Biology notes

UNIT 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Every living organism have certain traits that it needs to be demonstrating in order for it to
classify as “living”. There are 7 characteristics that we need to go through. If even a single
one of these characteristics are not present in an organism, then it not alive.

1. Movement – An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change

of position or place
2. Respiration – The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules
and release energy for metabolism
3. Sensitivity – The ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external
environment and to make appropriate responses
4. Growth – Permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number
or cell size or both
5. Reproduction – The processes that make more of the same kind of organism
6. Excretion – Removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions in cells including respiration), toxic materials, and substances
in excess of requirements
7. Nutrition -Taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds
and ions and usually need water

Concept and use of classification system

Organisms can be classified into groups by features that they share. Classification systems
aim to therefore classify groups of organisms in a systemic way, in order to reflect their
evolutionary relationships.

Before the advance of technology and science, classification was traditionally based on
morphology and anatomy. Basically this means that if certain organisms “looked” similar
and shared similar features, then they would be classified under the same umbrella. But it
is important to understand that now, we can more accurately classify organisms by
analyzing their DNA (rather than look at appearance alone). Organisms which share similar
DNA base sequences and protein amino acid sequences are more likely to be closely
related.

Every organism has a scientific name. The binomial system is an internationally agreed
system in which the scientific name of an organisms is made up of two parts (Genus &
Species). The Genus is a generic term used in the classification of living organisms or
binomial nomenclature and species is a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce
fertile offspring.

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For example: Homo sapiens

It is important to understand here that Homo represents the genus and is always starts in
capital letters. Sapiens is the species and is all lower case and in italics.

Features of organisms

All organisms are made of cells. Although the cellular structure may be different depending
on the type of organism, there are certain things that are universally shared across every
single organism:

 Cytoplasm
 Cell membrane
 DNA
 Ribosomes
 Enzymes

Now, we can actually organize every single organism into 5 main categories called
“kingdoms”. Here are the 5 kingdoms that you need to know:

 Animal (i.e. Lion)

 Plant (i.e. Tree)
 Fungus (i.e. Yeast)
 Prokaryote (i.e. Bacteria)
 Protoctist (i.e. Marimo)

You need to know the features of these 5 kingdoms so that for a given example of an
organism, you can determine the kingdom it belongs in. Here is a simple table to help you.

Now that we understand the features of the 5 kingdoms, we can actually branch further.
The syllabus wants you to understand how to classify different “types” of animals and

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plants. In the animal kingdom, animals they can further be classed as vertebrates (with
backbone) or invertebrates (no backbone).

In the plant kingdom, plants can be classed into either flowering plants or ferns. The table
below (Oxford Revision Guide 2018) demonstrates the further classification of both the
animal and the plant kingdom.

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Dichotomous keys

A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the
natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish. Keys consist of
a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item.

For example, use the key to answer the question

1. Wings present ……………………………………… Go to 2

Wings absent ……………………………………….. Go to 3
2. One pair of wings visible ………………………………. A
Two pairs of wings visible …………………………….. B
3. Three pairs of legs …………………………………………. C
Two pairs of legs …………………………………………… D

Since this insect has wins, and has two pairs visible, the answer is B!

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 UNIT 2
ORGANISATION OF AN ORGANISM
Cell structure and organisation

First of all, all organisms are mode of cells. They are like the lego blocks of life. The syllabus
wants you to know how to draw a basic animal and plant cell, label its structures, and also
explain the functions of each of the structures too.

At a very basic level, please refer to the diagram was below. The plant cell has everything
that an animal cell has, plus some added structures which are are in green text. The
functions of each of these structures will be discussed further down the page.

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So all cells have a cell membrane which is what allows or disallows certain things entering
and exiting the cell. The nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) and the cytoplasm is a
jelly-like substance in which everything else in the cell is suspended in. The mitochondrion
is the “power house’ of the cell and the reason for this name is due to the fact that
respiration occurs here. Plants have some extra structures such as cell walls (to support the
cell) and chloroplasts for photosynthesis. You will learn more about these in future topics.
Plants also have a permanent vacuole, whereas animal cells have small temporary ones.

Whilst the above diagram but be sufficient for the core syllabus, the extended course wants
you to know two extra structures:

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

 Ribosomes

The RER is basically a set of tubular membranes near the nucleus which have ribosomes
studded onto it, and the ribosomes are then used for protein synthesis.

These ribosomes can ether be found on the RER (as mentioned before) but it can be found
free in the cytoplasm as well. If you are comfortable with the first diagram, take a look at
this one!

Structure & function summary

 Cellmembrane – Selective control of what goes in and out of the cell

 Nucleus – Carries genetic material (DNA)
 Cytoplasm – Jelly like substance in which chemical reactions take place
 Vacuole – The vacuole has many functions

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  Stores/isolates harmful material
 Stores small nutrients
 Maintains water balance
 Structural support for plant cells via turgor pressure
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum – Studded with ribosomes
 Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis
 Mitochondria – Site of aerobic respiration (cells with high metabolism rates will need
lots of these to offer sufficient energy)
 Cell wall – Structural support for plant cells
 Chloroplast – Site of photosynthesis in plant cells

Levels of organisation

There are levels of organisation that you need to be aware of. As we discussed before, the
smallest unit of a living thing is a cell. So that’s a good place to start. A group of cells are
called tissues, a group of tissues are called organs, and a group of organs are then called
organ systems. Take a look here:

 Cell– The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

 Tissue – Group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared
function
 Organ – Structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform
specific functions
 Organ system – Group of organs with related functions, working together to perform
body functions

Now some cells have structures that help them with their particular function. There are a
couple of these examples that CIE wants you to know:

 Ciliatedcells
 Root hair cells
 Xylem vessels
 Palisade cells
 Nerve cells
 Red blood cells
 Sperm and egg cells

Each of the things above will naturally be covered in more detail in other topics in the
syllabus and therefore will not be covered here.

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Size of specimens

In the lab, a lot of biology is done under a microscope. For example, we can’t exam the cells
of a human tissue with our naked eyes right? Therefore the purpose of the microscope is to
magnify ourspecimen so that it appears bigger for us to be able to actually see.

Naturally, the CIE syllabus wants you to be able to perform basic equations regarding
magnification, the image size (of the specimen) and the actual size (of specimen). Please
memorize the following equation:

In an exam, they will always give you 2 out of the 3 factors in the equation and tell you to
find the missing one. Just apply the formula above and it will be a walk in the park!

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 UNIT 3
MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS
Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their
random movement.

The constant random movement of particles (and their kinetic energy) allows diffusion to
occur. Ultimately this means that particles will spread out.

It is also important to understand that diffusion is quite often how molecules move in and
out of our cells through the cell membrane.

For example, the diagram below demonstrate a cell surrounded by nutrients (red dots). We
can see that on the left, there are a lot more nutrients outside the cell than inside the cell.
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By diffusion, the nutrients will diffuse into the cell (from higher to lower concentration)
until the number of nutrients inside and outside the cell are balanced.

There are certain factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

 Surface area
 The larger the surface area, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is
because more molecules at a given time will be diffusing.
 Temperature
 The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is
because molecules are faster and have more kinetic energy with higher
temperatures.
 Concentration gradients
 The higher the concentration gradient, the higher the rate of diffusion.
 Distance
 The shorter the distance, the higher the rate of diffusion. This is quite
self-explanatory. The shorter the distance the particles have to move, the
quicker the process is going to be.

Osmosis

Concept of osmosis

Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential
(dilute solution) to a region of low water potential (concentrated solution) through a
partially permeable membrane.

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Think of osmosis as the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane. When
we are talking about water, we cannot use the term ‘concentration’ anymore because a
concentration denotes the amount of substance dissolved in water.

Because water cannot be dissolved in water, we need to use another term instead: Water
potential.

 For a very dilute solution, because it has a lot of water, it has a high water potential.
 For a very concentrated solution, because it has less water, it has a low water
potential.

So lets apply this concept to osmosis. Refer to this diagram:

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The left hand side of the beaker has less solutes dissolved so therefore the solution is more
dilute (or less concentrated) compared to the right hand side.

Under normal circumstances, the sugar themselves will diffuse across from RHS to the LHS
via diffusion (as we talked about earlier). However, the sugar molecules are too large to
pass through the partially permeable membrane, and therefore cannot diffuse.

Water molecules however can pass by freely through the membrane. The molecules will
travel from the region of high water potential to low water potential so therefore in this
case, water will move from the RHS to the LHS via osmosis.

Osmosis in plant & animal cells

Cell membranes are partially permeable so cells absorb or remove water via osmosis.

Consider these scenarios:

1. Adding cell into pure water / dilute solution

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 There will be higher water potential outside the cell than inside the cell

and therefore water will move in to the cell
 As water enters the cells they become ‘turgid’
 An animal cell can burst if too much water enters
 A plant cell has support from its cell wall and therefore will
most likely maintain its turgidity without bursting
2. Adding cell into concentrated solution
 There will be higher water potential inside the cell than the outside and
therefore water will move out of the cell
 As the water moves out, cells become ‘flaccid’
 An animal cell can become crenated if too much water is lost
 A plant cell can become plasmolysed if too much water is lost.
This is when the cytoplasm shrinks due to the loss of water but
the cell wall fails to shrink due to its tough structure. The
cytoplasm eventually tears away from the cell wall.

Active transport

Active transport is the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration.

Active transport is used in cases where diffusion or osmosis cannot be relied upon. For
example, what if a cell wanted to absorb extra nutrients from outside the cell despite
having a higher concentration of those nutrients inside the cell? Diffusion wouldn’t work
because the concentration gradient is going the opposite way. These situations are
encountered frequently in:

 Plant root hairs

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  Villi epithelial cells

Active transport uses energy to oppose the concentration gradient and forcefully transport
molecules against it. Here is a simple diagram to help you visualize how it all works:

In the cell membranes of all cells, there are certain embedded protein molecules that carry
out this process. The protein basically ‘captures’ the molecules from one side of the cell,
and it changes shape in a way to transport the captured molecules to the other side of the
cell. Energy (from respiration) is required to alter the protein shape (referred as ATP in the
diagram).

