Control System Analysis

Workbook Contents

Click on tabs at the bottom of the screen to access the following:

Tab 1. Contents (current tab)

Tab 2. Time Response

Tab 3. Steady-State Error

Tab 4. Pole Locations and Stability

Tab 5. Routh-Hurwitz

Tab 6. Frequency Response

Tab 7. Bode Diagrams

Tab 8. Relative Stability

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 NOTE: The cells containing formulas are locked (protected) to avoid the
possibility of inadvertently typing over any of the formulas. You may,
however, adjust the number of decimal places for any of the cells.

Detailed workbook contents:

1 Time Response
First order system: impulse, step and ramp responses, gain and time constant
Additional poles
Second order system: damping factor and natural frequency
Second order system with additional zero: non-minimum phase zero
2 Steady-State Error
Steady state error of closed-loop of type-0, type-1 and type-2 systems
Steady state error regarding step, ramp and acceleration inputs
3 Poles Locations and Stability
The effect of pole locations on the impulse response of a second order system
Stability and marginal stability
4 Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Tabular tool to test stability of characteristic polynomial up to the 5th degree.
Handling special cases: zero in the first column or zeros in complete row
5 Frequency Response
Lead/lag compensator submitted to sinusoidal input.
Bode plots used to select the frequency of the input,
Sinusoidal time response
6 Bode Diagrams
Bode plots of constant gain, simple integrator, double integrator, differentiator, double differentiator.
Bode plots of first order low-pass filter, first order high-pass filter, second order system and second orde
Bandwidth, resonant frequency and resonant peak
7 Relative Stability
Bode plots of first, second and third order systems.
Gain and phase margins calculation
tiator, double differentiator.
order system and second order system with an additional pole.
Time Response
1. First order system: impulse, step and ramp responses, gain and time constant. Calculation of se
2. First order system with additional pole.
3. Second order system: damping factor, natural frequency. Calculation of rise time, peak time, ove
4. Second order system with additional zero, non-minimal phase zero.
Use the radio buttons to select one of the different options, and use the sliders to change the syste

1st order
K
1.600

T 2.300
Performances Characteristics

Impulse Step Ramp Ts

1st order with additional pole Step

Step response 1.2
a 3.200
1.0
b 3.200
0.8
c 1.000
0.6

2nd order with additional zero 0.4

Step response
0.2
K 1.000
0.0
ξ 0.000
0.04
0.08
00.12
0.16
0.2
0.24
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.4
0.44
0.48
0.52
0.56
0.6
0.64
0.68
0.72
0.76
0.8
0.84
0.88
0.92
0.96
1.04
1.08
11.12
1.16
1.2
1.24
1.28
1.32
1.36
1.4
1.44
1.48
1.52
1.56
1.6
1.64
1.68
1.72
1.76
1.8
1.84
1.88
1.9
1.9
222
ωn 2.000
d -1.200

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

 TIME RESPONSE
onstant. Calculation of settling time.
Time response is defined as the output of a
rise time, peak time, overshoot, and settling time. systems and to assess the performance
understand how dynamical systems behave
ders to change the system parameters.
First order system
A linear first order system is represented
constant. Time responses of first order syst

Tr: Rise time

Tp: Peak time
Mp: Maximum Overshoot
Ts: Settling time (25)
nces Characteristics

Ts = 1.25s

Step G(s) = 3.2/(s + 3.2)

Time constant, DC gain, and settling tim

Time constant and gain are important pa

response to reach approximately 63% of its
K is the ratio of the output of a system to it
step response to reach and stay within a
conservative approximation for the settling
K.

4
12
0.2
0.24
8
16
0.28
0.32
0.36
0.4
0.44
0.48
0.52
0.56
0.6
0.64
0.68
0.72
0.76
0.8
0.84
0.88
0.92
0.96
1.04
1.08
11.12
1.16
1.2
1.24
1.28
1.32
1.36
1.4
1.44
1.48
1.52
1.56
1.6
1.64
1.68
1.72
1.76
1.8
1.84
1.88
1.92
1.96
2.04
2.08
22.12
2.16
2.2
2.24
2.28
2.32
2.36
2.4
2.44
2.48
2.52
2.56
2.6
2.64
2.68
2.72
2.76
2.8
2.84
2.88
2.92
2.96
3.04
3.08
33.12
3.16
3.2
3.24
3.28
3.32
3.36
3.4
3.44
3.48
3.52
3.56
3.6
3.64
3.68
3.72
3.76
3.8
3.84
3.88
3.92
3.96
4
Time (sec)

Figure 1a: The step response

Second order system

A general form of second order systems is

where K is the system gain, ξ the damping

Time responses of second order system to

where K is the system gain, ξ the damping

Time responses of second order system to

Time responses to unit step input are summ

in Figure 2.

