Clever Keeping Maths Simple Grade 12 Learner's Book (PDFDrive)

Clever Keeping
Maths Simple
Grade 12
Learner’s Book
J Aird
L du Toit
I Harrison
C van Duyn
J van Duyn
Clever Keeping Maths Simple Grade 12 Learner’s Book
© J Aird, L du Toit, I Harrison, C van Duyn and J van Duyn, 2013

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Contents
Chapter 1 Patterns, sequences and series................................................ 1
Introduction................................................................................................. 1
Determine whether a sequence is arithmetic or geometric......................... 2
The general term of a sequence.................................................................... 4
A comparison of arithmetic and geometric progressions............................ 7
Arithmetic and geometric means................................................................. 10
Sigma notation............................................................................................. 11
Series............................................................................................................. 15
The sum of an arithmetic series................................................................... 15
The sum of a geometric series...................................................................... 16
Mixed problems............................................................................................ 20
Applications of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series................. 23
Infinite series................................................................................................ 26
Summary....................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 2 Functions and inverse functions............................................ 40

Revising functions dealt with in Grade 10 and 11....................................... 40
Functions...................................................................................................... 47
Inverse functions.......................................................................................... 49
Chapter 3 Exponential and logarithmic functions................................. 61

Exponential functions.................................................................................. 61
Logarithmic functions.................................................................................. 64
Definition of a logarithm............................................................................. 66
Logarithmic laws.......................................................................................... 68
Equations involving logarithms................................................................... 71
Exponential and logarithmic functions....................................................... 73
Chapter 4 Finance, growth and decay.................................................... 81

Grade 11 summary....................................................................................... 81
Future value annuities.................................................................................. 86
The formula for future value annuities........................................................ 89
Loans and loan repayments......................................................................... 93
The present value formula for annuities...................................................... 94
Deferred annuities........................................................................................ 98
Calculating the time period, n..................................................................... 101
Chapter 5 Compound angles.................................................................. 108

Proofs of the compound angle formulae..................................................... 108
Evaluating compound angle ratios using special angles.............................. 112
Using compound angle formulae to prove identities.................................. 115
Double angle formulae................................................................................. 116
More complex examples............................................................................... 119
Identities involving double angles............................................................... 120
Chapter 6 Trigonometric equations........................................................ 124
Revision of Grade 11 trigonometric equations............................................ 124
Grade 12 trigonometric equations............................................................... 127
Mixed equations........................................................................................... 130
Chapter 7 Solving problems using trigonometry.................................... 134

The basic requirements for solving triangles............................................... 134
The sine, cosine and area rules..................................................................... 135
Triangles in three dimensions...................................................................... 144
Identities using the sine, cosine and area rules............................................ 155
Chapter 8 Polynomial functions............................................................. 162

Revision........................................................................................................ 162
Using long division to find a remainder...................................................... 163
The Remainder Theorem.............................................................................. 165
The Factor Theorem...................................................................................... 167
Determining the quotient and remainder by synthetic division................ 167
Factorising..................................................................................................... 169
Factorising expressions in two variables...................................................... 171
Using the Remainder Theorem to determine unknown coefficients.......... 172
Solving cubic equations using the Remainder Theorem............................. 173
Chapter 9 Differential calculus................................................................ 176

The concept of a limit.................................................................................. 177
Introduction to calculus............................................................................... 180
Average gradient........................................................................................... 180
Calculating the derivative from first principles........................................... 185
The gradient and equation of a tangent to a curve..................................... 192
Equations of tangents to a curve.................................................................. 194
The cubic graph............................................................................................ 198
Problems involving maxima and minima................................................... 221
The derivative as a way to measure the rate of change................................ 230
Chapter 10 Analytical geometry............................................................... 238

Revision of formulae from Grade 11............................................................ 238
The equation of a circle................................................................................ 239
Working with circles..................................................................................... 242
The equation of a tangent to a circle........................................................... 248
Summary....................................................................................................... 251
Chapter 11 Euclidean geometry................................................................ 265
Revision: similarity of polygons................................................................... 265
Revision........................................................................................................ 266
Proportionality in triangles.......................................................................... 272
Similar triangles............................................................................................ 282
Equiangular triangles are similar.................................................................. 283
Triangles with sides in proportion are similar.............................................. 284
The Theorem of Pythagoras and similar triangles....................................... 297
Summary....................................................................................................... 312
Chapter 12 Statistics (regression and correlation).................................... 315

Symmetric and skewed data (revision)......................................................... 316
Bivariate data: scatter plots........................................................................... 325
Bivariate data: scatter plots, regression and correlation.............................. 329
Using a calculator to do regression calculations.......................................... 331
Interpolation and extrapolation................................................................... 333
Summary....................................................................................................... 347
Chapter 13 Counting and probability....................................................... 348

Revision........................................................................................................ 348
Solving problems.......................................................................................... 350
The fundamental counting principle........................................................... 360
Factorial notation......................................................................................... 366
Special cases of the fundamental counting principle.................................. 368
Permutations and combinations.................................................................. 371
Use the fundamental counting principle to solve probability problems.... 374
Summary ...................................................................................................... 379
Chapter 14 Revision.................................................................................. 381

Chapter 1 Patterns, sequences and series.................................................... 382
Chapter 2 Functions and inverse functions................................................ 384
Chapter 3 Exponential and logarithmic functions..................................... 387
Chapter 4 Financial mathematics................................................................ 391
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 Trigonometry............................................................... 393
Chapter 8 Functions: polynomials.............................................................. 397
Chapter 9 Differential calculus.................................................................... 397
Chapter 10 Analytical geometry.................................................................. 400
Chapter 11 Euclidean geometry.................................................................. 402
Chapter 12 Statistics (regression and correlation)....................................... 407
Chapter 13 Counting and probability......................................................... 411
Sample papers ................................................................................................414
Mid-year Paper 1 ..........................................................................................414
Mid-year Paper 2 ..........................................................................................418
End of year Paper 1 ......................................................................................423
End of year Paper 2 ......................................................................................427
Memorandum for Mid-year Paper 1 ............................................................433
Memorandum for Mid-year Paper 2 ............................................................437
Memorandum for End of year Paper 1 ........................................................442
Memorandum for End of year Paper 2 ........................................................450
Answers to exercises........................................................................................ 456
Glossary of mathematical terms.................................................................... 503

Patterns, sequences
Chapter 1 and series
In this chapter you will:

• learn about arithmetic and geometric sequences
• write different series in sigma notation
• derive and use the formulae for the sum of arithmetic and geometric series.
Introduction
A sequence is an ordered set of numbers.
A progression is a sequence in which we can obtain the value of any element based
on the values of the preceding elements.
The following table shows the first four terms of two different sequences. We refer to
each term in a sequence using the notation Tn where n represents the position of the
term. Both sequences are progressions.
Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4

T1 T2 T3 T4
Sequence 1 7 14 21 28
Sequence 2 2 4 8 16
A series is the sum of the elements of a sequence. For example, if we add the values of
the second sequence in the previous table, we have the series 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … .
Arithmetic progressions (AP) Geometric progressions (GP)

An arithmetic progression (AP) is a A geometric progression (GP) is a
sequence in which each term after sequence in which each term after the
the first term is formed by adding a first term is formed by multiplying the
constant value (d) to the preceding preceding term by a constant ratio (r).
term.
1
Example 1 Example 1
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4
2 5 8 11 14 2 6 18 54
=2+3 =5+3 =8+3 = 11 + 3 =2×3 =6×3 = 18 × 3
∴ This is an arithmetic sequence with ∴ This is a geometric sequence with r = 3

d=3
Example 2 Example 2
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4
16 12 8 4 0 16 −8 4 −2
= 16 − 4 = 12 − 4 = 8 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 16 × ( −  _12   ) = −8 × ( −  _12   ) = 4 × ( −  _12   )
∴ This is an arithmetic sequence with ∴ This is a geometric sequence with r

1
d = −4 = −  __
2
Example 3 Example 3
If Tn = 4 − 2n, determine the sequence. If Tn = 3 . 2n − 1, determine the sequence.
Solution Solution
T1 = 4 − 2(1) = 4 − 2 = 2 T1 = 3 . 21 − 1 = 3 . 20 = 3 . 1 = 3
T2 = 4 − 2(2) = 4 − 4 = 0 T2 = 3 . 22 − 1 = 3 . 21 = 3 . 2 = 6
T3 = 4 − 2(3) = 4 − 6 = −2 T3 = 3 . 23 − 1 = 3 . 22 = 3 . 4 = 12
∴ the sequence is 2; 0; −2; … ∴ the sequence is 3; 6; 12; …
Determine whether a sequence

is arithmetic or geometric
Given a sequence, we can use a formula to test if a sequence is arithmetic, geometric
or neither.

To test whether a sequence is arithmetic, To test whether a sequence is geometric,
use the formula : T3 − T2 = T2 − T1 = d T T
use the formula : __
  3  =  __2 = r
T2 T1
2
Example 1 Example 1
Determine whether the following Determine whether the following
sequence is arithmetic, geometric sequence is arithmetic, geometric
or neither. or neither.
2; 4; 6; 8; 10; … 2; 6; 18; 54; …
Solution Solution
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4
2 4 6 8 10 2 6 18 54
T3 − T2 = 6 − 4 T2 − T1 = 4 − 2 T3  =  __
__ 18
=3 T2  =  __6 = 3
__
T2 6 T1 2
=2 =2
∴ This is an arithmetic sequence with ∴ This is a geometric sequence with
d = 2. r = 3.
Exercise 1.1
1. Determine whether the following sequences are arithmetic, geometric or neither:

a) 5; 8; 11; 14; 17; … b) 5; 10; 20; 40; 80; …
c) 1; 4; 9; 16; 25; … d) 32; 16; 8; 4; 2; …
e) 6; 10; 14; 18; 22; … f) 12; 7; 2; −3; −8; …
1 3 __ 5 7 __ 9
g)  __; __
  ;   ; __
  ;   ; … h) 1; −3; 9; −27; 81; …
2 4 6 8 10
i) 7; 4; 1; −2; −5; … j) 1; 8; 27; 64; 125; …
9 27 __ 81 7 13 19
k) 2; 3; __
  ; __
  ;   ; … l) 2; __
  ; 5; __
  ; 8; __
  ; …
2 4 8 2 2 2
1 1 __ 1
m) 3; −9; 27; −81; 243; … n) 3; 1;  __; __
  ;   ; …
3 9 27
o) 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; …
2. Given the general term of the sequence:
i) Determine the first five terms of the sequence.
ii) State whether the sequence is arithmetic, geometric or neither.
Tn = 2n + 1
a) b) Tk= 3k − 2
Tn =
c) 2n Tn= n 2
d)
Tk= k 2 + 5
e) f) Tn= −5n
Tn= 7 − n
g) Tk= 2 . 3k
h)
T =  ____
i) n
n

n+1
j) Tn= 4 . 21 − n
3
The general term of a sequence
In this section, we explain how to find the general term of a sequence.
Exercise 1.2
Fill in the spaces:

Given the sequence: Given the sequence:
2; 5; 8; 11; 14; 17; … with d = 3 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64 …. with r = 2
Term: general form Term: general form
T1 = 2 a T1 = 1: a
T2 = 5 = 2 + 3: a+d T2 = 2 = 1 × 2: ar
T3 = 8 = 2 + 3 + 3 = 2 + 2(3): a + 2d T3 = 4 = 1 × 2 × 2 = 1 × 22: ar2
T4 = 11 = 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 T4 = 8 = 1 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 1 × 23: ____
= 2 + 3(3): ____
T5 = 16 = 1 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
T5 = 14 = 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 1 × 24: ____
= 2 + 4(3): ____
T6 = 32 = 1 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
T6 = 17 = 2 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 1 × 25: ____
= 2 + 5(3): ____
T10 = ________________________ ____
T10 = ________________________ ____
T21 = ________________________ ____
T21 = ________________________ ____
Tn = ________________________ ____
Tn = ________________________ ____
From the previous exercise, we found that:

• the general term of an arithmetic sequence is Tn = a + (n − 1)d
• the general term of a geometric sequence is Tn = a
. r n − 1
4
Example 1 Example 1
Determine the 12th term of the sequence Determine the eighth term of the
3; 7; 11; … sequence
1
2; 1; __
  ; …
2
Solution Solution
We first need to determine whether the Determine whether the sequence is
sequence is arithmetic or geometric: arithmetic or geometric:
T3 − T2 = 11 − 7 T2 − T1 = 7 − 3 T3  =  __1  ÷ 1 = __1
__ T2 = __1
__
T2 2 2 T1 2
=4 =4
∴ the sequence is arithmetic with d = 4 1
∴ the sequence is geometric with r = __
2
Since Tn = a . r n – 1, the eighth term will
Since Tn = a + (n − 1)d, the 12th term
be:
will be:
T8 = a . r 8 − 1
T12 = a + (12 − 1)d
= ar7
= a + 11d 1
We know that a = 2, r = __ and n = 8:
2
T8 = ar7
We know that a = 3, d = 4 and n = 12:
T12 = a + 11d = 2 __ ( 2)
1 7
   