UNIT 4
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Biological molecules

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made of carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen. They are used as a source of
energy for the body. There are three types of carbohydrates: Monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

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  Monosaccharides (i.e. glucose) are the most simplest form of sugars. They are a
single unit and they cannot be broken down any further to make a more simpler
sugar.
 Disacchardies are literally two monosaccharides joined together.
 Polysaccharides are large chains of monosaccharides joined together
 Starch is a polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose
 Glycogen is another polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose
 Cellulose is a polysaccharide made of large chains of glucose

Fats/oils

Fats are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oxygen content is lower than in
carbohydrates. Fats have various purposes in the body:

 Source of energy. In fact, they have two times higher energy content than
carbohydrates!
 Heat insulation
 Myelin sheath formation
 Cell membrane formation

Fats are made up of three fatty acid units attached to a single unit of glycerol:

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Proteins

Proteins are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur or
phosphorus. They are extremely important to the body and serve many different functions.
here are a few:

 Growth
 Tissuerepair
 Cell membrane formation
 Source of energy

Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids chemically bonded to each other. There are
about 20 different amino acids that are found in the human body. Different combinations of
these amino acids will give rise to different proteins.

For example, each of the different colored circles represent a different amino acid. They are
joined in a specific sequence as shown below:

It is really important to understand here that the final 3D structure of a protein is derived
from the specific interactions between amino acids that are joined in the protein chain.

The sequence of amino acids in the chain therefore creates the final shape of the protein,
and the shape is what gives the protein its function.
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This diagram below represents how a single chain of amino acids eventually turn into a
complex 3D protein structure with a specific function.

For example: Consider amino acids A B C D and E. The hyphens represent a chemical bond
between the amino acids.

Protein 1: A-B-C-D-E
Protein 2: A-C-B-D-E

In the example above, protein 1 has amino acids A through to E joined in order. Protein 2
on the other hand, has a slightly different amino acid sequence. Just from this slight
difference in amino acid order, protein 2 will be completely different from protein 1 in
terms of its function and structure. This is super important for you to understand.

Food testing

We can test for starch, monosaccharides, proteins, and fats in a given sample via the
following tests:

 Starch test [Starch test]

 Add a few drops of iodine solution

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  Blue/black coloration means starch is present

 Benedict’s test [Monosaccharide test]

 Add equal amount of benedicts solution into a solution of food and boil
gently
 A colour change (from blue) signifies presence and quantity of
monosacchrides

 Biuret test [Protein test]

 Add an equal amount of sodium hydroxide to a solution of food and mix
 Add a few drops of 1% copper sulphate
 A violet colour signifies the presence of protein

 Emulsion test [Fat test]

 Dissolve food in ethanol and pour the solution into a clean tube of water
 White emulsion signifies the presence of fat

DNA structure

As you may already know, genetic information is stored inside our DNA. Whilst you do not
need to go into full depth with this, CIE wants you to understand the generic structure of a
DNA molecule:

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So first of all, a DNA has a double helix structure whereby two strands are coiled together.
Each strands have chemicals called bases. The double helix is held together via pairs of
bases that are attracted to each other from one strand to the other.

Bases will always pair up in the same way. Adenine (A) will always pair with Thymine (T).
Cytosine (C) will always pair with Guanine (G). The diagram above demonstrates this pairing
(i.e. green is always bonded to purple and pink is always bonded to blue).

Water

CIE wants you to understand the importance of water. Indeed, water is essential to the
human body for many things. One of these things being the fact that water is an important
solvent. This means that nutrients and wastes can be dissolved in water so that it can be
transported around the body. Moreover, majority of our chemical reactions inside our
bodies are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes cannot work unless it is in solution (i.e. in the
presence of water).

UNIT 5
ENZYMES
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction and is not changed by
the reaction itself.

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An enzyme is a biological catalyst that catalyzes many important reactions inside an
organism (such as respiration) and therefore necessary to sustain life.

How enzymes work is more easily shown through a diagram. Take a look below:

Firstly, a substrate is a substance that an enzyme acts on. It is important to understand that
enzymes are very specific, and the reason for their specificity lies in their active sites – a
region of an enzyme that binds to a particular substrate. The shape of the active site of an
enzyme is complementary to only one specific substrate.

As demonstrated in the diagram, the green substrate has a shape that pairs impeccably
with the shape enzyme’s active site. As the enzyme binds with the substrate, an enzyme-
substrate complex is formed. The reaction then occurs on the enzyme and the enzyme-
product complex is formed. The products eventually leave the enzyme.

Enzyme activity VS Temperature & pH

There are certain factors that can impact enzyme activity. The two of which CIE wants you
to know is temperature and pH. But before getting into the details, you need to know that
all enzymes have an optimum temperature and an optimum pH. These are certain
temperatures or pH in which a particular enzyme work best in, and it can vary between
different enzymes.

For any given enzyme, if the conditions stray too far from the optimum, then denaturation
can occur. This is when extreme non-ideal conditions (i.e. high temperatures or very
low/high pH) causes chemical bonds in the enzymes to break apart. This results in the
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change in shape of the enzyme’s active site. Remember, the active site has a very special
shape and it fits only one specific type (and shape) of substrate. An alteration in active site
will therefore cause the enzyme to lose function.

Temperature and enzyme activity

Low temperatures reduce the rate of chemical reactions in general. This is because
molecules need to collide with one another and have enough energy for a reaction to
occur. In low temperatures, molecules are traveling at lower speeds (less energy) and
therefore the rate of successful collisions are lower. Moreover, even when collisions do
occur, the molecules may have insufficient kinetic energies to begin with, and therefore the
reaction may not occur. Enzyme activity is therefore low in low temperatures. It is
important to note however, that low temperatures do not denature enzymes.

Higher temperatures generally increase the rate of chemical reactions. Molecules are faster
and have more kinetic energy. This means that rate of successful molecular collisions are
higher,and most molecules will have sufficient energy required for the reaction. However,
temperatures that are far beyond the optimum temperature of the enzymes can start to
denature it, and reduce enzyme activity as a result. Most enzymes have an optimum
temperature of approximately 37 degrees in the human body, and start getting denatured
at above 50 degrees.

pH and enzyme activity

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The optimum pH of an enzyme can vary. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the stomach’s acidic
conditions and therefore made to work best in a pH of approximately 2. Amylase on the
other hand, is found in saliva (more neutral conditions) and therefore has an optimum pH
of 7. Very high or very low pH’s can denature these enzymes if it deviates too much from
their optimum.

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 UNIT 6
PLANT NUTRITION
Photosynthesis

Background

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw

materials using energy from light:

Chlorophyll is where photosynthesis happens. It transfers light energy into chemical energy
for the synthesis of carbohydrates (i.e. glucose).

The glucose is then either converted to sucrose for transport around the plant or starch for
storage.

Glucose is too reactive to be transported around the plant on its own. There it has to to be
converted to sucrose first.

It is the same story with storage. Glucose cannot be stored due to its reactivity, so
therefore it must be converted to starch first.

Limiting factor

The term limiting factor is something present in the environment in such a short supply that
it restricts life processes.

For instance, if there was a shortage of carbon dioxide but all other raw materials were in
abundance, then carbon dioxide would be the limiting factor for photosynthesis. If there
was a shortage of chlorophyll, then that would become the limiting factor instead.

Investigations

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Necessity of chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide

The equation for photosynthesis shows that chlorophyll, light, and carbon dioxide (and
water) are required, otherwise it won’t work… But can we prove it? We sure can.

In a nutshell, what we need to do is get a functioning plant and deprive it of each of these
factors individually and prove that the plant stops photosynthesizing when these factors
are absent.

The way to do that is pretty simple. First of all we are going to de-starch all our plants by
leaving the plants in the dark for 48 hours. During this period the plants will be unable to
photosynthesize and therefore use up all its starch for respiration. This means that in the
beginning of our experiments, all plants (test and control) will have absolutely no starch in
them.

This means that after the experiment, if we do a starch test (iodine test) and we find starch
is present, it would indicate that photosynthesis had occurred.

It is to note however that we can’t just add iodine onto a fresh leaf and expect results. First
of all, we need to break the leaf so that iodine can seep in to begin with. Moreover, we
need to remove the chlorophyll to decolourize the leaf so that the colour change from
iodine is easier to see. So here are the steps we need to take:

 Boil the leaf in water

 Kills the leaf to make it permeable
 Boil the leaf in ethanol
 Chlorophyll dissolves and the leaf decolours
 Rinse the leaf in water
 Spread the leaf out on a white tile
 Add iodine solution

To investigate the effect of light on photosynthesis, we need to partially cover the leaves of
the plant and leave it under sunlight. The covered areas will be deprived of light whereas
the rest will be exposed. A starch test is then carried out after a few hours. The results
should show that the covered areas have a negative starch test (i.e. no photosynthesis)
whereas the exposed areas have a positive starch test.

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To investigate the effect of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis, we place a test plant in a
container with a carbon dioxide absorber (i.e. sodium hydroxide) and a control plant
without the absorber. The absorber will remove the carbon dioxide.

A starch test is then carried out after several hours. The results should show that the test
plant has a negative result whereas the control plant has a positive one.

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To investigate the effect of chlorophyll on photosynthesis, we need to use a plant with
variegated leaves. This means some parts of the leaf have chlorophyll whereas other parts
do not (and are whiter thus).