Fi
 Fi

Transient response specification

In many cases, control performances are d
time, peak time, overshoot, or settling time

Rise Time: For underdamped systems, th

value, and calculated by

For the overdamped systems, rise time is

final value.

Peak Time: Time needed for the response

Maximum Overshoot: Defined as the max

Settling time: Time required for the respon

a dumping factor (0 < ξ < 0.9), and the settl
For critically dumped (ξ = 1), the approxima

Additional poles, zeros, and non-minimu

The addition of a stable pole tends to slow

from the imaginary axis. The addition of a z
increases the overshoot. Transfer functions
the output becomes first negative before ch
response and make it respond slower. In fr
adding phase lag. Figure 4 shows an exam
response and make it respond slower. In fr
adding phase lag. Figure 4 shows an exam

Figure 4: Step resp

References:
Schaum’s Out

Schaum’s Outline of Feed

Automatic Control S
NSE

e is defined as the output of a system when subjected to standard input. Time response is used to analyze dynam
to assess the performance of closed-loop control systems. First and second order systems are essentia
ow dynamical systems behave and how some of their intrinsic parameters affect their time responses.

ystem
order system is represented by its transfer function G(s)=K/(Ts+1), where K is the system gain and T is the
e responses of first order systems to standards inputs are summarized as follow:

nt, DC gain, and settling time.

t and gain are important parameters of a first order system. Time constant T is the time needed for the
each approximately 63% of its final value, and therefore, it is considered the speed of system response. The DC
of the output of a system to its input after all transients have decayed. The settling time ts is the time needed by
e to reach and stay within a specified tolerance range of the final value. In general, it is a tolerance of 2%
approximation for the settling time is defined as: ts = 4T. Figure 1 shows step responses at different values of T

Figure 1a: The step response at different values of T. Figure 1b: The step response at different values of K.

r system

m of second order systems is represented by the following transfer function:

e system gain, ξ the damping factor and ωn the natural frequency. The poles of the system are:

es of second order system to inputs, such as impulse or step, depends on the damping factor ξ.
e system gain, ξ the damping factor and ωn the natural frequency. The poles of the system are:

es of second order system to inputs, such as impulse or step, depends on the damping factor ξ.

es to unit step input are summarized in the following table, and a family of curves with various values of ξ are sh

Figure 2: A family of curves with various values of ξ.

 Figure 2: A family of curves with various values of ξ.

ponse specification
s, control performances are defined in terms of time response to step input, using some specifications such as
e, overshoot, or settling time (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Step response specification.

or underdamped systems, the rise time is defined as the time for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its
culated by

amped systems, rise time is normally defined as the time needed for the response to rise from 10% to 90% o

ime needed for the response to reach the maximum overshoot, tp=π/ωd

ershoot: Defined as the maximum deviation at peak time from the final value and measured from unity

: Time required for the response to reach and stay within a range of the final value. Usually, it uses the band of 2%
tor (0 < ξ < 0.9), and the settling time is approximated as ts ≈ 4/ξωn.
umped (ξ = 1), the approximation of the settling time is ts≈5.834/ωn

oles, zeros, and non-minimum phase zero

of a stable pole tends to slow down the system response, but this effect becomes irrelevant as pole location is far
inary axis. The addition of a zero lying in the left-half s-plane makes the system response in general faster, and it
overshoot. Transfer functions with positive zeros, known as non-minimum phase zeros, have an undershoot wher
comes first negative before changing direction towards the input reference. This causes a delay in the system
make it respond slower. In frequency domain, the non-minimum phase zeros, instead of adding phase advance,
lag. Figure 4 shows an example of a step response of a second order system with a non-minimum phase zero.
make it respond slower. In frequency domain, the non-minimum phase zeros, instead of adding phase advance,
lag. Figure 4 shows an example of a step response of a second order system with a non-minimum phase zero.

Figure 4: Step response of a non-minimum phase system G(s)=(s-1)/(s^2+0.5s+1).

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 3.13
Singularity functions: steps, ramps, impulses

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 3.14, Second-order Systems

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 3-1, Introduction to Differential Equations
nse is used to analyze dynamical
order systems are essential to
r time responses.

e system gain and T is the time

is the time needed for the step

of system response. The DC gain
time ts is the time needed by the
neral, it is a tolerance of 2%. A
onses at different values of T and

nse at different values of K.

ystem are:

ng factor ξ.
ystem are:

ng factor ξ.

ith various values of ξ are shown

 some specifications such as rise

rise from 0% to 100% of its final

e to rise from 10% to 90% of the

easured from unity

Usually, it uses the band of 2% for

levant as pole location is far

onse in general faster, and it
os, have an undershoot where
ses a delay in the system
ad of adding phase advance, are
non-minimum phase zero.
ad of adding phase advance, are
non-minimum phase zero.