= 3 + 11(4) 2 1
= __  × ___
= 47 1 128
1
= __
64
Example 2 Example 2
Determine the nth term of the sequence Determine Tn for the sequence
1; 6; 11; 16;… 3; 9; 27; …
Solution Solution
T1 T2 T3 ... Tn T1 T2 T3 … Tn
a a+d a + 2d a + (n − 1)d a ar ar 2
arn − 1
1 6 11 3 9 27
a = 1, d = 5 and Tn = a + (n − 1)d: a = 3, r = 3 and Tn = ar n – 1:

Tn = a + (n − 1)d Tn = ar n – 1
Tn = 1 + (n − 1)5 = 3(3)n − 1
Tn = 1 + 5n − 5 = 31   × 3n − 1
Tn = 5n − 4 = 31 + n − 1
= 3n
5
Example 3 Example 3
128
Determine which term is equal to −106 Determine which term is equal to ___
 
729
in the following arithmetic progression: in the following geometric progression:
8; 2; −4; … 4
3; 2; __; …
3
Solution Solution
T1 T2 T3 … Tn T1 T2 T3 … Tn
a a+d a + 2d a + (n − 1)d a ar ar 2
ar n − 1
8 2 −4 −106 3 2  _43  ___
128

729
a = 8, d = − 6, n = ? and Tn = −106: a = 3, r = _23, n = ? and Tn = ___
 128
729
Tn = a + (n − 1)d
−106 = 8 + (n − 1)(−6) Tn = a rn − 1
  = 3( _ 23  )
___ n−1
−106 = 8 − 6n + 6  128
729
6n = 14 + 106 Divide both sides by 3
  =  _13  × 3( _  23  )
_ 1  ×  ___
128 n−1
6n = 120 3 729 to isolate the power
6n 120
 __  = ___ ____
  2128   = ( _  23  )
n−1
6 6 187
n = 20 ( _ 32  )n − 1  = ____
2 187
128
To solve, we need
to write ____
 2128 as a
∴ the 20th term is equal to −106. 187
power of _  23
( __ 23 ) ( 3)
2 7
n−1
= __
   
∴n−1=7 Equate the exponents
n=8
∴ the eighth term is equal to ___
 128
729
Exercise 1.3
1. Determine the required term in each sequence:

a) T12 of 3; 7; 11; … b) T7 of 6; 12; 24; …
c) T9 of 1; 3; 9; 27; … d) T15 of 0; −2; −4; …
e) T21 of 7; 10; 13; … f) T13 of −12; −8; −4; …
g) T7 of 3; −12; 48; … h) T14 of 4; −4; 4; …
i) T8 of 3; 6; 9; … j) T10 of 15; 75; 375; …
2. Determine the number of terms in each of the following sequences:
a) 3; 7; 11; … 147 b) 3; 6; 12; … 96
c) −5; −8; −11; … −41 d) 0; −2; −4; … −220
e) 5; −10; 20; … 5 120 f) 4; 12; 36; 108; … 8 748
7 5 1 1
g) 4; __
  ; 3; __
  ; … −3 h) 4; 2; 1;  __; … ___
 
2 2 2 256
17 17 17 1 1
i) 17;  __; ___
  ; … ____
  j) 20; 19 __; 18 __; … −1
18 182 1810
4 2
6
A comparison of arithmetic and
geometric progressions

Example 1 Example 1
In an arithmetic sequence, T1 = 4 and In a geometric sequence, T1 = 4 and
T10 = 31. Determine: 1 .
T10 = ___
128
1. the sequence. Determine:
2. the 15th term. 1. the sequence.
2. the 15th term.
Solution Solution
1. T1 = 4 and T10 = 31 1
1. T1 = 4 and T10 = ___
a = 4 128
1
Tn = a + (n − 1)d a=4 ar9 = ___ General form
128
31 = 4 + (10 − 1)d T10 To solve for r, substitute a = 4 into
31 = 4 + 9d General form 1
the equation ar9 = ___
9d = 31 − 4 128
1
9d = 27 4r = ___
9
128
27
d = __ =3 1 Divide both
9
∴ the sequence is 4; 7; 10; … r9 = ___
sides by 4
512
2. a = 4 and d = 3 r9 =( _ 12  )
9
∴ T15 = a + 14d
= 4 + 14 × 3 r = __1
2
= 46 ∴ the sequence is 4; 2; 1; …
The 15th term is 46.
2. a=4 r = _12
∴ T15 = ar14
= 4( _  12   )
14
= ____
1
4 096

7
Example 2 Example 2
2
In an arithmetic sequence, T3 = −2 and In a geometric sequence, T4 = __ and
3
T8= 23. Determine the first term and the T = __3. Determine the second term.
common difference.
6 2
Solution Solution
T3 = −2 and T8 = 23 T4 = _23 T6 = _32
We need to solve these two equations ar3 = _23  ar5 = _32 
simultaneously. We can do this using the
Divide equation  by equation 
substitution method or by elimination.
to eliminate a. Then, solve for r.
Here, we use the elimination method.
ar3  =  __3  ÷  __2
5
___
a + 2d = −2  a + 7d = 23  ar 2 3
a + 7d = 23  r2   =  __3  ×  __3
2 2
− (a + 2d = −2) 
r 2  =  __9
5d = 25 − 4
d= 5 r = ±  __3 Since the value of r is
2
squared, there will be two
Therefore: solutions to this equation
d=5 Since there are two values of r, there will

a + 2(5) = −2 Substitute d = 5 into  be two different sequences.
to solve for a
To find the value of a, substitute the
a + 10 = −2
value of r into equation :
a = −12
The first term is –12. The common If r =  _32 : If r = −  _32:
difference is 5.
a( 2  )   =  _23
3
a( − _32  )   =  _23
_3 3
a( 8   )  =  _23 a( 8   )  =  _23

__
27 ___
−27
a( 8   )  ×  __ a(   )  ×  ___

__
27 ____
− 27
8
27
  =  _23  ×  __
8
27
8
−8
27
=  _23  ×  ___
−8
27

a =  _23  ×  __
8
27
a =  _23  ×  ___
−8
27

a =  __
16
81
a =  ___
−16
81

T2 = ar T2 = ar
= __
16
81
  ×  _32 = ___
−16
81
  ×  _23
8 −8
= __ = ___
27 27
8
Example 3 Example 3
If (x + 1); (x + 4); (2x + 4); … is an If (x + 1); (x + 3); (2x + 3) … is a
arithmetic sequence, calculate the value geometric progression, calculate the
of x. value of x.
Solution Solution
T3 – T2 = T2 – T1 __
T __
3
  =   TT
T
2
2 1
(2x + 4) − (x + 4) = (x + 4) − (x + 1) 2x + 3 ____
_____ x+3
    =  
2x + 4 − x − 4 = x + 4 − x − 1 x+3 x+1
x=3 (2x + 3)(x + 1) = (x + 3)(x + 3)
2x2   + 5x + 3 = x2   + 6x + 9
Therefore: x2   − x − 6 = 0
T1 = 3 + 1 = 4 (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
T2 = 3 + 4 = 7 x = 3 or x = −2
T3 = 2 × 3 + 4 = 10 If x = 3, then the sequence is 4; 6; 9; …
If x = −2, then the sequence is
The sequence is 4; 7; 10; … −1; 1; −1; …
Exercise 1.4
1. Determine T10 of the following arithmetic sequences:

1
a) a = 4 and d = __ b) T2 = −10 and T6 = −160
2
c)T5 = 8 and d = 3 d) T2 = 4x and T5 = 10x
2. Determine T10 of the following geometric sequences:
1
a) a = 4 and r = __ b) T2 = −10 and T6 = −160
2
4
__ _ x4
1
c) T5 =  and r =   3 d) T2 = 4x and T5 = __
81 8
3. Calculate the following terms:
a) T12 of the arithmetic progression, if T5 = 13 and T20 = 43.
1
b) T5 of the geometric progression, if T3 = − __ and T8 = 8.
4
c) T4 of the geometric progression, if T6 = 64 and T10 = 1 024.
d) T7 of the arithmetic progression, if T5 = 12 and T8 = 3.
4. Give the first three terms of an arithmetic sequence in which 3 is the seventh
term and the 12th term is −3.
5. Which term of the sequence 12; 17; 22; … is 132?
6. If x − 2; 2x − 2; 4x + 2 are three successive terms of a geometric sequence:
a) Calculate the value of x.
b) Determine the sequence.
c) Determine the 9th term of the sequence.
d) Which term of the sequence will be equal to 4 374?
7. The first two terms of an arithmetic sequence are m and n, respectively.
Calculate the 10th term.
9
8. If 2x − 3; 3x + 1; 5x + 2 are the first three terms of an arithmetic sequence,
calculate the value of x.
9. Determine the geometric progression in which T4 = 224 and the common ratio is 2.
10. Find which term of the sequence −9; −15; −21; … is −45.
11. The numbers 4; x; y form an arithmetic sequence. The numbers x; y; 18 form a
geometric sequence. Calculate the values of x and y.
12. Given the sequence 2; 8; 14; 20; …
a) Determine the 50th term. b) Which term will be equal to 50?
13. The following is an arithmetic sequence: 16y + 1; 4y + 7; y + 4; …
a) Calculate the value of y.
b) Write down the value of:
i) the first term of the sequence ii) the common difference
iii) the fifth term.
14. a) Determine T15 of the sequence 2 + y; 2 + 4y; 2 + 7y; …
b) Which term of the sequence is equal to 2 + 61y?
15. A boy is repaying a debt to a friend. He pays R10 in the first week, R15 in the
second week, R20 in the third week, and so on. If he finishes paying after the
eighth week, how much was his last payment?
Arithmetic and geometric means
Arithmetic mean (AM) Geometric mean (GM)

If a; x; b is an arithmetic progression If a; x; b is a geometric progression then
then x is the arithmetic mean of a x is the geometric mean of a and b.
and b. __ T2
T3  =  __
T3 − T2 = T2 − T1 T2 T1
b−x=x−a b
__
x =  __x (a, x, b ≠ 0)
2x = a + b a
a+b x = ab ___
2
x = ____
2
a+b x = +√ ab
∴ the arithmetic mean is  ____ By definition, the geometric mean
2 ___
is √ ab .
Example 1 Example 1
Calculate the arithmetic mean of 3 Calculate the geometric mean of 2 and 8.
and 11.
Solution Solution
______ ___
3 + 11 14
AM = ______ = __ = 7 GM = √ 2 × 8  = √
16  = 4
2 2
Therefore 2; 4; 8; … is a geometric
Therefore, 3; 7; 11; … is an arithmetic
sequence.
sequence.
10
Example 2 Example 2
Insert three arithmetic means between Insert two geometric means between x3
−2 and 10. and y3.
Solution Solution
This means we need to insert three This means we need to insert two
numbers between −2 and 10 such numbers between x 3 and y
3 such that the
that the numbers form an arithmetic numbers form a geometric sequence.
sequence.
T1 T2 T3 T4
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 a ar3
a a + 4d x3 y3
−2 10
So T1 = x3 T4 = y3
So T1 = −2 T5 = 10 a = x3 ar3 = y3
a = −2 a + 4d = 10 ( x3   )r 3= y 3
−2 + 4d = 10 y3
r3 = __x3

4d = 12
y
d=3 r = __x
∴ the sequence is: −2; 1; 4; 7; 10 ∴ the sequence is x
3 ; x
2 y; xy2 ; y
3
Exercise 1.5
1. Determine the arithmetic mean between

a) 4 and 18 b) 3 and 12 c) −8 and −2 d) 2,7 and 14,5
2. Determine the geometric mean of
1
a) 3 and 12 b) 5 and 20 c)  __and 50 d) 4 and 16
2
3. Insert four arithmetic means between 4 and 19.
1
4. Insert three geometric means between  __and 4.
4
Sigma notation
∑
The symbol   is the Greek symbol sigma. We use this symbol to find the sum of a
sequence.
When we add the terms in a sequence, we call this a series. For example, if we have a
sequence 5; 8; 11; 14; 17, then the series is 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17.
11
Example 1
5
∑
Evaluate: ( 3n + 2)
n=1
Solution
5
∑
( 3n + 2)means that we need to find the sum of a sequence. To find the terms
n=1
of the sequence, we first substitute n = 1 into the general term of 3n + 2. Then,
we substitute n = 2, n = 3, and so on, until we reach n = 5. So, the number below
the sigma symbol tells us where to start (n = 1), and the number above the sigma
symbol tells us where to stop (n = 5).
5
∑
So ( 3n + 2) = (3 . 1 + 2) + (3 . 2 + 2) + (3 . 3 + 2) + (3 . 4 + 2) + (3 . 5 + 2)
n=1
= 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17
= 55
Example 2
6
∑
Evaluate: ( 2 . 3r)
r=0
Solution
In this case, we start with r = 0 and stop when r = 6. In other words, we begin by
substituting r = 0 into the general term 2 .3rand continue to r = 6.
6
∑
( 2 . 3 ) = 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 3
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
r=0
= 2 . 1 + 2 . 3 + 2 . 9 + 2 . 27 + 2 . 81 + 2 . 243 + 2 . 729
= 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162 + 486 + 1 458
= 2 186
Example 3
10
∑
Evaluate: ( −2i + 5)
i=3
Solution
In this case, we start by substituting i = 3 into the general term −2i + 5, and
continue to i = 10:
10
∑
( − 2i + 5)= (−2 . 3 + 5) + (−2 . 4 + 5) + (−2 . 5 + 5) + (−2 . 6 + 5) +
i=3
(−2 .  7 + 5) + (−2 .  8 + 5) + (−2   .  9 + 5) + (−2 . 10 + 5)
= (−6 + 5) + (−8 + 5) + (−10 + 5) + (−12 + 5) + (−14 + 5) +
(−16 + 5) + (−18 + 5) + (−20 + 5)
= − 1 − 3 − 5 − 7 − 9 − 11 − 13 − 15
= −64
12
Number of terms = top number – bottom number + 1
5
∑
In Example 1, ( 3n + 2)the number of terms is 5 − 1 + 1 = 5.
n=1
6
∑
In Example 2, ( 2 . 3r ) the number of terms is 6 − 0 + 1 = 7.
r=0
10
∑
In Example 3, ( −2i + 5)the number of terms is 10 − 3 + 1 = 8.
b i=3
∑
n the number of terms in the series will be b − a + 1.
So if T
n=a
Also, note that each example used different variables (n, r and i).
Example 4
6
Evaluate: 5
∑
n=1
Solution
We know that there are 6 – 1 + 1 = 6 terms in this series. Here, the general term is a
constant, so we write the series as follows:
6
∑   = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5
5
n=1
=6×5
= 30
Writing a series in sigma notation

