DATA COMMUNICATION

Lecture 1
Network review

BOOK: DATA COMBehrouz A. Forouzan

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MUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING
 Contents
• Introduction

• Data and Signals

• Transmission media

• Digital Transmission

• Analog Transmission

• Multiplexing

• Error Detection Co

• Error Correction

• Data Link Control

• Circuit switch and packet switch 2

Basic Communications Model
Data Communications: are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable or wireless.

Example
Communication between a workstation and a server

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 the effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

• Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

• Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

• Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late
are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data
as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
• Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are
sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with
4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
A data communications system has five
components

• Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated

• Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message
• Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message
• Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
waves.
• Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link
can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices

• Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time.

• Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

 Network
A network:
is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay

Reliability: network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure.

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.
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 TYPE OF CONNECTIONS

A network is two or more devices connected through links. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point Conection: provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.

Multipoint connection: is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In
a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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Network Types
 Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

 Circuit Switched

 Packet Switched

 Frame Relay

 Wireless Networks

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 Networking Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device.

These devices are broken up into two classifications.

• end-user devices
• network devices

End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that
provide services directly to the user.

Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together
to allow them to communicate.

Each individual NIC carries a unique code, called a Media Access Control (MAC)
address.
 The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description

7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.

Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application layer
6 - Presentation
services.

5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.

Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
4 - Transport
communications.

3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.

2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

1 - Physical Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model
Description
Layer

Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.

Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.

Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.
Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process where protocols add
Protocol Data Units their information to the data.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for PDUs,
in this course, the PDUs are named according to
the protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
Complex concepts such as how a network
operates can be difficult to explain and
understand. For this reason, a layered
model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model
Ethernet Frames
Ethernet Encapsulation
• Ethernet operates in the
data link layer and the
physical layer.
• It is a family of networking
technologies defined in the
IEEE 802.2 and 802.3
standards.
Ethernet Frames
Data Link Sublayers
The 802 LAN/MAN standards, including Ethernet,
use two separate sublayers of the data link layer to
operate:
• LLC Sublayer: (IEEE 802.2) Places information in the
frame to identify which network layer protocol is used
for the frame.
• MAC Sublayer: (IEEE 802.3, 802.11, or 802.15)
Responsible for data encapsulation and media access
control, and provides data link layer addressing.
Ethernet Frames
MAC Sublayer
The MAC sublayer is responsible for data encapsulation and accessing the media.