2+0.5s+1).

13

order Systems

quations
 Steady-State Error
1. Steady-state error of closed-loop system versus system type and inputs (step, ramp, parabolic)
2. Calculation of steady-state error.
Use the radio buttons to select one of different options and the sliders to change system parameters

Step Ramp Parabolic

Plant Examples Input Type-1 (ramp)

25.0

K
0.400 20.0
T 2.200
15.0
F
Type 0:
10.0

Type 1:
5.0

Type 2: 0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.8
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
10.0
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.0
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14.0
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.8
15.0
15.2
15.4
15.6
15.8
16.0
16.2
16.
16
16
1

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 STEADY-STATE ERROR
ts (step, ramp, parabolic)
Steady-state error is defined as the deviation of the output
change system parameters. response has reached steady state. Systems controlled in
different inputs, such as step, ramp, parabolic.

System type
Systems are classified according to their ability to track dif
Sse: Steady state error
defined as the number of integrators in the forward path of
Type0: No integrator
Type1: One integrator
Parabolic Sse = 2.5
Type2: Two integrators

Type-1 (ramp) Static error constants

Given a transfer function G(s), static error constants, know
constant Ka, are defined as:

Steady-state error calculation

Consider the unity-feedback system as shown in the Figur
The steady-state error is derived from the transfer function
error E and the reference R, given by:

48.0
6
.8.2
88.4
8.6
8.8
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
10.0
10.2
10.4
10.6
10.8
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.0
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14.0
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.8
15.0
15.2
15.4
15.6
15.8
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.6
16.8
17.0
17.2
17.4
17.6
17.8
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.6
18.8
19.0
19.2
19.4
19.6
19.8
20.0
Time (sec)

20
The steady-state error is calculated using the final value th
Steady-state error
Steady-state error with respect to system type and inputs a

References:
Automatic Control Systems,

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second

Schaum’s Outline of Feed

Section 9.5, Position Error Co

Schaum’s Outline of Feed

Section 9.6, Velocity Error Co

Schaum’s Outline of Feed

Section 9.7, Acceleration Error C
eviation of the output of a closed-loop feedback system from the desired reference when the
ystems controlled in a closed loop may show a different steady-state error in response to
arabolic.

eir ability to track different kinds of input signals with the concept of system type, which is
n the forward path of its unity-feedback system.

rror constants, known as position constant Kp, velocity constant Kv, and acceleration

s shown in the Figure 1.

the transfer function between the

Figure 1: Unity-feedback system.

sing the final value theorem.

em type and inputs are summarized in the following table.

omatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 7-6, Steady-State Error

Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 9.4, Classification of Continuous Feedback Systems by Type

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition

on 9.5, Position Error Constants for Continuous Unity Feedback Systems

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition

on 9.6, Velocity Error Constants for Continuous Unity Feedback Systems

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition

9.7, Acceleration Error Constants for Continuous Unity Feedback Systems
Pole Locations and Stability
1. The effect of poles locations on the impulse response of a second order system.
2. Stability and marginal stability.
Use the sliders to change the poles locations: [#1 & #2] for real poles and [#2 & #3] for complex p

G(s) = 1/(s^2 + 0.4s + 0.68) Impulse response Stability

Poles
-0.2-0.8i -0.2+0.8i

1.0
4.0
0.8

0.6
2.0
0.4

0.2
0.0
0.0

-0.2
-2.0
-0.4

-0.6
-4.0 0.2
00.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
11.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
22.4
2.6
2.8
3.2
33.4
3.6
3.8
4.2
44.4
4.6
4.8
5.2
55.4
5.6
5.8
6.2
66.4
6.6
6.8
7.2
77.4
7.6
7.8
8.2
88.4
8.6
8.8
9.2
99.4
9.6
9.8
10.2
10
10.4
10.6
10.8
11.2
11
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.2
12
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.2
13
13.4
13.6
13.8
14.2
14
14.4
14.6
14.8
15
15
11
-4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0

#3 #2 #1

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

 POLE LOCATIONS AND STABILITY
er system.
Mathematically poles are define d as the roots of the deno
and [#2 & #3] for complex poles. locations in the s-plane provide qualitative information abo

Consider a system with a single pole given by: G(s) = 1/(s

The impulse response of the previous system is y(t) = e-atu
It is very important to stress the following facts:
* The larger the value of a (far from the origin), the quicke
Stability * The smaller the value of a (close to the origin), the long
Stable
* When the values of a become negative, the output grow
* The more negative the value of a, the quicker it grows.
* Negative poles yield stable time responses, and positive

In the same way, the impulse response of a linear system

of the form: y(t) = Ae-atsin(ωt + ϕ) where A the amplitude
frequency of oscillation.