After several hours, a starch test is carried out. The results should show that parts of the
leaf without chlorophyll will show negative results whereas the parts that do have
chlorophyll will show a positive result.

Effect of light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature on rate of

photosynthesis

You need to be aware of a couple of different graphs. They are quite simple so don’t worry.

 Graph1: Rate of photosynthesis increases with light intensity until it plateaus. The
graph plateaus because something else becomes the limiting factor (i.e. carbon
dioxide). This means that even with a stronger light intensity, there may not be
enough carbon dioxide to make the rate of photosynthesis even faster.

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  Graph 2: Rate of photosynthesis increases with increasing carbon dioxide
concentration. Again, at a certain point the graph will plateau. In this case, the light
may become the limiting factor.
 Graph 3: The rate of photosynthesis increases with temperature until the graph
reverses and eventually drops down to zero. This is because high temperatures will
denature enzymes that are required for photosynthesis.

Leaf structure

You need to know the structure of a leaf, and how this structure is adapted for
photosynthesis.

We will go through the functions of each of the structures in the diagram above:

 Cuticle– Made of wax which waterproofs the leaf

 Upper epidermis – A barrier against disease organism. The cells are thin and
transparent to allow light to enter the leaf.
 Palisade mesophyll – Main site of photosynthesis. Cells are long and packed with
chloroplasts to trap light energy. They receive carbon dioxide via diffusion from air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll
 Spongy mesophyll – Cells are spherical and loosely packed. They contain chloroplasts
but not as many as the palisade layer. Loose packing creates air spaces and this
allows gas exchange (i.e. carbon dioxide to the cells, and oxygen from the cells)

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  Vascular bundle – Contains xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels bring water and
minerals to the leaf. Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino acids away from
the leaf to the rest of the plant (translocation)
 Lower epidermis – Acts as a protective layer. It contains the stomata
 Stomata – These are gaps in the underside of the leaf, surrounding by a pair of guard
cells. The guard cells control whether the stoma is open or closed. It is through
stomata that carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and oxygen diffuses out. Water
vapour is also lost through this structure in transpiration.

Mineral requirements

There are two important mineral requirements for plants that you need to be aware of.

Firstly, nitrate ions are important for plants as they are used in building amino acids (which
eventually become proteins). A nitrate ion deficiency would slow down the growth of the
plant, the stem would weaken. Lower leaves will turn yellow-ish and the upper leaves will
become pale green as they die off.

Secondly, magnesium ions are required to make chlorophyll. If a plant has a magnesium ion
deficiency then they will lack chlorophyll. Leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem
upwards and plant growth will slow down due to reduced photosynthesis.

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 UNIT 7
HUMAN NUTRITION
Diet

Balanced diet

A balanced human diet contains all essential ingredients in the correct proportions

There are certain factors that affect diet such as:

 Age – Children require more protein per kg of body weight than adults
 Gender – Males generally use more energy than females
 Activity – Higher levels of physical activity will increase demand for nutrients
 Pregnancy – Higher demands for nutrients in order to supply fetus with energy for
development
 Breast feeding mother – Higher requirements for vitamin and water

Malnutrition

Malnutrition is the lack of a balanced diet such as deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a

person’s intake of nutrients.

Malnutrition can lead to consequences such as:

 Obesity (excessive nutrients)

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  Starvation (insufficient nutrients)
 Coronary heart disease (excessive saturated fat and cholesterol)
 Kwashiorkor (too much carbohydrates, too little protein)
 Constipation (lack of fibre)

Essential nutrients

Alimentary canal

Useful definitions

 Ingestion – Taking in of substances e.g. food and drink into the body through the
mouth

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  Egestion – Passing out of food (as feces) that has not been digested or absorbed via
the anus
 Mechanical digestion – Break down of food into smaller pieces without chemical
change to food molecules
 Chemical digestion – Break down of large insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules
 Absorption – Movement of chemically digested food molecules through the small
intestine walls into the blood
 Assimilation – Movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used and become a part of the cells

Structure and function

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Mouth

This is the location of ingestion. Mechanical digestion of food occurs as we chew on it with
our teeth. Chemical digestion occurs due to amylase enzymes in our saliva which break
down starch into maltose.

Esophagus

Round clumps of food (boluses) are passed down the esophagus via peristalsis from the
mouth to the stomach.

Peristalsis is the contraction and relaxation of the esophagus wall muscles which creates a
wave-like motion that pushes the food down the canal.
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Stomach

Mechanical digestion occurs as the stomach walls squeeze the food to liquefy it.

Gastric juices contain pepsin (a protease) which chemically digests proteins. It also contains
hydrochloric acid which kill bacteria, but also maintains an optimum acidic pH for pepsin.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum.

The juice contains a large variety of different enzymes involved in the chemical digestion of
food.

 Proteases break down proteins

 Lipases break down lipids
 Amylases break down carbohydrates

Most enzymes in the pancreatic juice have an optimum pH of around 7. The pH of

pancreatic juice is slightly alkaline, and this is to neutralize the acidity of the food coming
from the stomach.

Duodenum

This is the first part of the small intestine. It receives pancreatic juice which contains
enzymes for the chemical digestion of food.

Ileum

This is the second part of the small intestine. The inner walls have finger-like extensions
called villi which massively increases the surface area for nutrient absorption.

Liver

The liver produces a substance called bile which is stored in the gal bladder.

Bile has the function of emulsifying fat into droplets to increase the surface area for lipases
to come and digest them.

Bile is also basic which assists in neutralizing the acidity of the food coming from the
stomach.
33
Colon

This is the second part of the large intestine. The main function of the colon is to reabsorb
water from undigested food and also bile salts to return back to the liver.

Rectum

The rectum stores feces until it is egested

Anus

Muscles control egestion of feces

Cholera infection

Cholera bacteria releases toxins which causes chloride ions to be secreted into the small
intestine. This causes the osmotic movement of water into the gut, and leads to diarrhea.

NOTE: Diarrhea is defined as the loss of watery feces

Diarrhea can be treated using oral rehydration therapy. It involves drinking water with
modest amounts of sugar and salts, specifically sodium and potassium.

Mechanical digestion

Types of human teeth

Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking food into smaller pieces, and our teeth
serve exactly that function!

There are four types of teeth:

Molar

 Located at back of mouth

 4 or 5 cusps
34
  2 or 3 roots
 Used for chewing and grinding food
 Used for chewing and grinding food

Pre-molar

 Behind canines
 2 cusps
 1 or 2 roots
 Used to tear and grind food

Canine

 On either side of incisors

 More pointy than incisors
 Used to bite pieces of food

Incisor

 In front of the mouth

 Chisel shaped
 Used to bite off food pieces

Structure of human teeth

35
Dental decay

 Dental decay is caused by bacteria which is present on the surface of our teeth.
 The bacteria and food deposits form a layer called plaque.
 Bacteria in plaque feed on sugars which produce acid that dissolves the enamel,
resulting in a hole.
 As the hole deepens it may eventually reach the nerves which result in pain i.e. tooth
ache.

Proper dental care

 Avoid sugary food so that bacteria cannot make acid

 Regular cleaning to remove plaque
 Use floss to remove trapped food
 Visit the dentist regularly for treating early decay and removal of thick plaque

36
Chemical digestion

Chemical digestion involves breaking down large, insoluble food into smaller soluble
nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the cells.

Chemical digestion is carried out by enzymes. A lot about chemical digestion has already
been covered above in regards to the alimentary canal, and what enzymes are found
where.

Summary of enzymes that you should be aware of:

Remember, the acidic pH of the stomach is maintained by hydrochloric acid which also kills
bacteria via denaturing their enzymes.

The alkaline conditions of the small intestine is maintained by pancreatic juice and bile. The
bile also has the function of emulsifying fats into droplets to increase the surface area for
digestion

Absorption

After large food molecules get digested by enzymes, the small soluble nutrients diffuse into
the small intestine walls and then into the blood.

37
Sometimes the concentration of nutrients i.e. glucose may be higher in the blood than in
the small intestine. In such cases diffusion cannot be relied upon. Instead, active
transport is used for absorption.

Absorption is defined as the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall
of the intestine into the blood. It can either be done through diffusion or active transport.

The inner walls of the small intestine have finger-like structures called villi which greatly
increases the surface area of absorption.

Structure of a villus

 Blood vessels/capillaries
 Absorbs glucose and amino acids by diffusion
 Lacteal
 Absorbs fatty acids and glycerol
 Epithelial lining
 One cell thick to increase diffusion rate
 Microvilli increase surface area even further

38
 UNIT 8
PLANT TRANSPORT
Xylem and phloem

Function

The transport system in plants is mainly made of the xylem and phloem tissue.

 Xylem tissue transports water, mineral ions, and solutes from the roots to the
leaves.
 Phloem tissue transports nutrients from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Structure

You need to be able to recognize the xylem & phloem in three different parts of the plant:
leaf, stem, and root

Leaf

Stem

39
Root

Water uptake in roots

Root structure

40
Water, mineral ions, and other nutrients are absorbed into the plants via the roots.

Root hair cells are cellular extensions which drastically increase the surface area for
absorption.

Waters moves from the soil into the xylem via osmosis.

Pathway of water through a plant

41
Movement in the root

Water in the soil is absorbed into the root hair cells via osmosis. It then makes it way
through the root cortex, across the endodermis, and into finally into the xylem.

Movement in the xylem

Water moves up the xylem due to a combination of factors that include: transpirational
pool, root pressure, and cohesion.

Transpirational pool is when water leaves the leaf via transpiration and therefore results
in negative pressure at the top of the plant.

Root pressure is when water is absorbed in the roots via osmosis resulting to positive
pressure at the bottom of the plant.

A column of water is drawn up the plant from low to high pressure. Water molecules ‘stick
together’ due to cohesion allowing the entire column of water to be drawn.