Data Encapsulation
IEEE 802.3 data encapsulation includes the following:
1. Ethernet frame - This is the internal structure of the Ethernet frame.
2. Ethernet Addressing - The Ethernet frame includes both a source and destination MAC address to deliver
the Ethernet frame from Ethernet NIC to Ethernet NIC on the same LAN.
3. Ethernet Error detection - The Ethernet frame includes a frame check sequence (FCS) trailer used for error
detection.
Ethernet Frames
MAC Sublayer
Media Access
• The IEEE 802.3 MAC sublayer includes the
specifications for different Ethernet
communications standards over various types of
media including copper and fiber.
• Legacy Ethernet using a bus topology or hubs, is a
shared, half-duplex medium. Ethernet over a half-
duplex medium uses a contention-based access
method, carrier sense multiple access/collision
detection (CSMA/CD).
• Ethernet LANs of today use switches that operate
in full-duplex. Full-duplex communications with
Ethernet switches do not require access control
through CSMA/CD.
Ethernet Frames
Ethernet Frame Fields
• The minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes and the maximum is 1518 bytes. The preamble field
is not included when describing the size of the frame.
• Any frame less than 64 bytes in length is considered a “collision fragment” or “runt frame” and is
automatically discarded. Frames with more than 1500 bytes of data are considered “jumbo” or
“baby giant frames”.
• If the size of a transmitted frame is less than the minimum, or greater than the maximum, the
receiving device drops the frame. Dropped frames are likely to be the result of collisions or other
unwanted signals. They are considered invalid. Jumbo frames are usually supported by most Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet switches and NICs.
 the Transport Layer
The transport layer is:
• responsible for logical
communications between
applications running on different
hosts.
• The link between the application
layer and the lower layers that
are responsible for network
transmission.
Transportation of Data
Transport Layer Responsibilities
The transport layer has the following
responsibilities:
• Tracking individual conversations
• Segmenting data and reassembling
segments
• Adds header information
• Identify, separate, and manage multiple
conversations
• Uses segmentation and multiplexing to
enable different communication
conversations to be interleaved on the
same network
Transportation of Data
Transport Layer Protocols
• IP does not specify how the
delivery or transportation of the
packets takes place.
• Transport layer protocols specify
how to transfer messages between
hosts, and are responsible for
managing reliability requirements
of a conversation.
• The transport layer includes the
TCP and UDP protocols.
Transportation of Data
Transmission Control Protocol
TCP provides reliability and flow control.
TCP basic operations:
• Number and track data segments
transmitted to a specific host from a
specific application
• Acknowledge received data
• Retransmit any unacknowledged data
after a certain amount of time
• Sequence data that might arrive in
wrong order
• Send data at an efficient rate that is
acceptable by the receiver
Transportation of Data
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP provides the basic functions for
delivering datagrams between the
appropriate applications, with very
little overhead and data checking.
• UDP is a connectionless protocol.
• UDP is known as a best-effort
delivery protocol because there is
no acknowledgment that the
data is received at the
destination.
TCP Overview
TCP Features
• Establishes a Session - TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that negotiates and
establishes a permanent connection (or session) between source and destination devices
prior to forwarding any traffic.
• Ensures Reliable Delivery - For many reasons, it is possible for a segment to become
corrupted or lost completely, as it is transmitted over the network. TCP ensures that each
segment that is sent by the source arrives at the destination.
• Provides Same-Order Delivery - Because networks may provide multiple routes that can
have different transmission rates, data can arrive in the wrong order.
• Supports Flow Control - Network hosts have limited resources (i.e., memory and processing
power). When TCP is aware that these resources are overtaxed, it can request that the
sending application reduce the rate of data flow.
TCP Overview
TCP Header
TCP is a stateful protocol which
means it keeps track of the state of
the communication session.

TCP records which information it has

sent, and which information has been
acknowledged.
TCP Overview
TCP Header Fields
TCP Header Field Description
Source Port A 16-bit field used to identify the source application by port number.
Destination Port A 16-bit field used to identify the destination application by port number.
Sequence Number A 32-bit field used for data reassembly purposes.
A 32-bit field used to indicate that data has been received and the next byte expected from the
Acknowledgment Number
source.

Header Length A 4-bit field known as ʺdata offsetʺ that indicates the length of the TCP segment header.

Reserved A 6-bit field that is reserved for future use.

A 6-bit field used that includes bit codes, or flags, which indicate the purpose and function of the
Control bits
TCP segment.
Window size A 16-bit field used to indicate the number of bytes that can be accepted at one time.
Checksum A 16-bit field used for error checking of the segment header and data.
Urgent A 16-bit field used to indicate if the contained data is urgent.
 TCP Overview
Applications that use TCP
TCP handles all tasks associated with
dividing the data stream into segments,
providing reliability, controlling data flow,
and reordering segments.
UDP Overview
UDP Features
UDP features include the following:
• Data is reconstructed in the order that it is received.
• Any segments that are lost are not resent.
• There is no session establishment.
• The sending is not informed about resource availability.
UDP Overview
UDP Header
The UDP header is far simpler than the TCP header because it only has four fields
and requires 8 bytes (i.e. 64 bits).
UDP Overview
UDP Header Fields
The table identifies and describes the four fields in a UDP header.

UDP Header
Description
Field
Source Port A 16-bit field used to identify the source application by port number.
A 16-bit field used to identify the destination application by port
Destination Port
number.
Length A 16-bit field that indicates the length of the UDP datagram header.
A 16-bit field used for error checking of the datagram header and
Checksum
data.