Stability of linear systems

A linear system is stable if all the poles of the system are
parts (s = – σ + jω, with σ > 0).

A linear system is unstable if any pole of the system is in

jω, with σ < 0).
3.8
2.44.2
644.4
4.6
4.8
5.2
55.4
5.6
5.8
6.2
66.4
6.6
6.8
7.2
77.4
7.6
7.8
8.2
88.4
8.6
8.8
9.2
99.4
9.6
9.8
10.2
10
10.4
10.6
10.8
11.2
11
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.2
12
12.4
12.6
12.8
13.2
13
13.4
13.6
13.8
14.2
14
14.4
14.6
14.8
15.2
15
15.4
15.6
15.8
16.2
16
16.4
16.6
16.8
17.2
17
17.4
17.6
17.8
18.2
18
18.4
18.6
18.8
19.2
19
19.4
19.6
19.8
20
Time (sec) If a linear system has at most one pole on the imaginary a
system generates oscillatory characteristics, and it is said
20

The following figure shows some pole locations and their c

References:
Automatic Control Systems, Tenth

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Secon

 he roots of the denominator of a transfer function. Poles may be complex numbers. Their
ative information about the time responses of the system.

given by: G(s) = 1/(s+a). The system has a unique pole at s = -a.
system is y(t) = e-atu(t).
ing facts:
he origin), the quicker it decays.
the origin), the longer it takes to decay.
ative, the output grows indefinitely.
he quicker it grows.
sponses, and positive poles yield unstable ones.

e of a linear system with a complex conjugate pole pair s1,2 = –σ ± jω is a decaying sinusoid
ere A the amplitude of the sinusoid, φ its initial phase, σ decaying factor, and ω the

s of the system are strictly inside the left half s-plane. That is, all the poles have negative real

e of the system is in the right half s-plane. That is, a pole with a positive real part ( s = – σ +

e on the imaginary axis (s = ± jω, with σ = 0) independently of other possible poles, the
ristics, and it is said to be marginally stable.

locations and their corresponding impulse responses.

Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 5, Stability of Linear Control Systems

Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 5.2, Characteristic Root Locations for Continuous Systems
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
1. Routh-Hurwitz criterion to investigate the stability of systems up to 5th degree.
2. The tool handles the special cases:
a) Zeros in the first column. b) Entire row of zeros.
3. Enter coefficients of the characteristic equation ordered by descending powers on the yellow a
Leave lasts cells empty if necessary.

sn sn-1 sn-2 .. .. ..
→ 1 4 8 8 7 4

P(s) = s^5 + 4s^4 + 8s^3 + 8s^2 + 7s + 4

sn 1.00 8.00 7.00

s n-1 4.00 8.00 4.00
sn-2 6.00 6.00
.. 4.00 4.00
.. 8.00 0.00 <-
.. 4.00
Number of non-negative roots: 0
Stability: Stable

Examples: sn sn-1 sn-2 .. ..

s+1 1 1
s-2 1 -2
s2 + 2s + 1 1 2 1
s - 3s + 1
2
1 -3 1
s3 + s2 + 2s + 24 1 1 2 24
s + 2s + 4s + K
3 2
1 2 4 K 0<= K <=8
s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 3 1 1 2 2 3
s5 + 4s4 + 8s3 + 8s2 + 7s + 4 1 4 8 8 7
s + s + 4s + 24s + 3s+63
5 4 3 2
1 1 4 24 3

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

 ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION
degree.
Routh stability criterion is a tabular method for determ
the following characteristic equation: ansn + an-1sn-1 +
powers on the yellow array. The algorithm starts by forming the Routh’s table

Legend
0.01 Replacing "0" by "0.01"
1 Sign Change where the elements bi and ci are calculated as follow:
<- Row of zeros recalculated

The number of roots in the right half plane is equal to

affirmed if no sign changes in the first column.

Special cases

Routh’s algorithm presents two special cases.

Case 1:
Zero is the first element in any one row, but the other
replaced with a small number and then continue norm

Consider the characteristic equation: s5+2s4+3s3+6s2+

..
The first element of the third row is zero, and by repla
column. In this case, the system is unstable.