Example 1
Write the following series in sigma notation: 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17
Solution
First, we need to determine the general term, Tn, for the series.
The series is an arithmetic series with a = 5 and d = 3. Therefore:
Tn = a + (n − 1)d
= 5 + (n − 1)3
= 5 + 3n − 3
= 3n + 2
Now we write in the formula after the sigma symbol:
...
∑
( 3n + 2)
n=...
Next, we need to determine the numbers above and below the sigma symbol.
To do so, we need to solve the following equations:
The first term of the series is 5: The last term of the series is 17:
3n + 2 = 5 3n + 2 = 17
3n = 3 3n = 15
n=1 n=5
5
∑
∴ 3
n + 2
n=1
13
Example 2
Write the following series in sigma notation: 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64
Solution
By inspection, we see that the series 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 +36 + 49 + 64 is made up
of the first eight perfect squares. 8
∴ 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 +36 + 49 + 64 = k 2 ∑
k=1
Example 3
Write the following series in sigma notation: 6 + 12 + 24 + 48
Solution
6 + 12 + 24 + 48 is a geometric series with a = 6 and r = 2. Therefore:
Tn = a . rk − 1
= 6 . 2k − 1 6=2×3
= 2 × 3 × 2k − 1
= 21 × 3 × 2k − 1
= 3 . 21 + k – 1
= 3 . 2k
...
∴ 3∑
. 2k
k = ...
The first term of the series is 6: The last term of the series is 48:
so 3 . 2k= 6 so 3 . 2k= 48
2k = 2 Divide both sides of the 2k = 16
equation by 3 2k = 24
∴k=1 k=4
4
∴ 3∑
. 2k
k=1
Exercise 1.6
1. Evaluate the following:

12 10 5 10
∑
a) 3
r
r=1
∑
b) ( 2r + 5) c) ∑ ( __ 51 )
n
∑
d) n
2
r=0 n=1 n=3
6 i 8 6
e) ∑ ( __ 23 ) ∑
f) 3 . 2k ∑
g) r
r=1
i=1 k=2
2. Write the following in sigma notation:
a) 1 + 3 + 5 + … + 17 b) 3 + 9 + 27 + … + 729
1
c) 7 + 10 + 13 + … + 25 d) 64 + 32 + 16 + … + __
2
e) 16 + 25 + 36 + … + 100 f) 4 + 7 + 10 + … + 37
1 2 3 10
g)  __  +  __  +  __  + … +  __ h) 1 + 4 + 16 + … + 16 384
2 3 4 11
14
Series
• When we add the terms of an arithmetic progression we obtain the arithmetic
series (Sn).
• When we add the terms of a geometric progression we obtain the geometric
series (Sn).
Example 1
If Tn = 3n + 2, determine S5.
Solution
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
S5 = 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 = 55
Also note:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17

S4

S5
So:
T5 = S5 − S4 = (5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17) − (5 + 8 + 11 + 14) = 17
In general: Tn = Sn − Sn – 1
Example 2
Given that Sn = 2n2 + 3, determine
1. the fifth term 2. T25
Solution
1. T5 = S5 − S4 2. T25 = S25 − S24
T5 = [2(5)2 + 3] − [2(4)2 + 3] T25 = [2(25)2 + 3] − [2(24)2 + 3]
T5 = 53 − 35 T25 = 1 253 − 1 155
T5 = 18 T25 = 98
The sum of an arithmetic series

Find the sum of the arithmetic series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10.
We can write this as:
S10 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
S10 = 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 Write the series backwards
2S10 = 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 Add
2S10 = 10 × 11 There are 10 terms
2S10 = 110
110
S10 =  ___ = 55
2
15
It can become quite tedious to add a large number of terms. Also, the more terms we
have to add, the more chance there is of making a mistake. Fortunately, we can use
the same technique we have just used to develop a formula to add all the terms in a
general arithmetic series.
Sn = T1 + T2 + T3 + … + Tn − 1 + Tn
= (a) + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … + (a + (n − 2)d) + (a + (n − 1)d)
Proof of the formula for the sum of an

arithmetic series:
Sn= a + ( a + d )+ ( a + 2d )+ … + ( a + (n − 3)d )+ ( a + (n − 2)d )+ ( a + (n − 1)d )
Sn= (a + (n − 1)d) + (a + (n − 2)d) + (a + (n − 3)d) … + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a
2Sn= (2a + (n − 1)d) + (2a + (n − 1)d) + (2a + (n − 1)d) + … +
(2a + (n − 1)d) + (2a + (n − 1)d)
2Sn= n(2a + (n − 1)d) Since there are n terms
n(2a + (n − 1)d)
Sn= ____________
  
2
n
= __(2a + (n − 1)d)
2
We can write the last term ( l )of an arithmetic series as l = a + (n − 1)d. This means
we can write the formula
Sn =  __n( 2a + (n − 1)d )as S n =  __n( a + a + (n − 1)d )
2 2
Or
Sn=  __n( a + l )
2
The sum of a geometric series

Find the sum of the geometric series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128.
Here, a = 1; r = 2 and the number of terms is n = 8. The technique we use here is to
multiply each term by the common ratio r. Therefore, we have:
S8 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 
2S8 = 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 + 256 Multiply by r = 2
S8 − 2S8 = 1 + 0+ 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 − 256  − 
(1 − 2)S8 = 1 − 256
−1S8 = −255
255
S8 = − ___ = 255
−1
Again, using the general form of a geometric series, we can determine a formula for
the sum of n terms of a geometric series.
Sn = T1 + T2 + T3 + … + Tn − 1 + Tn
= a + ar + ar2 + … + ar n − 2 + ar n − 1
16
Proof of the formula for the sum of a geometric series:
Sn= a + ar + ar2  + … + ar n − 2  + ar n − 1 
r × Sn= ar  + ar2   + … + ar n − 2  + ar n − 1  + arn 
Sn− rSn= a + 0 + 0 + … + 0 + 0 − arn −
Sn− rSn= a − ar n
S n(1 − r) = a(1 − r n ) Factorise
Sn( 1 − r)  =  _______
a(1 − r )
n
_______
(1 − r) (1 − r)
a(1 − r n )
Sn=  _______ r≠1
(1 − r)
In our proof, we subtracted equation  from equation . This formula is easier to use
if r < 1.
We could also have subtracted equation  from equation . This would give us a
a(r n − 1)
n=  _______. This formula is easier to use if r > 1.
slightly different formula: S
(r − 1)
The proofs for both an arithmetic series formula and a geometric series formula
must be known for exam purposes.
Arithmetic series Geometric series

For an arithmetic series, we use the For a geometric series, we use the
following formulae: following formulae:
Sn= __(2a + (n − 1)d ) and Sn = __(a + l )
n n
a(1 − r n )
2 2 Sn =  _______ if r < 1
(1 − r)
a (
r n− 1)

Sn =  _______ if r > 1
(r − 1)
Example 1 Example 1
Determine the sum of the series Use a formula to determine the sum of
2 + 5 + 8 + … to 20 terms. the series 27 + 9 + 3 + … to four terms.
Solution Solution
a = 2; d = 3; n = 20; S20 = ? a = 27; r = _13; n = 4; S4 = ?
( n)
a 1 − r
Sn=  __n( 2a + (n − 1)d ) Sn=  _______
2 1 − r
S20  =  20( 2(2) + 19(3) )
__ ( ( ))4
27 1 −  _ 13   
2 S 4  =  _________
1 − _1
= 10(61) 3
= 610 27( 1 −  __

1
  )
S4  =  ________
_2
81

 3
S4  = 27( _____

  8181− 1   )  ×  __
3
2
27 __ 80 3
S   =  __
4   ×     ×  __
1 81 2
S4  = 40
17
Example 2 Example 2
1
Determine 3 + 7 + 11 + … + 59. Determine 8 + 4 + 2 + … + __
32
Solution Solution
a = 3; d = 4; n = ?; Tn = 59; Sn = ? a = 8; r = _12; n = ?; Tn = __
1
32
; Sn = ?
We first need to calculate the number
We first need to calculate the number
of terms (n) in this series before we can
of terms (n) in this series before we can
calculate the sum.
calculate the sum.
We use the formula Tn = ar n − 1 to
We use the formula Tn = a + (n − 1)d to
calculate the number of terms.
calculate the number of terms. We also
Then, we substitute n into the formula
know the last term (l ) in the series, so a( 1 − rn)
we can substitute n into the formula Sn=  _______ (r < 1) to calculate the sum.
1−r
Sn = __
n (a + l ) to calculate the sum.
Tn = a r n − 1
2
Tn = a + (n − 1)d Sn = _n2 ( a + l )

 __
1
= 8 _  1 
32 ( 2)
n−1
  ×  _18  =  _18   × 8( _  12  )

n−1
59 = 3 + (n − 1)4 S   =  __
15
15
( 3 + 59 )  __
1
32
2
__
15 (
59 = 3 + 4n − 4   =   2 62 )   = ( _  12  )
n−1
S
15  ___
1
256
60 = 4n S15  = 465
( _  12  )   = ( _  12  )
8 n−1
n = 15
8=n−1
9=n
8( 1 − (  2  )   )

_1 9
S 9  =  ________ _1
1 −   2
8( 1 −  ___512 )
1
 
S9  =  ________
_  1
2
S9  = 8( _____512 )

  512 −1
    ×  _21
S9  =  _81( ___512 )

  511     ×  _21
S9  =  ___
511
32

Example 3 Example 3
How many terms of the series How many terms of the series
1 + 4 + 7 + … must be added to give a 5 + 10 + 20 + … must be added to give
sum of 145? a sum of 1 275?
18
Solution Solution
a = 1; d = 3; n = ?; Sn = 145 a = 5; r = 2; n = ?; Sn = 1 275
Sn= _n2( 2a + (n − 1)d ) (
a r − 1 )
n
Sn=  _______
r−1
145 =  _n( 2(1) + (n − 1)3 ) 5( 2 n− 1 )
_______
2 1 275 =  
2−1
Multiply both
290 = n(2 + 3n − 3) 1 275 = 5( 2 n− 1 )
sides by 2
290 = n(3n − 1) 255 = ( 2 n− 1 )
256 = 2 n
0 = 3n2   − n − 290
28   = 2 n
0 = (3n + 29)(n − 10) Factorise ∴n=8
n = −  __
29
or n = 10
3
Solve for n
Since the number of terms is always a
natural number, n = −  __
29
3
is not valid. In
other words, n cannot be fraction or a
negative number. Therefore, n = 10.
Example 4 Example 4
25 10
∑
Determine ( 3n − 5) ∑
Evaluate ( 3 . 2n − 1  )
n=1 n=2
Solution Solution
25 10
∑
( 3n − 5) = −2 + 1 + 4 + … + 70 ∑
( 3 . 2n − 1  ) = 3 . 21 + 3 . 22 + 3 . 23 + …
n=1 n=2
+ 3 . 29
a = −2; d = 3; n = 25; S25 = ?
= 6 + 12 + … + 1 536
Sn=  _n2( 2a + (n − 1)d ) a = 6; r = 2; n = 10 − 2 + 1 = 9; S9 = ?
S 25  =  __
25
( 2( − 2) + 24(3) ) a( r n − 1 )
2 Sn=  _______ Since r > 1
r−1
S25  =  __
25 (
2
68 )
6(2   − 1)
9
S9  =  _______
S25  = 850 2−1
6(512 − 1)
S9  =  ________   = 3 066
1
Exercise 1.7
1. Calculate the sum of the following:

a) 3 + 7 + 11 +… to 15 terms b) −15 − 20 − 25 − … to 17 terms
c) 2 + 8 + 32 + … to 10 terms d) −3 + 6 − 12 + … to 13 terms
e) −5 − 12 − 19 − … to 11 terms f) 32 + 16 + 8 + … to 10 terms
2. Determine the sum of the following series:
2 +  __  +  __  + … + 2( _ 37   )
6 18 8
a) 5 + 12 + 19 + … + 54 b)
7 49
c) −75 − 70 − 65 … + 0 d) 7 + 10 + 13 + … + 82
e) 9 + 3 + 1 + … +  ___
1