Water movement in the xylem is much like water movement in a straw. When you stuck on
the top end of the straw it reduces pressure compared to the bottom of the straw. A
column of liquid is therefore drawn from low to high pressure. The liquid column sticks
together due to cohesion.

Movement in the leaf

42
Water enters the leaf through the vascular bundle and can move directly into palisade or
spongy mesophyll cells to be used for photosynthesis.

Otherwise water evaportates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer, where they
diffuse out via the stomata. We call this transpiration.

Transpiration

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from leaves via the stomata.

Once water enters the leaf via the xylem vessels of the vascular bundle, it travels to the
mesophyll cells to be used in photosynthesis.

Some water remain on the surfaces of these mesophyll cells and evaporate into the air
spaces of the spongy mesophyll layer. Water vapour diffuses out of the leave via the
stomata.

Factors that affect transpiration rate are:

 Temperature
 Higher temperatures result in faster moving molecules and therefore
increases diffusion rate, which in turn, increases transpiration rate
 Humidity
 Higher humidity results in a lower concentration gradient and thus
reduces diffusion rate, which in turn, reduces transpiration rate

Translocation

Translocation is the movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem from the source
to the sink.

 Source is the region of production

 Sink is the region of storage OR where they are used in respiration or growth

Some parts of the plant may act as a source and sink at different times during the plant life.

 Leaves are the source most of the time but can become a sink in periods of growth
i.e. after autumn when plants growth their leaves again
43
 UNIT 9
ANIMAL TRANSPORT
Circulatory system

The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one
way flow of blood.

 Single
circulation means blood passes through the heart only once i.e. fish
 Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice i.e. mammals

Double circulation is advantageous because it maintains a higher blood pressure compared

to a single circulation system.

Blood flow around the body

All mammals (including humans) have a double circulatory system of blood flow.

44
 1. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium (RA)
2. Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle (RV)
3. Deoxygenated blood is pumped by the RV to the lungs to become oxygenated
4. Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium (LA)
5. Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle (LV)
6. Oxygenated blood is pumped by the LV to the rest of the body
7. Body cells use the oxygen and cause the blood to become deoxygenated
8. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart and the cycle repeats (step 1)

It is very important to understand these steps now so that it makes life easier when we dive
deeper into the heart structure later.

Heart structure and function

Structure of the heart

It is extremely important you familiarize yourself with the different structures of the heart
and the direction of blood flow through it

45
Vena cava → Right atrium → Atrioventricular valve → Right ventricle → Semilunar valve →
Pulmonary artery → Lungs →Pulmonary vein → Left atrium → Atrioventricular valve → Left
ventricle → Semi-lunar valve → Aorta → Body → Vena cava

Functions of the different structures

Atrium

The right and left atrium contracts to pump blood into the right and left ventricles
respectively

Ventricles

The right ventricle contracts to pump blood to the lungs (to become oxygenated).

The left ventricle contracts to pump blood to the rest of the body. It has a thicker wall than
the right ventricle because it needs to pump blood further, and therefore needs more
force.

Atrioventricular valves

The aterioventricular valves separate the atrium and ventricles on both sides of the heart.

These valves prevent the backflow of blood, thus ensuring a one way flow of blood from the
atria to the ventricles.

Semilunar valves

Semilunar valves are found within the pulmonary arteries and the aorta. They prevent the
backflow of blood and ensures unidirectional blood flow in the arteries.

Pulmonary artery

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

Pulmonary vein

The pulmonary vein carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium

46
Aorta

The aorta is a large artery which carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body

Vena cava

The vena cava is a large vein which carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the
heart (right atrium)

Septum

The septum is a thick muscular wall which separates the right and left side of the heart. This
separation is important to ensure that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix.

Activity of the heart

Physical activity increases heart rate

Heart rate is the rate at which the heart beats. The most common way to measure heart
rate is by measuring the pulse rate.

The pulse rate is exactly equal to the heart rate, as the contractions of the heart cause the
increases in blood pressure in the arteries that lead to a noticeable pulse.

Physical activity increases the energy demand in muscles such as the arms and legs. With an
increased rate of respiration, blood must be travel quicker to the muscles to supply them of
oxygen/nutrients whilst also removing waste products such as carbon dioxide. The heart
rate therefore increases to meet these demands.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

An electrocardiogram is a device which can track heart activity. It can accurately measure
pulse rates via the opening and closing of heart valves.

Details regarding the electrocardiogram is not required

47
Coronary heart disease

What is coronary heart disease

So far we know that the heart functions as a pump which delivers blood to the rest of the
body. However, the heart muscles themselves also need a blood supply because they too,
are respiring muscles.

The coronary artery is the very important artery which provides the heart muscles with
blood.

Coronary heart disease is when the coronary artery becomes blocked, leading to blood (and
oxygen) starvation in the heart muscles. This leads to a heart attack.

Causes

Blockage of the coronary artery begins by the narrowing of the artery due to cholesterol
build up on the inner walls.

Total blockage can occur when a blood clot gets ‘stuck’ in these narrow arteries.

48
Risk factors

There are certain factors that increase the risk of an individual developing coronary heart
disease:

 Poor diet
 Stress
 Smoking
 Genetics
 Age
 Gender

Treatment with medications

Blood thinning medications are used to reduce the chances of a blood clot forming

Blood vessels

Blood vessels are a tubular structures carrying blood through the tissues and organs.
Starting from the heart, the pathway of blood is as follows:

[HEART] → Artery → Arteriole → Capillary → Venule → Vein → [HEART]

49
You do not need to know all the details of this diagram. Just concentrate on the
arrangement of the vessels i.e. how the artery branches out into arterioles which branch
further into capillaries. Also notice how capillaries join to form venules which join further to
become the vein.

Arteries

Arteries take blood away from the heart. They have several important structural features:

 Thickmuscular walls to withstand blood being carried at high pressures

 Narrow lumen which expands as blood pulsates through to maintain blood pressure
 Valves absent since high blood pressures prevent back flow

Arterioles

Arterioles are smaller branches of an artery. They eventually branch further to form
capillaries.

 Arterioles have muscular/elastic walls that can constrict & dilate in order to regulate
blood flow.

Capillaries

50
Capillaries are fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and
venule.

They allow for the nutrient & waste exchange between the blood and the tissues of the
body. The features of capillaries are as follows:

 Walls are one cell thick to allow for quick diffusion of diffuse rates of
nutrients/wastes
 Luman has a diameter of just one RBC to allow blood cells to pass closely to the walls
for faster diffusion rates
 Valves are absent since the narrow capillary lumen ensures unidirectional blood flow

Venules

Venules are small vessels formed from the joining of the capillaries. Venules combine to
establish a vein.

Veins

Veins take the blood towards the heart. Their structural features are as follows:

 Thin walls with little muscle & elastic fibres (thick muscles not required since blood is
carried at low pressure)
 Large lumen to reduce blood flow resistance
 Valves present to prevent blood back flow

Shunt vessels

Shunt vessels are blood vessels that connect blood directly from the arterioles to the
venules. This allows for an alternative route for blood flow (i.e. blood bypasses the
capillaries).

Like arterioles, shunt vessels have walls that can construct & dilate in order to regulate
blood flow.

Tissue fluid

51
Tissue fluid is the fluid which bathes most body tissues.

The fluid is the mode of nutrient & waste exchange between the blood and respiring
tissues.

For example:

 Waste products (such as carbon dioxide) from cells diffuse into the tissue fluid first
before diffusing in the blood
 Nutrients (such as glucose) diffuse into the tissue fluid first before diffusing into the
cells

Tissue fluid is produced by leakage of certain substances from blood capillaries, and drained
out by the lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system.

Details of tissue fluid production and drainage are NOT required. Just understand that
blood capillaries LEAK tissue fluid and the tissue fluid is DRAINED by lymphatic vessels. The
tissue fluid inside lymph vessels are called LYMPH.

52
The lymphatic system is composed of lymphatic vessels which carry “lymph” and lymph
nodes which produce lymphocytes for immunity.

Blood

Blood is a mixture of several components such as:

 Red blood cells (RBCs)

 White blood cells (WBCs)
 Platelets
 Plasma

Plasma

Blood plasma makes up about 50% of the blood. It is a yellowish liquid that carries the
other blood components such as RBCs/WBCs/platelets.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which binds to oxygen for transportation around the
body.

White blood cells

White blood cells are part of the immune system that helps to destroy foreign organisms
such as bacteria.

There are two types of white blood cells that you need to be aware of:

 Phagocytesare types of WBCs which engulf and digest pathogens via phagocytosis
 Lymphocytes are WBCs which produce antibodies

More will be learnt about phagocytosis and antibodies in the next chapter

Platelets

Platelets are substances that form blood clots which is a protective mechanism to prevent
blood loss during an injury.

53
At the site of damage, platelets immediately stick together and release chemical signals
which attract other nearby cells and clump them together.

A series of of chemical reactions take place. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin and this
forms a thread which traps RBCs to establish a thick clot. The clot seals off the site of
damage.

UNIT 10
DISEASES AND IMMUNITY
Pathogen and disease

A pathogen is defined as a disease causing organism. Each pathogen has a uniquely shaped
‘marker’ on the surface of their membranes called antigens.

54
It is very important to understand that antigens are very specific in shape. Every pathogen
is unique because they have differently shaped antigens on their cell surfaces!

A transmissible disease is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to
another. The pathogen can be transmitted through direct contact (i.e. blood/body fluids) or
indirect contact (i.e. contaminated food/air/animals/etc.)

Body defenses

In order to protect ourselves from pathogens and disease, our body has several protective
mechanisms in place.