Case 2:
When all the numbers of a row in the Routh table are
with the power of s corresponding to that row, differen
where its coefficients are then used to replace the zer
Consider the characteristic equation: s5+4s4+8s3+8s2+
The fifth row in the table is a complete row of zeros. In
4 is 8s + 0 and is used in the fifth row. The final Routh’s
63 stable.

References:
Automatic Control System

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Co

ERION

a tabular method for determining if all the roots of a polynomial have negative real parts. Let us consider
c equation: ansn + an-1sn-1 + ... + a1s + a0 = 0
ming the Routh’s table

d ci are calculated as follow:

e right half plane is equal to the number of sign changes in the first column of the table. Stability can be
s in the first column.

s two special cases.

any one row, but the other elements are not. When building the Routh table, zeros in the first column are
ber and then continue normally.

c equation: s5+2s4+3s3+6s2+5s+3=0.
rd row is zero, and by replacing it (ε = 0.01), the final Routh’s table shows 2 sign changes in its first
ystem is unstable.

a row in the Routh table are zeros, a polynomial is formed using the row before the row of zeros. Starting
ponding to that row, differentiate the formed polynomial with respect to s to obtain an auxiliary polynomial
hen used to replace the zeros.
c equation: s5+4s4+8s3+8s2+7s+4=0.
s a complete row of zeros. In this case, consider the previous row, that is 4s2 + 4. Its auxiliary polynomial
e fifth row. The final Routh’s table has no sign changes in its first column. In this case, the system is

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 5-3, Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

um’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 5.3, Routh Stability Criterion
arts. Let us consider

le. Stability can be

n the first column are

anges in its first

ow of zeros. Starting
n auxiliary polynomial

auxiliary polynomial
e, the system is
Frequency Response
1. Lead/Lag Filter with a sinusoidal input.
2. Plot Bode diagrams as well as the time response.
3. Calculation of the magnitude and phase angle of the output for a selected frequency from the Bod
Use the sliders to change filter parameters as well as the frequency for plotting the corresponding ti

Input: r(t) = sin

a Output: y(t) = Y
1.200
Gain: |G(jω)|
b 20Log(|
1.700
Phase (φ): ∠G(jω

Gain: |G(jω)| Gain (dB) Phase (Deg)

0.720 -2.804 5.170

Phase (Deg) Gain (dB) Freq r(t)

12.0 1.5
10.0
1.0
8.0
0.5
6.0
4.0 0.0
2.0
-0.5
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-4.0 -1.5
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 0.0
0.3
0.6
1.0
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.4
5.8
6.1
6.4
6.7
7.0
7.4
7.7
8.0
8.3
8.6
9.0
9.3
10.2
9.6
10.6
9.9
10.9
11.2
11.5
11.8
12.2
12.5
12.8
13.1
13.4
13.8
14.1
14.4
14.7
15.0
15.4
15.7
16.0
16.3
16.6
17.0
17.3
17.6
17.9
18.2
18.6
18.9
19.2
19.5
19.8
20.2
20.5
20.8
21.1
21.4
21.8
22.1
22.4
22.7
23.0
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3
24.6
25.0
25.3
25.6
25.9
26.2
26.6
26.9
27.2
27.5
27.8
28.2
28.5
28.8
29.1
29.4
29.8
30.1
30.4
30.7
31.0
31.4
31.7
32.0
32.3
32.6
33.0
33.3
33.6
33.9
34.2
34.6
34.9
35.2
35.5
35.8
36.2
36.5
36.8
37.1
37.4
37.8
38.1
38.4
38.7
39.0
39.4
39.7
40.0
40.3
40.6
41.0
41.3
41.
41.
42.
42
42
43
43
4444
(rad/s)

Freq
0.398

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 FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The frequency response of a linear system describes h

ed frequency from the Bode plots. frequency response is a complementary way of charact
otting the corresponding time response. system is composed of transient and steady state respo
sinusoidal signal of a certain frequency is applied as an
frequency but with a different magnitude and phase.

Let's consider a linear system described by its transfer

where R and ω are the amplitude and the angular frequ
Input: r(t) = sin(ωt);
Output: y(t) = Y sin(ωt + φ)
Gain: |G(jω)|
20Log(|G(jω)|) (dB)
Phase (φ): ∠G(jω) (Deg)
The steady-state output of the system is y(t) = Ysin(ωt
different amplitude and phase.

Magnitude and phase

The frequency response of the system is the transfer fu
represented as G(jω) = Mejφ, where
r(t) y(t)
M = |G(jω)| = Y/R
φ = ∠G(jω) = tan-1( Im(G(jω))/Re(G(

where Im() and Re() are imaginary and real parts of G(

Bode Diagrams
As it is seen before, M and φ are functions of the angul
diagrams through two graphs: the magnitude and the p
and the phase in degrees.