243
f) 20 + 17 + 14 + … −7
g) −4 + 0 + 4 + … + 92
19
3. Calculate the following:
20 15 10 10
a) 3∑
r
r=1
∑
b) ( 2r + 5)
r=1
c) ∑ ( 2)
r=5
__
1 r
    ∑
d) ( 9 − 3n)
n=3
8 6 8
e) 3∑
. 2k
∑ ( 3)
f) __
2 n
    ∑
g) ( 2k − 3)
k=1 n=0 k=2
4. How many terms of the following series must be added to give the indicated sum?
a) 3 + 7 + 11 + ……… = 210 b) 3 + 12+ 48 + ……… = 4 095
765
c) 6 + 3 + _3 + ……… = ___ d) 7 + 4 + 1 + ……… = −143
2 64
e) −7 − 5 − 3 − ……… = −12
5. Determine the sum of the first 50 even numbers.
Mixed problems
Arithmetic sequences and series Geometric sequences and series

Example 1 Example 1
In an arithmetic sequence, T2 = 5 and In a geometric sequence, T2 = 4 and
T6 = 21. Determine the sum of the first T6 = _14. Determine the sum of the first
20 terms of the sequence. 12 terms of the sequence if r > 0.
Solution Solution
T2 = 5 and T6 = 21 T2 = 4 and T6 = __1
4
a+d=5  a + 5d = 21  ar = 4  ar 5   =  _14 
ar =  _14  ÷ 4
5
a + 5d = 21  ___ ÷
ar
− ( a + d) = 5  r 4   =  _14  ×  _14
4d = 16  − 
r 4   =  __1
16

d=4 _
1
∴ a + 4 = 5 Substitute d = 4 into  r =  2 since r > 0
a( 2  )  = 4 1
_1 __
a=1 Substitute r = 2 into
equation 
a = 1; d = 4; n = 20; S20 = ?
a=8
Sn=  __n( 2a + (n − 1)d ) a = 8; r =  _12; n = 12; S12 = ?
2
S20  =  20( 2(1) + (20 − 1)(4) )
__ a(1 − r )
Sn=  _______
  n
2
(1 − r) if r<1
S20  = 10( 2 + 19 × 4 )
2( ())
8 1 −  __
S12  =  _________
1 12
     
S20  = 780 _1 ( 1 −   2  )
(
8 1 −  _____ 
4 096
S12  =  __________ 4 095
=  _____
1
)
1
__ 256
   
2
20
Example 2
Determine the largest value of n such that
n
∑
( 2r + 5)  < 150
r= 1
Solution
n
∑
( 2r + 5)  = 7 + 9 + 11 + … + (2n + 5)
r= 1
This is an arithmetic series with a = 7

and d = 2.
Sn =  __n( 2(7) + (n − 1)2 )
2
n(
__
=   2n + 12 )
2
= n2   + 6n
∴n 2 + 6n < 150
n + 6n − 150 < 0
2
Since this trinomial does not factorise,

we use the quadratic formula to solve
for n.
Solving the equation n 2 + 6n − 150 = 0,
we get:
________
−b ± √ b2  − 4ac
____________
n =    
2a__________________
√ 36 − 4(1) × (−150) 
n = −6 ±  ________________
  
  
____
2(1)
−6 ± √ 636 
n =  _________
2
n = −15,6 or n = 9,6
2  + 6n − 150 < 0

If n
using a number line, we get:
15,6 9,6
0 0
∴ −15,6 < n < 9,6
∴ the largest value of n is 9.
21
Exercise 1.8
1. In an arithmetic sequence, T2 = 1 and T7 = 16. Determine the sum of the first

20 terms of the sequence.
2. Determine the value of n if:
n n
∑
a) (3i − 5)  = 3 430 ∑ . 2i − 1 = 12 285
b) 3
i=1 i=1
n n
∑
c) ( 2k + 7) = 1 008 d) ∑ ( 4 − 3r)  = −23 125
r=1
k=1
n n
∑
e) _ 12(3k − 1) = 1 640 f) ∑ _ 13(2
k − 1) = 341
k=1 k=1
3. In a geometric sequence, T3 = _14 and T6 = 2. Determine the sum of the first 11

terms of the sequence.
4. In an arithmetic sequence, T4 = 12 and T7 = 0. Determine the number of terms if
the sum of the series is 60. Why do you obtain two values of n?
5. In an arithmetic sequence the seventh term exceeds the fourth term by 15.
Determine:
a) the value of d, the common difference.
b) the value of a, if T7 = 13.
c) the tenth term.
d) the sum of the first 15 terms.
6. In a geometric sequence, the fifth term is four times the third term, and the
second term is 4.
If r < 0, determine:
a) the value of r, the common ratio. b) the value of a.
c) the tenth term. d) the sum of the 15 terms.
7. a) Determine the largest value of n such that:
n n
∑
i) ( 3r + 4) < 120
r=1
∑
ii) ( 2i − 3) < 1 000
i=1
n
b) ∑
What is the smallest value of n such that ( 5 − 2k)  < −550?
k=1
64
8. The first term of a geometric series is 9. The seventh term is __
  . Determine two
81
possible values for the sum to seven terms of the sequence.
9. The sum of the first three terms of an arithmetic series is 33. The sixth term is
12 more than the fourth term. Determine:
a) the common difference and the first term.
b) the tenth term.
10. The sum of the first four terms of a geometric series is 272.
3
The common ratio is  __. Calculate:
5
a) the first term. b) the seventh term.
22
11. The numbers x + 3; 5x − 1; 7x + 1 are the first three terms of an arithmetic
sequence. Calculate:
a) the value of x.
b) the sum of the first 30 terms of the sequence.
12. The numbers 4x; 2x + 8; x + 10 are the first three terms of a geometric sequence.
Calculate:
a) the value of x.
b) the sum of the first six terms of the sequence.
Applications of arithmetic and

geometric sequences and series
Arithmetic sequences and series Geometric sequences and series

Example 1 Example 1
A ladder has 12 rungs. The lowest rung Michelle emails a letter to three of her
is 800 mm long. Each succeeding rung is friends. She asks them not to break
40 mm shorter than the previous rung. the chain. They need to each forward
Calculate the total length of 12 rungs. the email to three other friends. If this
process continues, determine how many
people would have received the email
if it is forwarded five times. Include the
first time Michelle sent the e-mail.
Solution Solution
The lowest rung is 800 mm The sequence of the number of
∴ The second rung will be emails is:
800 − 40 = 760 mm. 3 + 9 + 27 + …
The third rung will be 760 − 40 = 720 mm, a = 3; r = 3; n = 5
and so on. a(r n − 1)
Sn=  _______
r−1

So the sequence is: 800 + 760 + 720 + …
3(35   − 1)
a = 800; d = −40; n = 12; S12 = ? S   =  _______
5
3−1
Sn = __n(2a + (n − 1)d ) 3(243 − 1)
2 S5  =  ________
12 2
S12 = __(2(800) + 11(−40)) S5  = 363
2
S12 = 6(1 160)
S12 = 6 960
23
Example 2 Example 2
A man’s income is R96 000 a year. Each A ball is dropped from a height of 12 m.
year, his income increases by R7 200. The ball bounces back _ 23of the height
His expenses amount to R66 000 a year, of its previous bounce. Calculate the
and increase by R4 200 every year. How distance that the ball has travelled from
long will it take him to save more than the time it was dropped until it touches
R180 940? the ground for the fifth time. Round
your answer to one decimal place.
Solution Solution
Income: 96 000; 103 200; 110 400 ( 2 3 4
)
12 + 2 12( _  23   )  + 12( _  23  )   + 12( _  23  )   + 12( _ 23  )  
Expenses: 66 000; 70 200; 74 400
a = 12( _ 23  ); r = _ 23; n = 4
Savings: 30 000; 33 000; 36 000
(
a 1 − r n)
a = 30 000; d = 3 000; n = ? Sn > 180 940 Sn=  _______
1−r
Sn =  _n2( 2a + (n − 1)d ) ( )
12( _ 2  ) 1 − ( _ 2  )  
4
_n( 60 000 + (n − 1)3 000 )  > 180 940 S4  =  ___________
  
3 3

2
_2 1 − (  3  )
n( 60 000 + 3 000n − 3 000 )  > 361 880
(
8 1 − ( __
 16  )  )
3 000n2 + 57 000n − 361 800 > 0 S4  =  ________
_1
81

 3
Using the quadratic formula:
_______________________________
57 0002   − 4( 3 000 × ( −361 800 )  ) 
−57 000 ± √    
S4  = 8( _____− 16
  8181   )  ×  _13
n =  __________________________________
        
2 × 3 000
S4  =  _81  ×  __
65
  ×  _31
n = 5,02 or n = −24,02 (N/A) 81
So it will take six years to save more than S4 = 19,26 m

R180 940. ∴ the total distance travelled is:
12 + 2 × (19,26) = 50,5 m
Exercise 1.9
1. Farmer Langa starts farming with 450 sheep. He finds that his stock increases by
12% each year. How many sheep will Langa have on his farm at the end of five
years?
2. Farmer Joe starts farming with a certain number of cattle. He finds that, each year,
he has 30 more cattle. At the end of five years, the farmer has 2 420 cattle. How
many cattle did the farmer start with?
3. Dean’s granny gives him R1 on his first birthday, R2 on his second birthday, R3
on his third birthday, R4 on his fourth birthday, and so on.
a) How much money will Dean receive on his 20th birthday?
b) Calculate the total amount of money Dean would have received from his
granny over the 20 years.
24
4. Sipho’s granny gives him one cent on his first birthday, two cents on his second
birthday, four cents on his third birthday, eight cents on his fourth birthday, and
so on.
a) How much money will Sipho receive on his 20th birthday?
b) Calculate the total amount of money Sipho would have received from his
granny over the 20 years.
5. Refer to questions 3 and 4. Would Dean or Sipho have received more money over
the 20 years?
6. An athlete is training to run the Comrades Marathon. He runs 12 km on the first
day and increases his distance by 2 km each day.
a) On which day would he cover a distance of 32 km?
b) After how many days would he have covered a total distance of 210 km?
7. The road works department is tarring a road. They set up camp at the start of the
road. The workers manage to tar 0,6 km of road every day and return to their
camp site at the end of every day.
a) How far will the workers travel on the 20th day?
b) How far will the workers have travelled in total after 20 days?
8. Kashiv saves R500 in the first month of his working career. He saves the same
amount at the end of each month of the year. Each subsequent year, he manages
to save 10% more than he saved the previous year. Calculate:
a) Kashiv’s total savings at the end of the first year
b) the amount that Kashiv would be saving monthly in his sixth year
c) the total amount that Kashiv would have saved at the end of six years.
9. A horizontal line intersects part of the sine
curve at four points. It therefore divides the
curve into five parts.
a) If a second line is drawn to intersect the
curve, into how many parts will the curve be divided?
b) If ten lines are drawn to intersect the curve, how many parts will the curve
be divided into?
10. A factory manufactures a product for R200,00. Each time the product is bought
and sold a profit of 25% is made.
a) If the product is bought and sold seven times, what will the price of the
product be?
b) Calculate the difference between the original price and the price after it has
been sold for the seventh time.
11. Vaughan is preparing for a bicycle race. In the first week, he rides 132 km. He
then increases his distance by 12 km each week.
a) What distance did Vaughan ride in the seventh week?
b) What was the total distance Vaughan covered after seven weeks?
25
12. A water tank contains 216 ℓ of water at the end of day 1. Because of a leak, the
tank loses one-sixth of the previous day’s contents.
How many litres of water will there be in the tank at the end of the:
a) second day
b) third day
c) seventh day?
13. Zintle decides to join a stokvel to save for her son’s education when he leaves
school. She joins the stokvel in January of his Grade 1 year and has to pay
R300,00 monthly. The stokvel payments increase by R50,00 each year. If there are
12 people in the stokvel and Zintle is paid in December, how much will she have
saved at the end of 12 years, assuming that she does not spend any of her stokvel
payments?
Infinite series
Exercise 1.10
For each series:

a) Complete the table.
b) Plot a graph where the x-axis represents the number of terms and the y-axis
represents the sum of the terms.
1. 1+2+4+8+…
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 1:

y
1 000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
26
2. −5 + 15 – 45 …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 2:

y
75 000
60 000
45 000
30 000
15 000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
15 000
30 000
45 000
60 000
75 000
3. 1 +  _12  +  _14   +  _18  + …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 3:

y
2,00
1,75
1,50
1,25
1,00
0,75
0,50
0,25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
27
8 16
4. 6 − 4 +  __   −  ___  + …
3 9
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 4:

y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
5. 3 + 7 + 11 + …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 5:

y
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
28
6. 6+1–4−…
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 6:

y
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
7. 27 + 9 + 3 + …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 7:

y
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
29
8. 27 + …
6 + 9 + ___
2
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 8:

y
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
9. 32 – 8 + 2 − …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 9:

y
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
30
10. −5 − 5 − 5 − …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Graph for series 10:

