube. Electro-magnetic current meter. Hot wire and hot films. Laser-doppler
anemometer. Water flow metering devices: Notches. Weirs.

4.6 APPENDIX I COURSE CONTENT AND REFERENCE MATERIALS

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