8.3
4
8.6
7
9.0
.7
0
9.3
.0
4
10.2
9.6
10.6
9.9
10.9
11.2
11.5
11.8
12.2
12.5
12.8
13.1
13.4
13.8
14.1
14.4
14.7
15.0
15.4
15.7
16.0
16.3
16.6
17.0
17.3
17.6
17.9
18.2
18.6
18.9
19.2
19.5
19.8
20.2
20.5
20.8
21.1
21.4
21.8
22.1
22.4
22.7
23.0
23.4
23.7
24.0
24.3
24.6
25.0
25.3
25.6
25.9
26.2
26.6
26.9
27.2
27.5
27.8
28.2
28.5
28.8
29.1
29.4
29.8
30.1
30.4
30.7
31.0
31.4
31.7
32.0
32.3
32.6
33.0
33.3
33.6
33.9
34.2
34.6
34.9
35.2
35.5
35.8
36.2
36.5
36.8
37.1
37.4
37.8
38.1
38.4
38.7
39.0
39.4
39.7
40.0
40.3
40.6
41.0
41.3
41.6
41.9
42.2
42.6
42.9
43.2
43.5
43.8
44.2
44.5
44.8
45.1
45.4
45.8
46.1
46.4
46.7
47.0
47.4
47.7
48.0
48.3
48.6
49.0
49.3
49.6
49.9
50.2
50.6
50.9
51.2
51.5
51.8
52.2
52.5
52.8
53.1
53.4
53.8
54.1
54.4
54.7
55.0
55.4
55.7
56.0
56.3
56.6
57.0
57.3
57.6
57.9
58.2
58.6
58.9
59.2
59.5
59.8
60.2
60.5
60.8
61.1
61.4
61.8
62.1
62.4
62.7
63.0
63.4
63.7
64.0
Time (sec)

64.000 References:
Automatic Control Systems, Tenth

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Syste

E

of a linear system describes how the system reacts to sinusoidal inputs at varying frequencies. The
omplementary way of characterizing how a system behaves. Even though the frequency response of a
nsient and steady state responses, the frequency response is referring to the steady-state response. If a
ain frequency is applied as an input to a linear system, the output is also a sinusoid of the same
ent magnitude and phase.

tem described by its transfer function G(s), and let's consider the input as: r(t) = Rsin(ωt),
mplitude and the angular frequency of the sinusoidal input.

the system is y(t) = Ysin(ωt + φ), a sinusoid with the same angular frequency but possibly with a
ase.

of the system is the transfer function of the system evaluated at s = jω and taken as complex number,
ejφ, where

jω)| = Y/R
(jω) = tan-1( Im(G(jω))/Re(G(jω)) ),

maginary and real parts of G(jω).

d φ are functions of the angular frequency ω. One way to represent these two functions is by using Bode
phs: the magnitude and the phase diagrams. The magnitude is plotted in decibels, that is 20log|G(jω)|,

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-1, Introduction to Frequency Response

line of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 6.5, Continuous System Frequency Response
 quencies. The
ency response of a
y-state response. If a
of the same

n(ωt),

possibly with a

complex number,

ons is by using Bode

hat is 20log|G(jω)|,

esponse
Bode Diagrams
1. Bode plots of simple systems: simple or double integrator, constant gain, differentiator, and double differentiator.
2. Bode plots of low & high pass filters: Calculation of bandwidth.
3. Second order system. Calculation of bandwidth, resonant frequency, and resonant peak in decibels.
4. Second order system + an additional pole: Calculation of bandwidth.
Use the radio buttons to select a system, and set system parameters using yellow cells.

BW: Bandwidth (rad/s) Magnitude (dB) BW

ωr: Resonant frequency (rad/s) 20
Mr: Resonant Peak (dB)
10
0
-10
BW = 6.17 rad/s; r = 3.96 rad/s; Mr = 14.02 (dB)
-20
-30
-40
n -1 {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}
-50
K 1
-60
T 4
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Phase
Phase (Deg)(Deg)
K 1 0
ξ 0.1 -20
ωn 4 -40
-60
a 20 -80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
-200
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

 BODE DIAGRAMS
ntiator.
The frequency response of a transfer function G(s) consists of evaluating by replacing s=jω. G(jω) evaluated ve
frequencies is a set of complex numbers. They can be represented directly in the s-plane to obtain the Nyquist
there are alternative methods to analyze linear systems such as Black or Bode diagrams.

Bode diagrams map the frequency response of linear systems through two graphs: the magnitude and the phase
magnitude is plotted in decibels, that is 20log|G(jω)|, and the phase in degrees. Both functions are plotted v
(rad/s) on a logarithmic scale (see Figure 1).
BW

10.00 100.00
(rad/s)
Figure 1: Magnitude and phase curves of G(s)=1/(s+1).