Mechanical barriers

Mechanical barriers act as a physical obstruction in order to prevent pathogens from

entering our body. For example:

 Skin
 Nose hairs

Chemical barriers

Chemical barriers are chemical substances in the body which help to trap or destroy
pathogens. For example:

 Mucus
Traps bacteria that enters the respiratory system via air. The mucus is
then beat upwards by the cilia and pushed up to the mouth.
 Stomach acid

55
  The acidity kills pathogens that enter our digestive system via the food
we eat.

Cellular barriers

Cellular barriers are the protection offered by the cells of our immune system, which take
part in combating against pathogens and disease. For example:

 Lymphocytes (which produce antibodies)

 Phagocytes

Antibodies and phagocytes will be covered in detail below

Cellular barriers

Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is the mechanism by which phagocytes digest pathogens.

The steps of phagocytosis is as follows:

 Phagocyte extends itself and engulfs the pathogen

 Pathogen becomes trapped in a vesicle called phagosome
 Other vesicles containing digestive enzymes fuse with the phagosome
 Enzymes digest the pathogen

Antibodies

Function
56
Antibodies are proteins produced by cells called lymphocytes.

They bind to the antigens on pathogens and can either:

 Destroy the pathogen directly

OR
 Alert phagocytes for destruction via phagocytosis

Remember, each pathogen has a uniquely shaped antigen on their cell surfaces. Therefore,
for a particular antibody to aid the destruction of a certain pathogen, the shape of the
antigen must be ‘fit’ or be ‘complementary’ to the shape of that particular antigen!

In the example below, only antibody A can ‘lock’ onto antigen A and therefore aid its
destruction. Antibody B cannot due to the fact that it does not have a complementary
shape to antigen A.

Production

Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes. Lymphocytes have receptors in their cell

membranes that have a complementary shape to a certain antigen.

57
Lets consider lymphocyte A which have receptors that have a complementary shape to
antigen A.

When a lymphocyte A comes across a pathogen with antigen A on its cell surface, their
receptors can recognize the antigen and activate lymphocyte A.

The activated lymphocyte A then produces antibodies that have the same shape as their
receptors, meaning that these antibodies can lock onto antigen A and destroy them.

Activated lymphocytes also produce memory cells, which are long-lived cells that remain in
the blood even after the infection is over. They have the ability to rapidly produce the
original antibodies if it were to come across the same pathogen/antigen again.

58
Vaccination

Vaccination is a treatment with a vaccine to evoke immunity to a certain antigen.

The vaccination process

The process of vaccination is as follows:

 A harmless variant on a certain antigen is introduced to the body i.e. via needle

59
  Immune response is triggered and activate lymphocytes produce antibodies and
memory cells to fight against the antigen variant
 Therefore if the real antigen/pathogen eventually makes its way inside the body,
there are pre-established antibodies/memory cells which can rapidly fight against
it.

Controlling the spread of disease

Herd immunity is the idea that if most people of a population is immune to a disease, then
the population becomes significantly resistant to the spread of that disease.

In other words, if majority of the population is immunized, it protects the people that are
not.

Other consideration for controlling the spread of disease is as follows:

 Personalhygiene
 Food hygiene
 Waste disposal
 Sewage treatment

Passive immunity

Passive immunity is a short-term defense again a pathogen by antibodies transferred from

one individual to another (rather than making their own).

For example, children benefit from the antibodies present in the mother’s breast milk.

Autoimmune disease

Some diseases are caused by the immune system targeting and destroying friendly body
cells.

Type 1 diabetes is an example of an autoimmune disease whereby immune cells attack

insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas.

60
 UNIT 11
GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS
Respiratory system

The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures
used for gas exchange.

61
Gas exchange (in humans) is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and
the elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs.

The air enters the nasal cavity and makes it’s way down the trachea and into the lungs. The
trachea branches into bronchi, which branches further into bronchioles.

The trachea is surrounded by cartilage which strengthens and supports the trachea.

The rib cage (not shown in the diagram) surrounds the lungs and its contents. It acts as a
protective barrier and plays a vital role in inhalation and exhalation.

At the end of the bronchioles we find alveoli which is the gas exchange surface of the
human respiratory system. The alveoli is the site at which oxygen is exchanged for carbon
dioxide.

62
The alveoli have an extremely large surface area for gas exchange, and are surrounded by
numerous capillaries to allow good ventilation with air.

Inhalation and exhalation

Inhalation allows the body to obtain oxygen from air, and exhalation allows the excretion
of carbon dioxide.

To understand how inhalation and exhalation works, it is important to understand the

concept of thoracic volume i.e. the volume of the thorax.

Thoracic volume and air pressure

Air will always move from higher air pressure to lower air pressure.

 When the thorax volume increases it reduces the air pressure inside the thorax
(below atmospheric pressure). Air therefore travels into the body i.e. inhalation
 When the thorax volume decreases it increases the air pressure inside the thorax
(above atmospheric pressure). Air therefore travels out of the body i.e. exhalation

Thorax is the part of the body of a mammal between the neck and the abdomen

The volume of the thorax is dependent on two factors:

63
  Position of the rib cage
 Position of the diaphragm

Inhalation

During inhalation, the thoracic volume increases to make the air pressure in the thorax to
fall below atmospheric levels, and thus forcing air into the body.

This increase in thoracic volume is due to:

 Contraction of external intercostal muscles which cause the ribs to move up and out
 Contract of diaphragm which causes the dome-shape to flatten

Exhalation

During exhalation, the thoracic volume decreases to make the air pressure in the thorax
above atmospheric levels, and thus forcing air out of the body.

The decrease in thoracic volume is due to:

 Relaxation of intercoastal muscles causing the rib cage to move down and in
 Relaxation of the diaphragm resulting in the original dome-shaped appearance

64
Air composition

The air composition of inspired and expired air is different. Inspired air has more oxygen,
whilst expired air has more carbon dioxide (for obvious reasons of respiration). Nitrogen
remains constant as our bodies cannot make use of nitrogen gas.

The limewater test can confirm the elevated presence of carbon dioxide in expired air. It is
a clear liquid which turns milky when it reacts with carbon dioxide. Blowing into limewater
with a straw will indeed cause it become milky.

Physical activity on breathing

With physical activity both the rate and depth of breathing increases.

Exercise means body cells respire more rapidly. More carbon dioxide is produced as a result
and the increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood leads to an increase in blood
acidity i.e. decreased blood pH.

The brain detects the increased blood acidity and signals for the increase in breathing rate
and depth to allow carbon dioxide to be excreted quicker. It also of course allows oxygen to
get to respiring cells faster as well.

65
 UNIT 12
RESPIRATION
Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is defined as chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down
nutrient molecules to release energy.

The energy released from respiration are used for various things in the body:

 Muscle contraction
 Protein synthesis
 Cell division
 Active transport
 Growth
 Passage of nerve impulses
 Maintenance of constant body temperature

Investigation: Oxygen uptake by respiring organisms

66
A simple respirometer is used. An organism is placed in the boiling tube on top of the wire
gauze. A capillary tube connected to the boiling tube is measured against a ruler, and a
colored dye is introduced into it.

With the starting point of the dye measured, the dye will move towards the boiling tube as
the organism uses up the oxygen in the air.

The carbon dioxide produced by the organism is eliminated/absorbed by the soda lime, and
therefore does will affect the dye position.

We can measure the rate of respiration by calculating the distance traveled by the dye and
dividing it by the time it took.

Investigation: The effect on temperature on rate of respiration of germinating seeds

67
The experimental set up for this experiment is virtually the same before.

Germinating seeds are placed in a boiling tube on a wire gauze. Soda lime is placed at the
bottom (to absorb CO2) and the boiling tube is placed in a water bath of a known
temperature (i.e. 30 degrees)

A capillary tube is connected to the boiling tube, with colored dye introduced. The initial
position of the dye is measured against a ruler and as the seeds respire, the dye will move
towards the boiling tube.

The rate of respiration for that particular temperature (i.e. 30 degrees) is calculated:

The experiment can be repeated multiple times to calculate and compare the rate of
respiration at different temperatures i.e. 40°C , 50°C, etc.

Anaerobic respiration
68
Anaerobic respiration is defined as chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release energy without oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration releases less energy per glucose than aerobic respiration, so it is less
efficient.

The equation for anaerobic respiration is different between our muscles and yeast:

 In muscles:

 In yeast

Lactic acid

Oxygen debt

During vigorous exercise muscles may not be receiving oxygen quick enough for aerobic
respiration. In such instances, anaerobic respiration occurs in order to supply the muscles
with energy despite the lack of oxygen.

As we see in the equation above, anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid,
which is a toxic waste product.

Oxygen is required to remove lactic acid once the exercise stops, and therefore we call this
‘oxygen debt’ i.e. the body ‘borrowed’ oxygen during anaerobic respiration, and must pay it
back to remove the lactic acid.

Lactic acid removal

Lactic acid is aerobically respired in the liver.

69
Even after exercise stops, the heart rate remains quick and the breathing rate remains
deep.

 Fast heart rate allows lactic acid to be transported quickly from the muscles to the
liver
 Deep breathing rate allows sufficient supply of oxygen to aerobically respire/remove
the lactic acid

UNIT 13
EXCRETION
Excretion

Excretion is defined as the removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism,
and substances in excess of requirements in the body.

For example:

 Kidneys excrete urea and excess water and salts to form urine
 Lungs excrete carbon dioxide

Urea is the waste product formed in the liver, urine is made in the kidneys and is the
combination of urea with water and other salts
70
Urea is formed by deamination. Deamination is the removal of the nitrogen containing part
of excess amino acids to form urea.

Urinary system

Production and removal of urine

The urinary system is composed of the kidneys, ureter, the bladder, and the urethra.