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
y
27 + …
11. 15 + 9 +  ___
5
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10

y
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
31
12. 16 – 8 + 4 − …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10

y
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
13. 4 + 3 _12 + 3 + …
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10

y
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
32
2   + 6  __
14. 5 + 5  __ 1   + …
3 3
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10

y
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Until now, we have only ever added a finite number of terms. An infinite series has an
infinite number of terms. In some cases, we can work out the sum of an infinite series.
∞, which means the sum to infinity. If you could add an infinite
We write this as S
number of terms, what do you think would be the sum of the series?
Using the tables and graphs from the previous questions, complete the following
table:
Conclusion
Sequence AP or GP d= r=
∞
about the S
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
33
Conclusion
Sequence AP or GP d= r=
∞
about the S
12
13
14
Tick the relevant block:

A series:
• converges if the sum approaches a particular value as we add more terms.
• diverges if the sum of the series becomes a very large positive or negative number
as we add more terms.
• oscillates if, as we add more terms, the sum of the series changes between being
positive and negative.
Series Geometric series Arithmetic series

r < −1 −1 < r < 1 r=1 r>1 d<0 d>0
Converges
Diverges
Oscillates
Conclusion:
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Sum to infinity
From the investigation, we find that only a geometric series will converge. In fact, a
geometric series will only converge if −1 < r < 1. We can derive a formula for the sum
to infinity as follows:
a − ar n
Sn=  ______
1−r
a
∴ Sn=  ____ ar n
−  ____
1−r 1−r
if − 1 < r < 1, then r n → 0 as n → ∞  (Remember that the arrow →
ar
n
∴ ____→ 0 as n → ∞  means ‘tends to’)
1−r
a
∴ Sn →  ____ as n → ∞
1−r
a
∴ S∞ =  ____
1−r
34
Example 1
∞ n−1
Determine: ∑ 2 . ( __ 12 )
n=1
Solution
∞ n−1
∑ 2 . ( __ 12 )
  = 2 . __ ( 2)
1 0
( 2)
      + 2 . __
1 1
( 2)
      + 2 . __
1 2
( 2)
      + 2 . __
1 3
      + …
n=1
1 1
= 2 + 1 +  __  +  __  + …
2 4
a=2 r =  __1
a 2
S∞=  ____
1−r
=   2 __1
_____
1 −  
2
2
=  __
_1   2
2
= 2 ×  __
1
=4
Example 2
˙ as a common fraction.
∞of a geometric series to express 0, 6
Use the formula for S
Solution
0, 6 ˙ =  __  +  ___  +  _____  + …
6 6 6 6
∴ a =  __ 1
r =  __
10 100 1 000 10 10
a
S∞=  ____
1−r
__6
 
=  ______
10
1
__

1 −  
10
__6
 
=  ___
10
9
__

 
10
6 10
=  __  ×  __
10 9
2
=  __
3
Example 3
For which values of x will the series (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + … converge?
Solution
For the series (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)3 + … r = x + 1
For the series to converge, −1 < r < 1
∴ −1 < x + 1 < 1
−2 < x < 0
35
Exercise 1.11
1. Determine the sum to infinity for the following series:

b) 4; 2; 1;  __; …
1
a) 27 + 9 + 3 + 1 + …
2
16 − 4 + 1 −  __  + … 6 + 4 +  __  +  __  + …
1 8 16
c) d)
4 3 9
25 + 15 + 9 +  __  + …
27
e) −32 + 16 − 8 + 4 − … f)
5
2. Evaluate the following, if possible. If not possible, give a reason why the sum to
infinity cannot be found.
∞ n−1 ∞ n−1 ∞
a) ∑ 2 . ( __ 13 ) b) ∑ ( −  __45 ) c) ∑  __13 (2) n−1

n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
d) 1 ∑ (3)
8 __
n −1
  2   e) ∑ 1 8( __  32  )
n−1
f) ∑ 3 1−n

n=0 n=1 n=2
3. Convert each of the following to a common fraction:
˙
a) 0, 8 b) 2, 3 ˙ 4 ˙ c) 1, 2 ˙ 5
˙
4. Given the sequence 5(45) + 5(44) + 5(43 ) + …
a) Show that the series is convergent.
b) Calculate the sum to infinity of the series.
5. Given the geometric series 9x + 3x2 + x
3 + …
x
n= 27 __
n
a) Show that T     ( 3)
b) For which values of x will the series converge?
c) Calculate the sum to infinity if x = 2.
6. In a sequence of squares, the sides of the first square are 4 cm long. The sides
of each subsequent square are half that of the previous square.
1
4 cm 2 cm 1 cm 2 cm
a) Determine the length of the side of the eighth square.

b) Write down the series for the perimeter of the squares.
c) Determine the sum of the perimeters of the squares if they continue
infinitely.
d) Write down the series for the areas of the squares.
e) Determine the sum of the areas of the squares if they continue infinitely.
36
7. The numbers 5m − 7; 2m + 2; m + 3 are positive numbers and the first three
terms of a convergent geometric series. Calculate:
a) the value of m.
b) the sum to infinity of the series.
128 1
8. The sum to infinity of a geometric series is  ___and the common ratio is __
  .
3 4
Calculate the first term of the series.
3 3
9. In the series 6 + 3 + __ + __ + …, A is the sum to infinity and B is the sum to n
2 4
terms. Calculate:
a) the value of A
b) the value of B in terms of n
3
c) the value of n for which is A − B = __.
64
10. A plant is a 100 cm tall when planted. At the end of the first year, the plant is
120 cm tall. Each year, the plant grows by half the amount of the previous year.
a) What will the height of the plant be after six years?
b) Show that the plant will never exceed a height of 140 cm.
Summary
Arithmetic Geometric
Test T3 − T2 = T2 − T1 T3  =  __

___ T2

T2 T1
General form Tn = a + (n − 1)d Tn = a . r n – 1
( n)
a 1 − r ; r < 1
Sn=  __n( 2a + (n − 1)d ) Sn=  ________
1−r
2
Sum or or
S n=   a + l )
n(
__ ( r n − 1 )
a
_______
S n=   r − 1 ; r > 1
2
___
a+b
_____
Mean 2 √
ab
Converges for: −1 < r < 1

=  ____
a
S∞ S∞
1−r
37
Revision exercise
1. Given the following sequence: 12; 6; 3; …

a) Show that Tn = 3 . 23 − n
10
b) Determine: T∑
n
n=1
27
2. Given the series: 16; 12; 9; __
  ; …
4
a) Calculate the sum of the first ten terms of the series.
b) Determine the sum to infinity.
c) Write the sum of the first ten terms of the series in sigma notation.
n
3. a) ∑
r=1
n(3n + 11)
Prove that ( 3r + 4)  =  ________
2
b) Hence find the sum of the first 30 terms of the series.

c) How many terms of the series will give a sum of 996?
4. How many terms of the series 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + … add up to 876?
5. In an arithmetic progression, S6  = 20 and S5  = 12. Determine the value of T6
6. For which values of x will the geometric series 3 + 3(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)2 + …
be convergent?
7. The sum of the third and the seventh terms of an arithmetic series is 48.
The sum of the first ten terms of the series is 265. Determine the first three
terms of the series.
8. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
−4 8 32
This sequence could be either arithmetic or geometric.
a) Determine the nth term in each case.
b) Hence, determine the first and fourth terms if the sequence is:
i) arithmetic
ii) geometric.
1 1 1
9. Given the sequence:  __; 1 ; __
  ; 5; __
  ; 9; …
2 4 8
a) Write down the next four terms if the sequence continues in the
same manner.
b) Determine the sum of the first 40 terms of the sequence.
10. Determine the nth of the sequence 4; 2; … if the sequence is
a) arithmetic
b) geometric.
38
11. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by the formula Sn = 3n − 1 + 9.
a) Determine the sum of the first 20 terms of the series.
b) Determine the 20th term of the series.
c) Show that Tn = 2 . 3n − 2.
12. Determine the 15th term of the arithmetic progression: x + y; 2x; 3x – y; …
13. A ball drops from a height of 16 metres and rebounds half its distance on each
bounce. Calculate the total distance it will have travelled before coming to rest.
14. The sum of n terms of the arithmetic series 2 + 5 + 8 … is equal to the sum of n
1 1
terms of the arithmetic series 5 + 6 __ + 8 + 9 __ + … Calculate the value of n.
2 2
15. A tree is planted and the height is measured at the end of each year. The height of
the tree is found to be 1 m at the end of the first year. In the second year, the tree
4
increases in height by 15 cm. The tree increases in height each year by __  of the
5
previous year’s growth.
a) Complete the table:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Height of tree in m 1 1,15
Growth in cm 15 12
b) Determine the increase in the height of the tree at the end of the 12th year.
c) Determine the height of the tree after 12 years.
d) Show that the maximum height the tree will reach will be 1,75 m.
16. Since 2003, the deaths per 100 000 people at risk due to malaria in Africa have
roughly followed the following pattern:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
126,2 123,2 119 113,6 107
a) Determine whether this follows the pattern of
i) a geometric sequence
ii) an arithmetic sequence
iii) a quadratic sequence.
b) Determine the nth term of this sequence.
c) What percentage reduction has taken place between 2003 and 2010?
39
Functions and inverse
Chapter 2 functions
• revise functions dealt with in grades 10 and 11
• define a function
• learn about the inverse of a function
• learn how to sketch the graphs of inverse functions.
In grades 10 and 11, you learnt how to draw the graphs of different functions,
namely:
• the straight line: y = ax + q
• the parabola: y = a(x + p)2 + q
a
• the hyperbola: y = ______ + q
(x + p)
x + p+ q
• the exponential function: y = a . b
Revising functions dealt with

in Grade 10 and 11
Before sketching a graph:
• you need to identify the curve, so you need to be familiar with the general equation
of each function
• draw a rough sketch of the graph
• calculate the possible x- and y-intercepts of the graph
• write down the equations of any asymptotes
• write down the equation of the axis of symmetry of a parabola and the coordinates
of the turning point.
40
Example 1
1
Sketch the graph of y = − __
x + 3
2
Solution
1
• This is the graph of a straight line with a negative gradient: gradient = − __

2
Rough sketch:
y
• To calculate the y-intercept, we let x = 0 and solve for y:

y = − __1( 0 ) + 3
2
=3
The y-intercept is (0; 3).
• To calculate the x-intercept, we let y = 0 and solve for x:
1
0 = − __ x + 3
2
0 = −x + 6 Multiply both sides by 2
x=6
The x-intercept is (6; 0).
y
6
5
4
3
y 1 x 3
2 2
1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
1
2
3
4
41
Example 2
Sketch the graph of y = 2(x − 3)2 − 8
Solution
• This is the graph of a parabola. • Rough sketch:
• The equation of the axis of symmetry is y
x = 3.
• The turning point of the graph is (3; −8).
• To calculate the y-intercept, let x = 0 and
solve for y:
y = 2(0 − 3)2 − 8 x
y = 10
• To calculate the x-intercept, let y = 0 and solve for x:

0 = 2(x − 3)2 − 8
8 = 2(x − 3)2 Add 8 to both sides
4 = (x − 3)
2
Divide both sides by 2
__
± √ 4  = (x − 3) Take the square root of both sides
x − 3 = −2 or x − 3 = 2 y
x=1 x= 5 10
9
The x-intercepts are (1; 0) and (5; 0).
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
y 2(x 3)2 8
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
42
Example 3
−4 + 2.
Sketch the graph of y = _____
x−1
Solution
• This is the graph of a hyperbola. • Rough sketch:
• The equation of the asymptotes are y = 2 and y
x = 1.
• To calculate the y-intercept, we let x = 0 and
solve for y:
−4 + 2
y = _____
0−1
y=6
• To calculate the x-intercept,
we let y = 0 and solve for x:
x
−4 + 2
0 = _____
x−1
4 4
 _____ = 2 Add ____
  to both sides
x−1 x−1
4 = 2(x − 1) Find the LCD
4 = 2x − 2 Multiply out the bracket
6 = 2x Add 2 to both sides
x=3 Divide both sides by 2
The x-intercept is (3; 0).
• Determine the y
coordinates of 3 9
other points to 8
help you draw 7
the graph. 6
5
4
3
2
1
–3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
–3 –4
y= 2
–4 (x –1)
–5
–6
–7
43
Example 4
Sketch the graph of y = −2 __
1 x+1
    + 4 ( 2)
Solution
• This is the graph of an exponential • Rough sketch:
function. y
• The equation of the asymptote is
y = 4.
• To calculate the y-intercept, we let
x = 0 and solve for y:
( 2)
y = −2 __ 1  + 4
0+1
x
y=3
• To calculate the x-intercept, we let
y = 0 and solve for x:
0 = −2 __
1 x+1
( 2)
    + 4
( 2) 2 __
1 x+1
    = 4 ()
Add 2 __
1 x+1
  t o both sides
2
( __
    )
1 x+1
=2 Divide both sides by 2
2
1
( 2− 1  )x + 1 = 21 Write __
  as 2 −1
2
2−x − 1 = 21 Raising a power to a power