(Deg) Logarithmic scale is used when plotting functions varying over many orders of magnitude. In control engineering,
know the frequency response of a system over a wide range of frequencies.

Bode Diagrams interpretation

The Bode plots are built based on transfer functions regardless of the inputs. One of Bode plots' remarkable fe
permits prediction of the output magnitude and phase when systems are excited with inputs with specific freque
Bode plots of Figure 1, if we consider a sinusoidal input with a frequency close to (0.01 rad/s), the output resp
magnitude of (0 dB) and a shift angle close to (0.6º). For a frequency close to (5.5 rad/s), the magnitude has an at
10.00 100.00
(rad/s) dB) and a shift phase of almost (-80º), meaning that an input with a unitary magnitude will produce an output with
(0.18) and with an important lag.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a system is defined as the frequency BW where the magnitude of its transfer function drops belo
DC gain. That is : 20log|G(ωb)| = 20log|G(0)| − 3dB.

In the Figure 1, the bandwidth of the system corresponds to (BW = 1rad/s). Furthermore, it can be seen from the B
frequencies well below the bandwidth BW, the magnitude has no important attenuation, and the phase is shifted b
Consequently, we can say that, within this range of frequencies, the system will properly track the inputs. At freq
than BW, the frequency response of the system will be attenuated and lagged with respect to input. The higher the
higher the attenuation is. First and second order systems bandwidth are given by:

Bandwidth is a measure of speed of a system time response like rise time. In fact, bandwidth is also used for the
specification. Concretely, the bandwidth is inversely proportional to the rise time.

Resonant peak and resonant frequency

Resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of the frequency response magnitude that appears for the first time. T
which the resonant peak occurs is known as resonant frequency ωr. Peaks in the frequency response exist
conjugate complex poles. For the second-order given by the transfer function, the resonant peak appears for (ξ < 0
is given by Mr, and it occurs at ωr.

For (ξ > 0.707), there is no resonant peak (Mr = 1, at ωr = 0 rad/s).

For (ξ > 0.707), there is no resonant peak (Mr = 1, at ωr = 0 rad/s).

Figure 2: The Bode plots of the second order system G(s)=4/(s^2 + 0.8s + 4).

References:
Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-1, Introduction to Frequency Response

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-1-2, Frequency-Domain Specifications

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 15.4
Bode Plots of Simple Continuous-Time Frequency Response Functions and their Asymptotic Approximations

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 15.5 Construction of Bode Plots for Continuous-Tim

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 10.4, Design Objectives
 lacing s=jω. G(jω) evaluated versus a range of
e s-plane to obtain the Nyquist plots. However,
grams.

hs: the magnitude and the phase diagrams. The

es. Both functions are plotted versus frequency

s)=1/(s+1).

gnitude. In control engineering, it is important to

One of Bode plots' remarkable features is that it

with inputs with specific frequencies. From the
to (0.01 rad/s), the output response will have a
rad/s), the magnitude has an attenuation of (-15
itude will produce an output with a magnitude of

of its transfer function drops below (−3 dB) of its

rmore, it can be seen from the Bode plot that, for

ation, and the phase is shifted by a few degrees.
properly track the inputs. At frequencies greater
respect to input. The higher the frequency is the

, bandwidth is also used for the speed response

that appears for the first time. The frequency at

n the frequency response exist in systems with
resonant peak appears for (ξ < 0.707). The peak
=4/(s^2 + 0.8s + 4).

on to Frequency Response

ncy-Domain Specifications

Edition, Section 15.4

their Asymptotic Approximations

ction of Bode Plots for Continuous-Time Systems

ection 10.4, Design Objectives

Relative Stability
1. Bode plots of first, second and third order systems, being able to be configured as simple, double, an
2. Calculation of gain and phase margins.
Use the radio buttons to select a system, and set system parameters using yellow cells.

GM: Gain Margin (dB) Magnitude

PM: Phase Margin (Deg) 40.0

GM = inf

PM = 95.74 deg (at 19.9 rad/s) 0.0

K 20
a 2
-40.0
b 1 0.01 0.10 1
c 0.5
Phase (Deg
0

-45

-90

-135

-180

-225
0.01 0.10 1

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC. All rights reserved.