1. Urea is made in the liver, and enters the kidneys.

2. Urea, water and other substances make urine
3. Urine is passed onto the bladder to be stored (via the ureter)
4. The urine is eventually excreted from the body through the urethra

Volume and concentration of urine

The volume and concentration of urine may depend on certain factors:

 Hydration
More water intake leads to more excess water. This means the volume of
urine will increase and the concentration will decrease
 Hot-temperatures (dehydration)
 Dehydration results in less excess water. This means the volume of urine
will decrease and the concentration will increase

71
Kidney

Structure of the kidney

Kidney tubules (nephrons)

The medulla of the kidneys are made of kidney tubules called nephrons.

The glomerulus (beginning of the tubule) filters water, glucose, urea and salts from the
blood. The rest of the tubule reabsorbs most (but not all) of the glucose, water and salts
back. The urea remains in the tubule.

The urea along with the other remaining components in the tubule is what we call urine.
The urine leaves the kidney via the ureter and eventually leaves the body through the
urethra.
72
Kidney machines

As detailed above, the kidneys play a major role is removing the urea from our blood.

If a patient has kidney dysfunction, then other methods must be used to remove the urea
instead.

Kidney dialysis

Kidney dialysis is the method of removingurea from the blood via diffusion.

The blood is extracted and made to pass through tubes in the dialysis machine (see diagram
above).

The tubes have a semi-permeable membrane, and the fluid outside of the tube is called the
bathing liquid.

The bathing liquid is made to have a similar concentration of substances as the

blood except urea.

The low urea concentrations in the bathing liquid means that urea will diffuse out of the
blood as it passes through the tube in the machine.

73
Other important substances such as glucose, proteins, etc. will remain in the blood because
there is no concentration gradient between the bathing fluid & the blood.

Kidney transplant

The main advantage of a kidney transplant as opposed to kidney machines is that they can
return to a normalized lifestyle (i.e. no need for regular visits to use the machine).
Moreover, it would save the cost of using the kidney machines themselves.

However, for a kidney transplant to work a suitable donor is required which may often be
difficult to find. Moreover, there is always the chance of a tissue rejection.

UNIT 14
COORDINATION AND RESPONSE
Nervous control in humans

Human nervous system is composed of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system.

The CNS is the brain and the spinal cord, whereas the peripheral nervous system is the
nerves and neurons which connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
74
Nervous impulses are electrical signals that pass along neurons to transmit information to
and from the brain.

The general nervous pathway

We have various sense organs in our body. Sense organs have the ability to detect certain
sensory stimuli.

 Skin = touch i.e. pain, pressure, temperature etc.

 Eyes = light
 Nose = smell
 Ears = noise
 Tongue = taste

When these sense organs detect stimuli, they send raw information to the brain (CNS) via
nervous impulses in the sensory neurons.

The brain then interprets the information. If an action is required, then the brain will send
impulses to the relevant muscles via motor neurons to carry out this action. These muscles
are called effectors.

Sensory receptor -> Sensory neuron -> CNS -> Motor neuron -> Effector

Example 1

Imagine putting a piece of food in your mouth. You find it to be overly disgusting and you
therefore decide to spit it out.

 Your tongue is a sensory organ and it detects the taste of the food that you put into
the mouth.
 Nerve impulses from the tongue is transmitted to the brain (via sensory neurons)
 The brain then interprets this information. It is at this level that you feel that the food
is disgusting.
 The brain transmits nerve impulses (via motor neurons) to the tongue and mouth
muscles, instructing it to spit the food out

Tongue -> Sensory neuron -> CNS -> Motor neuron -> Tongue/mouth muscles

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This is an example of a voluntary action i.e. actions which are a result of a conscious
decision by the brain.

Example 2

“Imagine touching a very hot pan, causing you to IMMEDIATELY take your hands off it.”

 The skin (sense organ) detects high heat

 Instead of nerve impulses being sent to the brain and awaiting it’s response, the
information is transmitted straight from the sensory neurons to the motor
neurons
 Motor neurons then transmit impulses to the hand/arm muscles
 The muscles immediately take the hand off the pan

This is a prime example of a reflex arc. If we had awaited the brain to tell the muscles to
take our hands off the high heat, then it would take too long.

Instead, we are instinctively able to carry out this action WITHOUT the brain telling us to do
so because of this reflex arc.

Tongue -> Sensory neuron -> Motor neuron -> Tongue/mouth muscles

This is an example of an involuntary action i.e. an action which is instinctive and not by
choice.

Neurons

There are three different types of neurons that you need to be aware of.

Sensory neurons

Sensory neurons carry impulses from sense organ to the brain (CNS).

Motor neurons

Motor neurons carry information from the brain to the effector

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Relay neurons

Relay neurons connect a sensory neuron to a motor neuron in a reflex arc

Reflex arc

As we discussed above, a reflex arc allows an immediate response to certain stimuli by

bypassing the brain (CNS).

Synapses

A synapse is a junction between two neurons.

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The function of a synapse is to ensure a single direction of neuronal transmission.

Consider impulses passing from neuron A to neuron B. The space between the two neurons
is the synapse.

 Neuron A = pre-synaptic neuron

 Neuron B = post-synaptic neuron

The presynaptic neuron (neuron A) has vesicles which contain neurotransmitters. When
electrical impulses reach the pre-synaptic neuron (neuron B), these vesicles release the
neurotransmitters into the synapse.

The neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synapse and bind to specific, corresponding
receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

This allows the electrical impulses to be transmitted to, and carried along neuron B (post-
synaptic neuron).

The human eye

Structure and function

It is important to understand how the eyes work.

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 1. Light rays hit the cornea
2. The cornea refracts (bends) light
3. Light passes through the pupils
4. The lens refracts light further to focus it onto the fovea
5. The fovea contains light receptors that transmit electrical impulses to the brain
6. The brain interprets these impulses and gives us what we call ‘vision’

 Cornea – Refracts light

 Lens – Focuses light onto the retina
 Iris – Controls pupil size
 Pupil – Controls the amount of light entering the eye
 Optic nerves – Carries impulses to the brainn
 Retina – Contains light receptors called rods (responsible for night vision) and cones
(responsible for colour vision)
 Fovea – An area of the retina where most of the light is focused on, and has a very
high density of cones

Pupil reflex

Light enters the light via the pupils. While too much light can damage the retina, too little
light makes it very difficult to see.

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The pupil reflex is designed to appropriately control the level of light that entering the eyes.
They become smaller in bright conditions and larger in dim conditions.

There are two muscles of the iris that control the diameter of the pupils.

1. Circular muscles
2. Radial muscles

Accommodation

Accommodation is how the lens changes shape in order to fine focus the light directly onto
the fovea.

It does so by bending/refracting incoming light rays so that it converges onto the fovea.

 Light rays from a distant object are parallel so it takes less effort for the lens to focus
it
 Light rays from a close object are divergent so it takes more effort for the lens to
focus it

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For a distant object, ciliary muscles are relaxed. This allows suspensory ligaments to pull
tightly on each side of the lens. The lens therefore becomes stretched and thin. A thin lens
has less power, and therefore bends light less.

For a near object, ciliary muscles are contracted. This allows the suspensory ligaments to
loosen. The lens thus becomes thicker. A a thicker lens has more power, and therefore
bends light more.

Hormones in humans

Hormones are defined as a chemical substances produced by an endocrine gland and

carried by blood which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.

Examples

 Adrenal gland secretes adrenalin

 Pancreas secretes insulin & glucagon
 Testes secrete testosterone
 Ovaries secrete oestrogen

Adrenaline

Adrenaline is a hormone secreted in fight or flight situations.

It increases blood supply to the necessary parts of the body to cope with a dangerous
situation.

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Adrenaline has multiple effects on the body:

 Increased breathing rate

 Increased heart rate
 Secretion of glucose from the liver
 Pupil dilation

Nervous system vs hormonal system

There are some key differences between the nervous system and the hormonal system.

Hormonal control:

 Chemical transmission
 Blood pathway
 Slow speeds of transmission
 Long-term effect

Nervous control

 Electrical
transmission
 Nervous pathway
 Fast speeds
 Short-term effect

Homeostasis

The definition of homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Positive and negative feedback loops control internal conditions within set limits.

 For example, our optimum body temperature is approximately 37°C – This is the SET
VALUE/LIMIT
 If temperature goes beyond 37 then negative feedback brings it back down
 If temperature falls below 37 then positive feedback brings it back up

Control of sugar levels

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Blood sugar levels are controlled by two hormones that are secreted by the pancreas

1. Insulin – Causes liver to use blood glucose and covert it to glycogen for storage
inside liver cells
2. Glucagon – Causes the liver to convert glycogen to glucose and release it into the
blood

Essentially, insulin causes blood sugar levels to fall and glucagon causes blood sugar levels
to rise.

When glucose levels are too high, negative feedback will reduce it back down

 Pancreas secretes insulin

 Liver converts blood glucose to glycogen
 Blood sugar levels fall

When glucose levels fall too low, positive feedback will increase it back up

 Pancreas halts insulin secretion

 Pancreas secretes glucagon instead
 Liver converts glycogen to blood glucose
 Blood sugar levels rise

Symptoms & treatment of type 1 diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is caused by insufficient insulin production.

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As you may imagine, this leads to a very high blood glucose level.

The symptoms of type 1 diabetes include

 Increased hunger
 Frequent urination
 Blurred vision
 Tiredness & fatigue
 Unexplained weight loss

The management of type 1 diabetes include

 Controlling sugar intakes

 Monitoring sugar levels
 Insulin injections

Maintenance of internal body temperature

Body temperature is maintained at 36 degrees. The body loses heat when the environment
is too hot, and retains heat when the environment is too cold.

The brain has blood temperature receptors that can modulate the temperature accordingly
via certain mechanisms.