∴ −x − 1 = 1
Equate the exponents
−x = 2
x = −2 Solve for x
The x-intercept is (−2; 0).
y
4
3 1 x +1
y = –2 2 +4
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
–2
–3
44
Exercise 2.1
1. Sketch the graphs of the following:

2
a) y = _____ b) y = 2(x − 1)2 c) y = 2x − 1
x−1
d) y = 2x − 1 e) y = 2x − 1 f) y = 2x2
2 x 2
g) y = __− 1 h) y = __ − 1 i) y = _____ +1
x 2 x+2
j) y = −2( x + 1 )2 + 2 k) y = x −1 l) y = x 1
( 2)
y = __ 1 
x+2
m) y = x
2 n) y = 2− x o)
( 2)
x
4 −2
p) y = _____ +2 q) y = −1 __ 1  + 4 r) y = _____ −1
x−1 x+2
s) y = __1( x − 2 )2 − 8 t) y=3. 2x + 1 −3
2
2. Determine the equations of the following:
a
a) f(x) = a(x + p)2 + q b) g(x) = _____
x+p
y y
(2; 9)
(0; 5) f
x –1 x
(1; –1)
c) h(x) = abx+ q d) p(x) = ax2 + bx + c

y y
(1; 7)
1
x –3 1 x
(–2; –6)
45
a
e) g(x) = _____+ q f) h(x) = − 1. bx + p+ q
x+p
y y
8
(–4; 1)
x 2 x
(– 2; –1)
a
g) y = _____; y > 0 x + p
h) y = b
x+p
y y
3 3
(1; 1)
–2 x x
i) y = ax2
y
x
(–2; – 2)
46
Functions
A relation is any relationship between two variables. A function is a special kind of
relation in which:
• For every x-value, there is at most one y-value. Each element of the domain is
associated with only one element of the range. In other words, the x-values are
never repeated in the set of ordered pairs of a function. For example:
{(1; 2); (2; 4); (3; 6)} is a function
{(1; 2); (1; −2); (2; 4); (2; −4)} is a NOT a function, because the x-coordinates
are repeated.
• Any vertical line will cut the graph of a function once and only once. For example:
Function Not a function Not a function

• A function has one-to-one or many-to-one mapping.
i) ii) iii) iv)
x y x y x y x y
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
0 6 0 6 0 6 0 6
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7
2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8
3 9 3 9 3 9 3 9
One-to-one mapping Many-to-one mapping One-to-many mapping Many-to-many mapping

function function not a function not a function
If we list the ordered pairs for each mapping, we have:
i) {(−2; 5); (0; 7); (2; 9)}
No x-coordinate is repeated, so the relation is a function.
Every x-value maps onto only one y-value. In other words, neither the x- nor
the y‑values are repeated.
The domain is x ∈ {−2; 0; 2} and the range is y ∈ {5; 7; 9}.
ii) {(−2; 5); (−1; 5); (0; 7); (2; 7)}
No x-coordinate is repeated, so the relation is a function.
Many x-values map onto more than one y-value. In other words, the x-values
are not repeated, but the y-values are repeated.
The domain is x ∈ {−2; −1; 0; 2} and the range is y ∈ {5; 7}.
47
iii) {(−2; 4); (−1; 4); (−1; 6); (1; 7); (1; 8)}
Two x-coordinates are repeated, so the relation is not a function.
The same x-value maps onto different y-values. In other words, the x-values are
repeated, but the y-values are not repeated.
The domain is x ∈ {−2; −1; 1} and the range is y ∈ {4; 6; 7; 8}.
iv) {(−2; 4); (−1; 4); (−1; 6); (1; 6); (1; 8)}
Two x- coordinates are repeated, so the relation is not a function.
Many x-values map onto many y-values. In other words, both the x- and the
y‑values are repeated.
The domain is x ∈ {−2; −1; 1} and the range is y ∈ {4; 6; 8}.
A function is increasing if the variables change in the same direction. In other

words, as the x-values increase, the y-values increase as well. Or, as the x-values
decrease, the y-values decrease as well.
A function is decreasing if the variables change in different directions. In other
words, as the values of x increase, the values of y decrease. Or, as the values of x
decrease, the values of y increase.
Exercise 2.2
1. Determine which of the following graphs are functions.

a) y b) y c) y d) y
x x x
x
e) y f) y g) y h) y
x x x
2. f = {(2; 5); (3; 7); (4; 9); (5; 11)}

a) Is f a function? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Write down the domain and range of f.
c) Determine m if f(m) = 9.
d) Determine n if f(3) = n.
3. Given that P is not a function, determine the value(s) of x.
P = {(x2 ; 2); (x + 2; 3); (4; 5)}
48
4. Do the following mappings represent a function? Give a reason for your answer.
a) b) c) d)
x y x y x y x y
–2 4 –4 1 –2 4 1 14
–1 6 –3 3 –1 5 2 13
0 8 –2 5 0 6 3 12
1 10 –1 7 1 7 4 11
2 12 0 9 2 8 5 10
3 14 1 11 3 9 6 9
5. Write down the domain and range for each of the mappings in question 4.
Inverse functions
The inverse of a one-to-one function
Operation Inverse operation
add subtract
subtract add
multiply divide
divide multiply
square square root
square root square
Example 1
2x + 5
Find the inverse of the function f(x) = _____
3
Solution
If we draw a flow diagram of this function, it will look as follows:
x 2x 2x + 5 2x + 5
______
Multiply by 2 Add 5 Divide by 3  
3
If we now replace each operation with its inverse, the flow diagram will look as
follows:
3x – 5
_____
  2 3x – 5 3x
divide by 2 subtract 5 multiply by 3 x
49
We write the equation of the inverse function using the notation: f −1
2x + 5 3x − 5
So if f(x) = _____then the inverse function is f −1(x) = _____
3 2
If we substitute values for x into the function, we obtain certain output values. If we
now use these output values as input values to the inverse function, we get back to
the original values we substituted into the function. For example:
f (x) 5 2x 1 5 f 21(x) 5 3x 2 5
3 2
Input Output Input Output
8 7 7 8
2 3 3 2
2x 1 5 3x 2 5
3 5 5 2
0 3 3 0
24 21 21 24
If we list the set of ordered pairs, we have:

2x + 5 3x − 5
f(x) = _____ f −1(x) = _____
3 2
{ ( 3)
5
(8; 7); (2; 3); 0; __ } { (3 )
  5; 0 ; ( −1; −4 ) 
  ; (−4; −1) (7; 8); (3; 2); __ }
Domain: x ∈ {8; 2; 0; −4} { 5
Domain: x ∈ 7; 3; __
  ; −1
3 }
Range: y { 5
∈ 7; 3; __ }
  ; −1
3
Range: y ∈ {8; 2; 0; −4}
The domain of the function becomes the range of the inverse. The range of the
function becomes the domain of the inverse.
Example 2
If f (x) = 3x + 6:
.
1. Write the equation of the inverse in the form f −1
2. Sketch the graphs of f and f −1
on the same system of axes, along with the line
y = x.
Solution
1. If f (x) = 3x + 6, we can determine the equation of the inverse by interchanging
x and y in the original function.
We can write f(x) = 3x + 6 as y = 3x + 6. Then, after interchanging x and y, we
have the inverse function: x = 3y + 6. The last step is to make y the subject of
the equation.
x − 6 = 3y
x−6
y = _____
3
1
__
y =  x − 2
3
1
So f ( x) = __x − 2
−1
3
50
2. In the graph: y
8
• The graph and its inverse are 7
symmetrical about the line y = x. 6
5
• If the graphs intersect, they y=x
4
intersect on the line y = x. 3
2
• If we interchange the x- and y = 3x + 6
1
y-values of the coordinates of f, we
0 x
can draw the graph of f −1
. So if the −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
points (0; 6) and (−2; 0) satisfy the −2 y=1x−2
−3 3
equation of f, then (6; 0) and
−4
(0; −2) satisfy the equation of f −1
. −5
−6
−7
−8
• The graph and its inverse are always symmetrical about the line y = x.
• The inverse ‘reverses’ the operations of f.
• We denote the inverse of f as f −1.
• The domain of f becomes the range of f −1.
• The range of f becomes the domain of f −1.
• To determine the inverse of any relation, interchange x and y.
Exercise 2.3
1. Complete this table: We have completed the first line as an example.
Interchange Is the inverse a

FUNCTION INVERSE
x and y function?
x = 2y
Double it Halve it
x = y
__ Yes
y = 2x y = __x 2 x
2 ∴ y = __
2
Square it
a)
y = x 2
Add 2
b)
y=x+2
Subtract 4
c)
y=x−4
Divide by 5
d) y = __x
5
Multiply by 6
e)
y = 6x
51
2. a) If f(x) = 2x − 4, complete the flow diagram.
2x
x Multiply by 2 Subtract 4 2x − 4
..............
Inverse: x ................... ................... ................
b) Draw f and its inverse on the same set of axes, as well as the graph of y = x.
3. For each of the following,
i) Write the equation of the inverse in the form f −1.
ii) Sketch the graphs of f and f −1on the same system of axes, as well as the
line y = x.
1
a) f(x) = 3x + 2 b) f(x) = __x − 6 c) f(x) = −2x + 4
2
d) f(x) = − __ 1x + 1 e) f(x) = __5x − 5 f) f(x) = − __2x + 6
3 2 3
4. g = {(−4; 3); (−3; 4); (0; 0); (3; −4); (4; −3)}
a) Is g a function? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Write down the domain and range of g.
c) Determine p if g(p) = 4.
d) Determine q if g(−4) = q.
e) Write g−1 in the form g = {(...;…);…}
−1
f) Is g a function? Give a reason for your answer.
−1
g) Write down the domain and range of g −1.
The inverse of a many-to-one function
Example 1
1. Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 and its inverse on the same set of axes.
2. Write the equation of the inverse in the form y = …
3. Write down the domain and the range of the relation and its inverse.
Solution
The characteristics of the graph y = 2x2 are given below:
Axis of symmetry: x = 0
Turning point: (0; 0)
y-intercept: (0; 0)
x-intercepts: (0; 0)
If we calculate the coordinates of two other points which lie on the graph of y = 2x2:
Let x = 1, then y = 2(1)2 = 2. So (1; 2) lies on the graph.
Also if x = −2, y = 2(−2)2 = 8. So (−2; 8) also lies on the graph.
52
Using the characteristics of y = 2x2, we can determine the characteristics of
its inverse.
y = 2x2 Inverse
Axis of symmetry x=0 y=0
Turning point (0; 0) (0; 0)
y-intercept(s) (0; 0) (0; 0)
x-intercept(s) (0; 0) (0; 0)
(1; 2) lies on the graph (2; 1) lies on the inverse
(−2; 8) lies on the graph (8; −2) lies on the inverse
To determine the equation of the inverse in the form y = …, we interchange x and y.