 RELATIVE STABILITY
figured as simple, double, and triple integrator.
Relative stability indicates how much the gain
yellow cells. unstable.
Mathematically, limit of stability occurs when
function, gives G(jω) = -1 + 0j. In this case, w

Stability margins measure how far the comple

Magnitude (dB) GM
40.0

Gain margin
The gain margin is the amount of additiona
unstable. Consider the proportional feedback
0.0

-40.0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
(rad/s)
The gain margin GM is defined as the factor b
Phase (Deg) PM instability. That is KG(jωp) = −1 and the pha
0
gain K has to be set so that |KG(jωp)| = 1, wh
-45
The gain margin GM expressed in dB is: Gm
-90

-135
Phase margin
-180
The phase margin PM is the phase shift need
the forward path of the unity-feedback phase
-225 open-loop is unitary. Hence, |G(jωg)| = 1.
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
(rad/s) The phase margin, measured in degrees, is: P

Gain and phase margins using Bode diagra

The Bode plots is a convenient way to me
measured on a Bode plot. Remember gain an
Some comments on gain and phase margi

• The higher the phase margin the more stab

• Positive gain and phase margins mean the
• Negative gain and phase margins mean the
• Adequate phase and gain margins ensure s
• Sometimes the margins cannot be calcula
crossover frequency at 180º.
• First and second order systems always hav
• If the gain margin is too small, the real syste
instability. Increasing the gain margin too mu
compromising the speed of the response. Fo
conservative design.
• Phase margin is more important than the g
and large overshoot as well as large oscillatio
• The open-loop phase margin is also related
can be used to find the maximum peak.

References:
Automatic Control Systems, T

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Se

Automatic Control Syste

Schaum’s Outline of Feed

TABILITY

ity indicates how much the gain of the system can be increased and how its phase can be lagged before it become

y, limit of stability occurs when 1 + G(jω) = 0, or G(jω) = -1. The transfer function, taken as a complex value
s G(jω) = -1 + 0j. In this case, we have a magnitude of |G(jω)| = 1 and the argument ∠G(ıω) = −180º.

ns measure how far the complex quantity G(jω) passes from the point (-1, 0).

gin is the amount of additional gain allowed in the forward path of the unity-feedback system before it become
sider the proportional feedback control shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Proportional Feedback.

gin GM is defined as the factor by which the gain of the open-loop transfer function can be multiplied before reachin
at is KG(jωp) = −1 and the phase ∠G(jωp) = −180° at phase-crossover frequency ωp. In terms of magnitude, th
be set so that |KG(jωp)| = 1, which leads to K = 1/|G(jωp)|.

gin GM expressed in dB is: Gm = -20log|G(jωp)|

n
argin PM is the phase shift needed to make the closed-loop system unstable. It is defined as the difference betwee
ath of the unity-feedback phase and -180º at gain-crossover frequency ωg, the frequency where the module of th
nitary. Hence, |G(jωg)| = 1.

argin, measured in degrees, is: PM = 180º + ∠G(jωg).

ase margins using Bode diagrams

ots is a convenient way to measure stability margins. Figure 2 illustrates how the gain and phase margins ar
a Bode plot. Remember gain and phase margin calculations use the Bode plots of open-loop transfer functions.
 Figure 2: Gain and phase margins.

ents on gain and phase margins

he phase margin the more stable the system.

n and phase margins mean the closed-loop system is stable.
in and phase margins mean the closed-loop system is unstable.
hase and gain margins ensure stability against modelling uncertainties and variations in system components.
the margins cannot be calculated when there is no phase-crossover frequency at 0-dB or when there is no gain
quency at 180º.
cond order systems always have infinite gain margin.
margin is too small, the real system might be unstable since some parameters may change and, consequently, lead t
reasing the gain margin too much makes the system slower. Thus, the gain margin must be large enough withou
the speed of the response. For example, a gain margin should be greater than 3dB, and 15-dB corresponds to
design.
gin is more important than the gain margin. If it is too small, instability might again occur due to model uncertainties
rshoot as well as large oscillations are expected. A phase margin of 50° is a good margin.
op phase margin is also related to the closed-loop system damping factor using the approximation ξ = PM/100, whic
o find the maximum peak.

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-9, Relative Stability: Gain Margin and Phase Margin

atic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-11, Relative Stability Related to the Slope of the Magnitude Curve of the Bode Plot

Automatic Control Systems, Tenth Edition, Section 10-10, Stability Analysis With The Bode Plot

Schaum’s Outline of Feedback and Control Systems, Second Edition, Section 15.7, Relative Stability
ed before it becomes

as a complex valued
−180º.

m before it becomes

plied before reaching

ms of magnitude, the

e difference between
ere the module of the

d phase margins are

nsfer functions.
components.
hen there is no gain-

consequently, lead to
arge enough without
-dB corresponds to a

model uncertainties,

on ξ = PM/100, which

of the Bode Plot