Skin structure

Mechanisms to retain heat

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  Basicinsulation
 The fat layer in the skin acts as an insulator
 Skin hair follicles stand up to trap a layer of air around the skin which is
also an insulator
 Shivering
 Increased metabolism in muscles increase heat circulation
 Vasoconstriction
 Heat is carried in the blood
 If blood goes near the skin surface, then heat radiates out of the body
 Constriction of the skin arterioles reduce the amount of blood flowing
near the skin surface to retain heat in the blood

Mechanisms to lose heat

 Sweating
 Sweat is a mixture of water, salt and urea
 Water evaporates from sweat which causes the skin (and body) to cool
down
 Vasodilation
 Dilation of skin arterioles increase the amount of blood flowing near the
skin surface to allow more heat to radiate out of the body

Tropic responses

Auxins

Auxins are plant growth substances. They are produced by the tips of root shoots and
plants.

Auxins will always move away from sunlight and towards gravity.

 In the shoots, auxins promote plant growth

 In the roots, auxins inhibit plant growth

Gravitropism

Gravitropism is the response in which parts of the plant react to gravity.

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  Positivegeotropism = Growth towards gravity
 Negative geotripism = Growth away from gravity

Positive gravitropism

Positive gravitropism is when a plant grows towards gravity (i.e. in roots)

In the absence of light, if a root is placed horizontally, then auxins will accumulate on the
lower side due to gravity.

Auxins inhibit cell growth in roots, so therefore the lower half of the root will grow slower
than the top. This uneven cell growth causes the root to bend towards the ground.

Negative gravitropism

Negative geotropism is when a plant grows away from gravity (i.e. in shoots)

In the absence of light, if a shoot is placed horizontally, then auxins will once again
accumulate on the lower side due to gravity.

In shoots, the auxins promote cell growth. Therefore the lower side of the shoot will grow
quicker the top. This results in the shoot bending away from the ground.

Phototropism

Phototropism is the response in which plants react to light.

Positive phototropism

Positive phototropism is when a plant grows towards sunlight (i.e. in shoots).

When light is exposed to one side of a shoot, auxins move away and accumulate on the
shaded side.

Auxins promote cell growth in shoots, so the shaded side grows quicker than the exposed
side. This results in the shoot bending towards the sun.

Negative phototropism

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Negative phototropism is when a plant grows away sunlight (i.e. in roots).

When light is exposed to one side of a root, again, auxin once again accumulate on the
shaded side.

Auxins inhibit cell growth in roots, so therefore the shaded side grows slower than the
exposed side. This results in the root bending away from the sun.

UNIT 15
DRUGS
Drugs

Drugs are defined as any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical
reactions in the body.

Medicinal drugs

Medical drugs are drugs used to prevent or treat diseases.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are used in the treatment of bacterial infections. They work by specifically
targeting certain bacterial features (such as cell walls) to kill them.

Viruses and other non-bacterial pathogens are unaffected by antibiotics as they do not have
bacterial features.

Antibiotic resistance

Thanks to genetic mutation, simply by chance, some bacteria may be resistant to

antibiotics.

If antibiotics are overused, then it will allow these resistant bacteria to survive and
reproduce, leading to the rise of an entire strain with antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic resistance is a good example of natural selection.

Antibiotics should therefore be used only when truly necessary, and the course of
antibiotics given to the patient should always be fully completed before it is stopped.
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Misused drugs

Some drugs are often misused, and some examples of this are:

 Alcohol
 Heroin
 Tobacco smoke

Alcohol and heroin misuse

Alcohol and heroin are depressants. When both of these drugs are used in excess the
effects are similar:

 Slower reactions times

 Loss of self control
 Addiction and withdrawal

Moreover, alcohol can lead to liver damage and heroin can lead to STIs such as HIV due to
needle sharing.

Tobacco smoke

Tobacco smoke contains a lot of bad chemicals and substances.

 Carbon monoxide – Binds to hemoglobin in RBCs and hinders oxygen transport

 Nicotine – Causes addiction
 Tar – Causes cancer

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Smoking has been proven to be linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
lung cancer, and coronary heart disease.

Testosterone in sports

Testosterone is an appealing drug for athletes because it promotes muscle building and can
give the athlete faster recovery times.

Anabolic steroids are synthetic variations of testosterone.

In most sports, the use of testosterone is banned

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 UNIT 16
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction

Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism.

There are two types of reproduction that you need to be aware of:

 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical

offspring from a single parent i.e. cloning

Advantages of asexual reproduction are:

 Quick
 Only single parent required
 Good genetic characteristics always passed on
 No dispersal so offspring will grow in the same favorable environment

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction are:

 Little
variation i.e. less adaptability to a changing environment
 Unlikely to withstand disease if parent not resistant
 Lack of dispersal lead to increased competition for nutrients

Sexual reproduction

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Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of two gametes (one from each
parent) to form a zygote. This results in the production of offspring that is genetically
different from the parents.

Gametes are sex cells that have half of the normal chromosome number (haploid).

Therefore, when the male and female gamete fuse together they form a new cell with the
normal chromosome number (diploid).

Advantages of sexual reproduction are:

 Variation among offspring, and therefore more adaptable to a changing environment

 More likely to withstand disease
 In plants, seed dispersal reduces competition for nutrients as offspring will grow in a
different environment

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction are:

 Requires the fusion of two gametes

 Slower process

Plant reproduction

Plants mostly reproduce sexually, and therefore that will be the focus of this section.

The sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of the male gamete (pollen) and the
female gamete (ovule).

A plant flower has both a ‘male part’ containing the pollen and the ‘female part’ which
contains the ovule.

 Malepart = Stamen
 Female part = Pistil/carpel

Sexual reproduction occurs when the pollen from the stamen of one flower successfully
reaches the ovule of either the same flower, or a different flower.

This transfer of pollen is called pollination, and we will look into this in a bit more detail
down below.

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Important concepts to understand at this stage are:

 Transfer of pollen is pollination

 Successful pollination results in fertilization
 A flower can self pollinate i.e. pollen transfer within the same flower or a different
flower of same plant
 A flower can cross pollinate i.e. pollen transfer to a different flower of a different
plant

Structure of a flower

The term carpel & pistil has the same meaning, but I would suggest using carpel in your
examination as this is the official term for IGCSE.

The carpel is the female reproductive part of the plant. It is made of three important
structures:

 Stigma = The sticky surface that catches pollen

 Style = Links stigma to ovary
 Ovary = Contains ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization

The stamen is the male reproductive part of the plant. It is made of two important
structures:

 Anther = Contains pollen

 Filament = Supports the anther

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Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of the pollen (male sex cell) from the anther to the stigma.

Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it is transferred to the ovule (female sex cell).

The fusion of the pollen and ovule leads to what we call fertilization.

There are main two methods by which plants facilitate pollination

 Insect
pollination
 Wind pollination

Insect pollination

Insect pollination uses insects that land on the flower to carry pollen.

As insects move around within the flower, some pollen become caught onto the insect’s
body. The insect therefore physically carries pollen and successful pollination occurs when
it rubs its body against a stigma of the same flower (self pollination) or a different flower
(cross pollination).

Wind pollination

Wind pollination uses the wind to carry pollen.

Pollen that gets carried by the wind may end up on the stigma of the same flower (self
pollination) or a different flower (cross pollination).

Insect pollinated vs wind pollinated flower

There are some key differences between an insect pollinated flower and a wind pollinated
flower.

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Cross pollination vs self pollination

Self pollination is the transfer of pollen from the another of one flower to the stigma of the
same flower, or a different flower of the same plant.

Advantages

 Only one parent required so less reliance on pollinators

 Less competition among offspring

Disadvantages

 Less variation (since genes are all from the same plant)
 Less adaptable to changing environment and resistance to disease

Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different plant (of same species)

Advantages

 Increased variation
 Greater adaptability to changing environment and more resistant to
disease

Disadvantages

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  More reliance on pollinators

In the above diagram, A and B represent self pollination. C represents cross pollination.

Fertilization

When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the correct species, a pollen tube will begin to
grow.

It grows through the style, enters through a small gap in the ovary called the micropyle, and
eventually reaches the ovule.

The nucleus of the pollen then passes along the pollen tube and fuses with the neuclus of
the ovule, resulting in successful fertilization.

The zygote eventually develops into a seed. The seed remains dormant until the conditions
are right, and germination occurs.

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Germination

Germination is the development of a plant from a seed or spore after a period of dormancy.

The conditions that must be met for germination to occur are as follows:

 Water– For the activation of enzymes

 Oxygen – For respiration for growth
 Temperature – Optimum temperature for enzymes

Investigation of germination

 Set up boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool

 Leave tubes in set environmental conditions for a period of time

 A, B and C placed in an incubator of 20°C
 D is placed in a fridge of 4°C
 Compare the growth/germination of each of the test tubes
 Results are as follows:
 A(no water) = No germination
 B (control) = Germination
 C (no oxygen) = No germination
 D (cold temperature) = No germination

Human reproduction

Human reproduction is focused on the male gamete (sperm) fertilizing the female gamete
(egg).

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Male reproductive system

 Penis
 Can become firm and erect for insertion into the vagina
 Testis
 Sperm production
 Scrotal sac
 Holds testes outside of body to keep it colder than body temperature
(ideal for sperm production)
 Epididymis
Sperm storage
 Vas deferns/sperm duct
 Tube connecting testis to urethra
 Prostate gland
 Add nutrients & fluid to sperm to make it semen
 Urethra
 Passes semen or urine out through the penis (but never at the same
time)

Female reproductive system

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  Vagina
 Entry point for penis
 Cervix
 Ring of muscle separating vagina from uterus
 Uterus
 Location of fetal development
 Ovary
 Production of egg cells
 Oviduct/fallopian tubes
 Site of fertilization
 Movement of egg cell to uterus via cilia in the wall

Human pregnancy overview

1. Sperm enters vagina

2. Sperm passes through cervix
3. Sperm enters oviduct
4. If an egg is present, it becomes fertilized
5. Fertilization results in zygote formation
6. Zygote divides to make an embryo (ball of cells)
7. Embryo implants into the uterus walls
8. Embryo develops further to form a fetus
9. Fetus develops within uterus/womb
10.Birth of a baby

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Fetal development & birth

Once an egg is fertilized by sperm, it forms a zygote. The zygote undergoes cell division to
form a ball of cells called the embryo.