So y = 2x2 becomes:
x = 2y2
__x
2= y2 (dividing both sides by 2)
__
√2
x
±  __
    = y (taking ± the square root on both sides)
__
y = ± √ __  x  
2
y
6 y 2x2
5
yx
4
3
2
1 y x
2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
−2
−3
53
When dealing with one-to-one relations, both the relation and its inverse are
functions.
When dealing with many-to-one relations, the relation is a function, but its
inverse is not a function. However, we can restrict the domain of the relation so
that its inverse will be a function.
Example 2
If f(x) = x
2 ; x ≥ 0, sketch the graphs of f and f −1 on the same set of axes.
Solution
y = f(x) = x 2 ;
Inverse
x≥0
x __= y 2 ; y ≥ 0
√ x = y We only take the positive square
Equation
__ root since y ≥ 0
y = √ x y ≥ 0
Axis of symmetry: x=0 y=0
Turning point: (0; 0) (0; 0)
y-intercept(s): (0; 0) (0; 0)
x-intercept(s): (0; 0) (0; 0)
Another point which
(2; 4) (4; 2)
lies on the graph
If a graph and its inverse intersect, they will intersect on the line y = x.
y
y=x
5
f (x) = x2
4
3
2
f –1(x) = x
1
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
54
The inverse of an exponential function
Example
1. If f(x) = 2x ; sketch the graphs of f and f −1on the same set of axes.
2. Write down the domain and range of f and f −1.
Solution
1. At this stage, you have not learnt how to write the inverse of f(x) = 2x in the
form f − 1(x) = … You will learn how to do so in Chapter 3 when we discuss
logarithms. For now we will accept the fact that the equation of the inverse
of f(x) = 2x is written as f −1(x) = log2 x. To draw the graph of the inverse of
f(x) = 2x , we use the same technique as before. In other words, we interchange
x- and y-values. So if the point (x; y) lies on f, then the point (y; x) lies on the
graph of f −1.
f(x) = 2x Inverse
Asymptote y=0 x=0

y-intercept: (0; 1) none
x-intercept: none (1; 0)
Two other points on the graph (1; 2) (2; 4) (2; 1) (4; 2)
y
y =x
5
4
f
3
2
1 –1
f
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
55
2. Domain Range
f x∈ℝ y ∈ ℝ; y > 0
f –1 x ∈ ℝ; x > 0 y∈ℝ
Equation of the function Equation of the inverse

y = 2x y = log2 x
( 2)
x
y = __ 1  y = log__ 12 x
y = 3x y = log3 x
( 5)
x
y = __ 1  y = log__ 15 x
Exercise 2.4
1. For each of the following:

i) Determine the equation of the inverse.
ii) Draw the graph of the relation, its inverse, and the line y = x.
iii) Write down the domain and range for both the relation and its inverse.
3 3
a) f(x) = − __x2 b) g(x) = − __x
2 2
c) h(x) = 3x d) p(x) = 3x2
1
2. The diagram represents the graphs of y = f(x) = __x2 ; x ≤ 0 and
2
y = g(x) = − __1x + 1. A point of intersection is P(−2; 2).
2
y
f
P
(–2; 2)
g

a) Calculate the points where g intercepts the axes.
b) Write down the equations of the inverse of f and g in the form f − 1(x) = …
and g −1(x) = …
c) On the same system of axes, sketch the graphs of f −1and g
−1, clearly showing
all intercepts with the axes.
56
d) Write down the domain and range of f.
e) Write down the equation of the line about which f and f −1are symmetrical.
3. a) If f(x) = −2x2 ; x ≤ 0, sketch the graph f and f −1on the same set of axes.
b) Write the equation of f −1in the form f −1(x) = …
c) Write down the domain and range of f and f −1.
4. The diagram represents the graph of y = f(x) = ax2 ; x ≥ 0. Point A(2; −6) lies on f.
y
A(2; –6)
a) Calculate the value of a.

b) Write down the equations of the inverse of f in the form f −1(x) = …
c) Sketch the graph of f −1, clearly showing the coordinates of at least two points
on the curve.
d) Write down the domain and range of f −1.
5. Match the function with its inverse:
a) y = 2x − 4 A y = __x + 2
2
___
3
b) y = ± √ 2x B y = _____
x −__1
c) y = __3+ 1 C
√2
y = − __  x  ; y < 0
x
d) y = 2x ; x < 0
2
D y = __1x2
2
57
Revision exercise
1. The following points satisfy the function f: (−3; 5), (–1; 7), (0; 8) and (4; 12).
Write down the coordinates of four points that satisfy the inverse of f.
x
2. The inverse of the function f is given by the equation f −1(x) = __ + 4. Determine
3
the equation of f(x).
3. g = {(−4; 3); (−3; 2); (0; 1); (3; 2); (4 ; 3)}
a) Is g a function? Give a reason for your answer.
b) Write down the domain and range of g.
c) Determine p if g(p) = 2.
d) Determine q if g(−4) = q.
e) Write g − −1 = {(...;..);…}
1in the form g
f) Is g −1a function? Give a reason for your answer.
g) Write down the domain and range of g −1.
4. ( 12 )
1; __
A     is a point on the curve of the function f: x → b
.
x
a) Determine the value of b.

b) Sketch f and f −1on the same set of axes.
c) Write down the domain and range of f and f −1.
4x + 16
5. If f(x) = ______, match the following:
2
1
a) f −1(x) A y = _____
2x + 8
() 1
__
b) f x
2
B y = __+ 8
x
1
___
c)   C y = −2x + 8
f(x)
1
d) f(−x) D y = __x − 4
2
6. The following graphs represent the functions y = f(x) = x
2 and y = g(x) = 2x . One
of the points of intersection of f and g is A(2; 4).
y
5
A(2; 4)
4
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
58
a) Write down the domain and range of f and g.
b) Draw the inverses of f and g on the same set of axes. Clearly show the
coordinates of any intercepts with the axes, as well as the coordinates of two
other points on each graph.
c) Write down the equation of the asymptote of g
−1.
d) How can the domain of f be restricted so that the inverse of f will also be a
function? Hence, write down the equation of the inverse of f.
7. Which of A, B or C represent the inverse of the following relation?
y
4
3
2
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
A B C
y y y
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4
–5 –5 –5
59
8. The following diagram represents the graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. The graph has
a turning point of T(4; 2).
y
T(4; 2)
f
a) Determine the equation of f.

b) Draw the graph of f −1, indicating at least three points on the curve.
9. This graph represents the function f.
y
6
5
4
3
f
2
1
–7 – 6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
a) Write down the domain and range of f.
b) Draw the graph of f −1, the inverse of f.
c) Write down the domain and range of f −1.
d) Is the inverse of f a function? Give a reason for your answer.
60
Exponential and
Chapter 3 logarithmic functions

• revise the exponential function and the exponential laws
x
• revise the graph defined by y = b
, where b > 0 and b ≠ 1
y
• learn the definition of a logarithm: y = logbx ⇔ x = b
, where b > 0 and b ≠ 1
• learn how to graph the function y = logbx for both 0 < b < 1 and b > 1.
Exponential functions
In this first section, we revise what you have learnt about graphs of the form y = ax.
Exponential functions
y = a x
a>1 0<a<1
y y
x x
y-intercept (0; 1) (0; 1)
x-intercept none none
Increasing/
decreasing Increasing function Decreasing function
function
Asymptote y=0 y=0
Domain x∈ℝ x∈ℝ
Range y ∈ ℝ; y > 0 y ∈ ℝ; y > 0
61
Example
On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = f(x) = 2xand y = g(x) = ( _  12  )
x
Solution
y
4
3
g 2 f
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
Note that the graph of g is a reflection of f about the y-axis (or the line x = 0).
If a graph is reflected about the line x = 0, we obtain the equation of the reflected
graph by replacing x with −x. For example:
g(x) = f(−x)
= 2−x
= ( 2−1
  )x
= ( _  12  )
x
Here is a summary of the rules to use when a graph is reflected about the x-axis,
y-axis, the line y = x and the line y = −x. You studied these rules in Grade 9.
Coordinates change as follows
about the x-axis (x; y) → (x; −y)
about the y-axis (x; y) → (−x ;y)

Reflections
about the line y = x (x; y) → (y; x)
about the line y = −x (x; y) → (−y; −x)
62
Exercise 3.1
1. Copy the table. In each case, reflect the graph about the given line.
Reflect the graph about

y = ( _ 12  )
x
y = 2x
the line:
y y
x x
y= 0
y y
x x
x=0
y y
x x
y=x
y y
x x
y = −x
2. Determine the equation of each of the reflections in Question 1.
y = ( _ 12  )

x
y = 2x
Reflection about y = 0
Reflection about x = 0
Reflection about y = x
Reflection about y = −x
63
In Chapter 2, we pointed out that, when reflecting a graph about the line y = x, we
simply interchange x and y in the equation of the function. We then make y the
subject of the new equation. For example, the reflection of y = 2x about the line y = x
is x = 2y. Until now, you have not been able to write this in the form y = ... . To do so,
we need logarithms. The equation of the inverse of the graph y = 2x is written as
y = log2x .
Logarithmic functions
Definition: If ab= c then b = logac
So if x = aythen y = loga x if a > 0 and a ≠ 1.

For example, if x = 2ythen y = log2 x.
The inverse function of y = axis y = logax .
Therefore, if f(x) = axthen f −1
(x) = logax is the inverse function. For example:
 If g = ( _ 12  ) then g −1

x
• If f(x) = 2xthen f −1
(x) = log2 x   = log_  x
1
2

6 y 6 y
5 5
f g
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
f –1
–2 –2 g –1
y =x –3 –3
y=x
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
64
Logarithmic functions
y = loga x
a>1 0<a<1
y y
x x
y-intercept none none
x-intercept (1; 0) (1; 0)
Increasing/
decreasing Increasing function Decreasing function
function
Asymptote x=0 x=0
Domain x ∈ ℝ; x > 0 x ∈ ℝ; x > 0
Range y∈ℝ y∈ℝ
Exercise 3.2
1. Copy the table. In each case, reflect the graph about the given line.
Reflect the graph

y = log2 x y = log_  x
1
about the line: 2
y y
x x
y= 0
65
Reflect the graph
1
about the line: 2
y y
x x
x=0
y y
x x
y=x
y y
x x
y = –x
2. Determine the equation of each of the reflections in Question 1.
1
2
Reflection about y = 0
Reflection about x = 0
Reflection about y = x
Reflection about y = −x
Definition of a logarithm
The logarithm of a number is the exponent to which a base must be raised to produce
the number.
Definition: If ab = c then b = logac

We read this as ‘log c to the base a’.
66
Example 1
log3 9 = 2: log 9 to the base 3 is 2.
In other words, we need to raise 3 to the power of 2 to get 9.
log3 9 = 2 Log form
32= 9 Exponential form
Example 2
Write log5 125 = 3 in exponential form.
Solution
log5 125 = 3
53  = 125
Example 3
Write 34   = 81 in log form.
Solution
34   = 81
log3 81 = 4
Example 4
Evaluate log2 32.
Solution
Let log2 32 = x
2x= 32 Exponential form
2x= 25
Writing 32 as  25
∴x=5
∴ log2 32 = 5
Example 5
  ___
Evaluate log10 1
100
.
Solution
  ___
Let log10 1
100
  = x
10x=  ___
1
100
Exponential form
10x =  ___
1

102
10x= 10−2
∴ x = −2
∴ log10  ___
1
100
  = −2
67
Exercise 3.3

a) log2 8 b) log3 9 c) log10 100 d) log4 64
e) log3 81 f) log   __
3
1
27
g) log5 25 h) log2  _12
__
i) log4 16 j) log5 5 k) log3 √ 9  l) log10
10 000
2. Complete the table:
ab= c b = logac
a) log39 = 2
b) 24= 16
c) 102= 100
d) log2  _14= −2
e) log5 125 = 3
f) 43= 64
g) 35= 243
h) log10 1 = 0
_1
i) 16  2= 4
j) 7−2=  __
1
49

k) log9 27 =  _32
l) 103 = 1 000
3. Solve for x:
a) log2 16 = x b) log3 x = 81 c) logx 100 = 2
d) log4 x = 3 e) logx 32 = 5 f) log3 x = −3
___
g) log10  ___
1
100
  = x h) log4 √ 32   = x i) log2 x = 16
____
j) log_ 12 4 = x k) log__1 x = −2
 10 l) log5 √ 125   = x
Logarithmic laws
(This section is not examinable.)
In previous grades, you learnt the exponential laws and definitions.
Exponential laws and definitions

In this chapter, we work in the real number system.
68
(There are complex restrictions to these five laws, which we will not discuss in this
chapter.)
Exponents
Laws Definitions
1. am × an = a m + n 1. a0 = 1; a ≠ 0
1 1
2. am ÷ an = a m − n 2. a− n=  __ or ___
  −n = a n
a
n a
___ __
√n am = a  n
m
3. ( am )n = a m × n 3.
( ab ) = anbn
n
4.
( b)
n
an
5. __a =  __ n
b
Logarithms
Laws
1. loga m + loga n = loga mn
__
m
2. loga m − loga n = loga n
3. loga xm = m loga x
logb x
4. logax =  _____
logb a
You must be able to apply these laws:

• In general, loga a = 1
• log
a 1 = 0, since a 0= 1
• log1 x has no meaning
• log x = log10 x. If a logarithm is written without a base, we assume the base is 10.
• log
a x has no meaning if a ≤ 0. The base of a logarithm must be positive.
• loga a x= x
69
Examples
Evaluate the following:
1. log33 2. log28
Solution Solution
log3 3 = 1 log2 8 = log2  23 8 = 23
= 3 log2 2 Use Law 3
= 3(1) Since log2 2 = 1
=3
3. log 4 + log 25 4. log3 81 − log33
Solution Solution
log 4 + log 25 = log (4 × 25) Use Law 1 log3 81 − log3 3 = log3 ( __ 3 )
  81   Use Law 2
= log 100 = log3 27
= log10
102 = log3  33
= 2 log10 10 = 3 log3 3
= 2(1) = 3(1)
=2 =3
5. log 2 + log 3 − log 12 − log 4 + log 8 6. log8 1 024
Solution Solution
log 2 + log 3 − log 12 − log 4 + log 8 log8 1 024 =  _______
log2  1 024
log  8

2
= log ( _ 21  ×  _31  ×  __

1
12
  ×  _14   ×  _81  ) =  _____
log2   210
log   23

2
= log ( __48 )
 48  
=  ______
10 log2  2
3 log  2

2
= log 1
=0 =  __
10
3

7. 3 log 2 + 3 log 5 8. log7 8 . log4 49
Solution Solution
3 log 2 + 3 log 5 = log 23   + log 53 log7 8 . log4 49
= log 8 + log 125
=  _____ .  ______ Change the base to base
log 8 log 49
= log (8 × 125) log 7 log 4
10, using Law 4
= log 1 000
=  _____ .  _____2
log  23 log   72
= log10
103
log 7 log 2
= 3 log10
10
=  _____ .  ______ Use Law 3
3 log 2 2 log 7
=3
log 7 2 log 2
=3
70
Exercise 3.4
1. Evaluate the following using the log laws:

a) log2 8 + log2 4 b) log5 75 − log5 3 c) log3 27
d) log 2 + log 5 e) log 4 + log 25 f) log7 98 − log72
g) log 18 + log 5 − 2 log 3 h) log 27 − log _  1
3 33 i) − log 50 − log 2
a) log2 64 + log2 4 b) log2 64 − log2 4 c) log2 64 × log 24
d) log2 64 ÷ log2 4 e) log2 (64 + 4) f) log2 (64 − 4)
g) log2 (64 × 4) h) log2 (64 ÷ 4) i) log2 642
_1
j) ( log2   64 )2 k) log2 64 − 2 l) log2 64 2
m) log_ 21 16 n) log2 9 . log8 3 o) log5 4 . log_ 12 25
log3 ( __ 27 )
log   81 log3   27 + log3 3
a)  ______
3
b)   81   c)  ____________
  
log3  27 log3   27 − log3 3
log   27 × log   3 log   81 + log   16 log(81 ÷ 27)
d)  ____________
  
  3 3
e)  _____________
  2
   3
f)  ____________
  
  
log3 27 ÷ log3 3 log2   3 − log3 2 log 81 ÷ log 27
Equations involving logarithms

When solving an equation that includes logarithms, you need to remember that:
• the base of a logarithm cannot be negative
• we cannot find the logarithm of a negative number.
For example, if loga x = P; a > 0, a ≠ 1 and x > 0.