The emrbyo implants itself into the uterus lining, where it begins to develop into a fetus

Fetal development

The placenta brings fetal blood supply close to the mother’s blood without mixing.
Nutrients diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetus’ blood. Oppositely, waste diffuses
from the fetus’ blood into the mother’s blood.

The umbilical cord carries fetal blood to and from the placenta. This cord is therefore
essential for the nutrient/waste exchange between the fetal blood and the mother’s blood.

The amniotic fluid protects the fetus from physical harm, and is held inside the amniotic
sac.

Umbilical cord

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  Umbilical artery
 Carries blood from the fetus to the placenta
 Placenta
 Nutrient/waste exchange
 Nutrients pass from mother’s blood to fetal blood
 Waste products poss from fetal blood to mother’s blood
 Umbilical vein
 Carries blood from the placenta to the fetus
 Some toxins such i.e. nicotine or pathogens i.e. rubella, can cross the
placenta from the mother’s blood and affect the fetus

Ante-natal care of pregnant woman

Before birth, the baby obtains all dietary requirements from the mother via the placenta.

It is therefore very important that the mother’s diet is well balanced with:

 Amino acids/proteins for growth

 Calcium for bone development
 Iron for RBC formation

Process of childbirth

The process of childbirth is as follows:

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  Labour is triggered by the oxytocin hormone
 Muscular walls of the uterus contract
 Pressure from contraction breaks the amniotic sac and releases amniotic fluid
 Contractions become more violent and push the baby down the cervix
 The cervix becomes dilated for the baby to pass through
 The vagina stretches in order to allow the baby to be born
 The Baby is still attached to the placenta via umbilical cord post birtth
 The umbilical cord is therefore cut and tied
 The placenta breaks away from the uterus wall and passes out

Puberty

Puberty is the name for the time when the body begins to change as a child transitions into
adulthood.

 Testosterone triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

 Estrogen triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females

Menstrual cycle

There are four main hormones involved in the menstrual cycle:

1. Estrogen – Builds the uterus lining

2. Progesterone – Maintains the uterus lining
3. FSH – Causes a single follicle in the ovary to mature (a mature follicle contains the
egg, along with other surrounding cells)
4. LH – Secreted from pituitary glands which stimulate ovulation

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The stages of the cycle can be summarized as follows:

1. Uterus lining breaks down due to the lack of progesterone

2. Estrogen levels rise to build the uterus lining
3. FSH causes a single follicle to mature
4. On day 14, estrogen levels drop and LH levels spike to cause ovulation
5. The ovum gets released into the oviduct, leaving behind the remains of the mature
follicle.
6. The cells that get left behind after ovulation become the corpus luteum
7. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone which maintains the thick uterus lining in
preparation for implantation

Sexually transmitted disease

Sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) are infections that can be transmitted via body fluids
during sexual contact.

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HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is an example of an STI. An HIV infection can lead to
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

As the name suggests, the HIV virus destroys the body’s immune system. The virus attacks
lymphocytes in the blood stream, and a decreased lymphocyte count leads to reduced
antibodies, and therefore compromised immunity.

Methods of transmission include:

 Unprotected sex
 Sharing needles
 Mother to fetus via the placenta

Methods to prevent the spread of HIV include:

 Condom usage
 Abstinence of sexual intercourse
 Using sterilized needles instead of sharing
 Bottled milk

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 UNIT 17
INHERITANCE
Inheritance

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

Genetic information is stored in the the form of DNA within the cell nucleus. Here are some
key definitions that you must be aware of:

 Chromosome is a thread like structure of DNA

 A gene is a length of DNA which codes for a specific protein
 An allele is a version of a gene

For example, imagine a gene that codes for eye color. There are variations in this gene
called alleles. One allele for this gene may code for brown eyes, whereas another allele may
code for blue eyes.

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Sex inheritance

Normal human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. These called known as diploid cells.

One of the pairs of chromosomes codes for sex inheritance.

Sex inheritance depends on the presence of X and Y chromosomes.

 Maleshave one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY)

 Females have two X chromosomes (XX)

DNA structure and function

The function of DNA is to control cell function by controlling the production of proteins i.e.
enzymes, antibodies, cell receptors, etc.

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The DNA is made of a double helix backbone, which are connected by pairs of bases.

 Adenine always pairs with thymine

 Cytosine always pairs with guanine

The sequence of bases along a particular length of a DNA strand codes for the manufacture
of a specific protein.

Consider the particular length of DNA (gene) in the diagram above. The code within that
length is ATTCGAA. This base sequence within the gene codes for the specific types and
order of amino acids that become joined to form a protein.

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All body cells contain the same genes, but not all genes are expressed because the cell only
makes certain proteins that it really needs.

Protein manufacture

As we’ve discussed above, a gene is a particular length of a DNA molecule containing a

specific sequence of bases. This base sequence codes for which amino acids should be
joined in what order, to build a particular protein.

DNA held within the nucleus of the cell. Let us consider a particular gene (gene A) that
makes a certain protein (protein A).

A molecule called mRNA ‘copy’ the DNA base sequences found within gene A – This is
called transcription
 mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus
 mRNA passes through the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
 Ribosomes ‘read’ the base sequences and assemble various amino acids in a specific
order based on the base sequences – This is called translation

Diploid vs haploid

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As mentioned before, a normal human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. This
particular number is extremely important for normal bodily function. Cells like this are
called diploid cells, and are majority of the cells in the human body.

Gametes i.e. sperm cells/egg cells, have only a single set of 23 chromosomes. This is half
the normal amount in order to maintain 46 chromosomes after fertilization.

In summary:

 Diploidcells have 23 pairs of chromosomes

 Haploid cells have a single set of 23 chromosomes

Cell division

Mitosis

Mitosis is the nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells. This is very important
for various bodily functions:

 Growth
 Repair
 Cell replacement

Imagine diploid cell A (46 chromosomes) undergoing mitosis. If this cell were to simply
divide in half, then it the resulting cells will only have 23 chromosomes.

Therefore, the cell duplicate its chromosomes before mitosis occurs (i.e. from 46 to 92) in
order to maintain the chromosome number after the cell division occurs.

Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of nuclear division giving rise to cells that are genetically different. This is a
reduction division to form haploid cells which produce gametes.

Essentially, diploid cell A (46 chromosomes) will form haploid cells with 23 chromosomes.

Monohybrid inheritance

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Important definitions

 Genotype = The genetic make up of an organism in terms of the alleles present

 Phenotype = Observable features of an organism

 Alleles = Variations of a given gene

 Homozygous = Two identical alleles of a particular gene
 Heterozgous = Two different alleles of a particular gene
 Dominant allele = Allele that is always expressed if present
 Recessive allele = Allele that is only expressed if the dominant allele is
not present

Monohybrid crosses

A monohybrid cross is a genetic mix between two individuals who have homozygous
genotypes, or genotypes that have completely dominant or completely recessive alleles,
which result in opposite phenotypes for a certain genetic trait.

Eye colour

There are different alleles that code for eye colour

 Blueeye allele (b) is recessive

 Brown eye allele is dominant (B)

A brown eyed individual can therefore have two possible genotypes: BB or Bb

A blue eyed individual can only have one possible genotype: bb

Example 1 – Homozygous recessive (bb) X Heterozygous(Bb)

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Consider a brown eyed person with genotype BB having a child with another person with
blue eyes genotype bb

You can use the punnet square to look at all the possible genotypes of the child.

In this scenario, the chance of a blue eyed child is 2/4 and the chance of a brown eyed child
is 2/4 , therefore the ratio is 1:1

Example 2 – Homozygous recessive (bb) vs Homozygous dominant (Bb)

Consider a brown eyed person with genotype Bb having a child with another person with
blue eyes genotype bb

In this scnerario, the chance of a blue eyed child is 0/4, and the chance of a brown eyed
child is 4/4.

Example 3 – Heterozygous (Bb) X heterozygous (Bb)

Consider a brown eyed person with genotype Bb having a child with another person with
brown eyes genotype Bb

In this case, the chance of a blue eyed child is 1/4, and the chance of a brown eyed child is
3/4. The ratio of blue:brown is 1:3

Co-dominance

Co-dominance is when a pair of alleles are neither dominant to one another. Both alleles
can therefore impact the phenotype.

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Blood type is a good example of co-dominance. The alleles of bloodtypes are: IA, IB and IO.

 IA and IB are co-dominant

 IA and IB are dominant over IO

Combination of these alleles can therefore results in blood groups A, B, AB, and O.

Sex-linked characteristics

Sex linked characteristics are characteristics in which the gene responsible is located on the
sex chromosome, and therefore making it more common in one sex than the other.

Red-green colour deficiency

The colour deficient gene is an abnormal gene found in the X chromosome (Xc).

A male (with XY chromosomes) with these gene will inevitably have colour deficiency
because males only have one X chromosome, so this abnormal gene will always be
expressed.

Females on the other hand, may have the colour deficient gene but have normal colour
vision. This is because females have two X chromosomes (XX).

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The normal colour vision allele dominates the abnormal allele, so as long as the female has
one normal X chromosome then they will have good colour vision.

To summarize:

 Male (XY) = Normal colour vision

 Male (XcY) = Colour deficient
 Female (XX) = Normal colour vision
 Female (XcX) = Normal colour vision i.e. carrier
 Female (XcXc) = Colour deficient

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