This means that you need to check the solutions to the logarithmic equations to make
sure they do not break either of these rules. We can solve logarithmic equations by
• using the definition of a logarithm:
If loga x = P (log form) then a P = x (exponential form)
• taking the logarithm of each side of the equation:
If x = y then loga x = loga y
Example 1
Solve for x: 2 logx 64 = 6
Solution
2 logx 64 = 6
logx 64 = 3 Divide both sides by 2
x3   = 64 Exponential form
x3   = 43
x=4
71
Example 2
Solve for x: (0,3)x = 5, correct to two decimal places.
Solution
(0,3)x = 5
log (0,3)x = log 5 Take the log of both sides of the equation
x log (0,3) = log 5 Use Law 3
log   5
x =  _______ Divide both sides by log 0,3
log (0,3)
x = −1,34
Example 3
Solve for x: 2 log x = log (x + 6)
Solution
2 log x = log (x + 6)
log x2   = log (x + 6) Use Law 3
∴ x2   = x + 6
x   − x − 6 = 0
2
Write in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 Factorise
x = 3 or x = −2
Check whether the solutions are valid. Substitute the solutions into the original
equation:
If x = 3 then:
LHS = 2 log 3 = log 32  = log 9
RHS = log (3 + 6) = log 9
Therefore, LHS = RHS, and the solution is valid.
If x = −2:
LHS = 2 log (−2), which is undefined.
Therefore, x = −2 is not a valid solution. The only solution is x = 3.
Exercise 3.5
1. Solve for x:
a) log2 x = 3 b) log3 81 = x c) logx 49 = 2
d) log2 x = −1 e) log x =  _1
4 2
f) 2 log3 27 = x
g) log   __
2 32
1
  = 2x h) 2 log x = log  _19 i) 2 log2 x = log2 16
2. Solve for x:
a) log3 (x + 2) = 0 b) log3 x + 2 = 0
c) log2 (2x + 1) = 3 d) log (x + 2) + log (x − 1) = 1
e) log2( x + 2) + log2 ( x − 3) = log2 6 f) log3 ( x − 3) + log3 ( x + 5) = 2
g) log2 (3x + 1) − log2 ( x − 3) = 3 h) log (2x − 1) + log (x − 2) = log 5
72
3. Solve for x, writing answers correct to one decimal place where necessary:
a) 2x= 3 b) 5x= 12 c) 5x= 0,75
d) (1,08)x= 2 e) (1,095)x= 300 f) (1,105)x= 45,76
g) (1,12)2x= 32,64 h) 3(1,105)x= 45 i) 200(1,11)x= 500
j) P(1,08)x= 2P k) 2(5)x= 1,6 l) 3,4(1,07)2x−1  = 5,2
4. The number of organisms in a culture, C, after n days is given by the formula
C = axn , where a and x are positive real numbers.
a) The culture began with 1 000 organisms. After four days, there were 64 000
organisms. Calculate the values of a and x.
b) How many days would it take for the number of organisms to grow to
65 536 000?
Exponential and logarithmic functions

You were introduced to the graph of y = logax at the beginning of this chapter. In this
section, we explore these graphs further.
Example 1
1. If the graph of y = f(x) = loga x passes through the point ( _ 12 ; −1 ), show that a = 2.
2. Write down the equation of f−1.
3. Draw the graph of f and f −1
on the same set of axes.
4. Is f an increasing or decreasing function?
5. Write down the equation of the asymptote of f.
6. On the same set of axes, draw the graph of g if g is the reflection of f about the
x-axis.
7. Write the equation of g in the form g(x) = . . . .
Solution
1. Substitute the point ( _ 12; −1 )into the equation y = logax and solve for a.
_1
−1 = loga 2
  =  _12
a−1
a−1
  = 2 −1
∴a=2
2. You learnt in Chapter 2 that the exponential graph is the inverse of the
logarithmic graph. Therefore, f −1
(x) = 2x. We could also determine the equation
of f by interchanging x and y in the equation y = loga x. Then, x = logay .
−1
y = ax
∴  f (x) = 2 x
−1
73
3. y = f(x) = log2 x
From the summary earlier in the chapter, we know that f cuts the x-axis, but
not the y-axis. Therefore, to calculate the x-intercept, we let y = 0:
0 = log2 x
20  = x
x=1
Therefore, the x-intercept is (1; 0).
We can determine two other points that lie on the graph y = f(x) = log2 x.
If x = 2 then y = log2 2 = 1 So (2; 1) lies on f.
_1 _1
If x =   2 then y = log2   2   = log 2  2   = −1
−1
So ( _  12 ; −1 )lies on f.
4. The function f is an increasing function.
5. The y-axis is an asymptote to f and has an equation of x = 0.
3 and 6.
6 y
yx
5
f –1
4
3
f
2
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
g
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
7. If f is reflected about the x-axis then (x; y) → (x; −y). In this case, the equation
y = log2 x becomes:
−y = log2 x
y = −log2 x or 2− y= x
( __ 12   )= x
y

y = log_  x
1
2
∴ y = g(x) = −log2 x = log_ 12 x
74
Example 2
The sketch represents the graph of y = f(x) = log_ 13  x.
y
x
A f
g B
1. Write down the coordinates of A.

2. If B is the point (3; p), determine the value of p.
3. Determine the equation of g, the reflection of f about the y-axis.
4. Determine the equation of h, if h(x) = f−1(x).
5. Write down the domain and range of f.
Solution
1. A(1; 0): this is the x-intercept of f.
2. Substitute (3; p) into the equation y = log_ 31 x and solve for p.
p = log_ 313
log 3
p =  _____
_1
log   3
log 3
p =  ______
log 3
−1
log 3
p =  _______
−1 log 3
p = −1
3. If a graph is reflected about the y-axis, then (x; y) → (−x; y).
So g(x) = log_ 13 (−x).
4. The inverse of a log graph is an exponential graph. Therefore, h(x) = f−1(x) = ( _  13  )
x
5. Domain of f: x > 0 Range of f: y ∈ ℝ
75
Exercise 3.6
1. (
P 1;  _12  )is a point on the graph of y = f(x) = ax.
a) Calculate the value of a. b) Write down the equation of  f−1
.
c) Write down the equation of g, if g is the reflection of f about the x-axis.
d) Draw the graphs of f, f −1 and g on the same set of axes. Clearly show any
intercepts with the axes.
2. The following graph is that of f(x) = 4x.
4 y
f
3
2
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
a) in the form y = . . . .

Write the equation of f −1
b) Calculate the coordinates of the y-intercept of g if g(x) = f(x + 2).
c) Sketch the graphs of f−1 and g on the same set of axes.
d) Use your graph to solve for x if f (x + 2) ≤ 1.
3. The diagram represents the graph of y = f(x) = loga x . The point A is the
x-intercept of f and B( 2,25; 2 )is a point on f.
y
x
A
Determine:
a) the equation of f
b) the equation of g, the reflection of f about the y-axis
c) the equation of h, the reflection of f about the line y = x
d) the value of x if loga  x = −1
e) the domain of f.
76
4. The point A(−2; 4) lies on the graph of f(x) = ax.
5 y
A (–2; 4)
4
3
f
2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
a) Determine the value of a.
b) Write down the domain and range of f .
c) Write down the equation of f−1in the form y = . . . .
d) Write down the equation of g, if g is the reflection of f about the y-axis.
e) Sketch the graphs of f−1 and g on the same set of axes.
f) Use a calculator to determine the value of x, correct to two decimal places, if
g(x) = 5.
5. The diagram represents the graphs of y = f(x) = x2 and y = g(x) = 2x.
6 y
5
4
f
3
2
1
g x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
a) Write down the coordinates of a point of intersection of f and g.
b) Write down the equations of f −1 and g −1.
c) Sketch the graphs of f −1 and g −1 on the same set of axes.
d) Are the graphs of f −1 and g −1 functions? If not, restrict the domain of f or g so
that the graph represents a function.
6. a) Determine the equation of the graph of y = loga x if it passes through the point:
i) (8; 3)
ii) (3; −1)
(2 )
iii) _ 1; 1
( __
iv) 1
 16 ; −2 )
v) (   8 ; 3 )
__
27
b) In each case, state whether the function is an increasing or decreasing function.
77
Revision exercise
Given that f(x) = ( _  32  )

x
1.
g f
p h
a) Determine the equations of g(x), h(x) and p(x) if

i)
g is the reflection of f about the y-axis.
ii) h is the reflection of f about the x-axis.
iii) p is the reflection of g about the x-axis.
b) Write down the equations of f−1 and g−1.
c) Sketch the graphs of f−1 and g−1on the same set of axes.
2. Given the function f(x) = 2x.
a) Write down the equation of g(x) = f(x) − 4.
b) Calculate the coordinates of any intercepts of g with the axes.
c) Write down the equation of the asymptote of g.
d) Write down the equation of f−1(x) in the form y = …
e) Calculate the coordinates of any intercepts of f −1(x) with the axes.
f) Write down the equation of the asymptote of f−1(x).
g) Sketch the graphs of g and h on the same set of axes.
h) Solve for x, correct to three decimal places, if g(x) = 3.
78
3. Given that f(x) = log4 x:
h g
B A
x
p f
a) Determine the equations of g(x), h(x) and p(x) if

i) g is the reflection of f about the x-axis
ii) p is the reflection of f about the y-axis
iii) h is the reflection of g about the y-axis.
b) Write down the coordinates of A and B.
c) Write down the equations of f−1 and g−1.
d) Sketch the graphs of f  −1 and g  −1on the same set of axes.
( 4)
x
4. The diagram represents the graphs of y = f(x) =  _ 5   and its inverse, which intersect
at A(1,35; 1,35) and B(10,57; 10,57).
B
f –1
f
a) Write down the equation of f  −1 (x) = . . . .

(x) in the form f −1
b) Write down the equation of the asymptote of f −1
.
c) About which line are the graphs symmetrical?
79
d) Determine the equation of g, if g is the graph of f −1reflected about the y-axis.
e) Determine the equation of h, if h is the graph of f shifted two units up.
f) Determine the equation of p, if p is the graph of f shifted two units to the left.
g) Determine the equation of q, if q is the graph of f reflected about the y-axis.
h) Use the graph to determine for which value(s) of x:
i) f(x) ≥ 1 f(x) = f−1(x)
ii)
f−1(x) ≥ f(x)
iii) (x) ≤ 1,35
iv) f −1
5. The diagram represents the graphs of y = f(x) = (x − 2)2 and y = g(x) = 2x− 4.
Points A and C are the y-intercepts of f and g, respectively. Point B is the
x-intercept of f and g, and is a point of intersection of f and g.
f
A
B x
g C
a) Calculate the coordinates of A, B and C.

b) Write down the equation of the asymptote of g.
c) Determine the equation of h if h(x) = f(2x) + 4.
d) Write down the equation of h−1(x) in the form y = . . . .
e) ( 16 )
Evaluate h−1 __
  1   .
f) Calculate the value of x, correct to two decimal places, if:
h−1(x) = 6
i) ii) h(x) = 6
80
Chapter 4 Finance, growth and decay

• solve problems involving present value and future value annuities
• use logarithms to calculate the value of n, the time period, in the equations
A = P(1 + i)n and A = P(1 – i)n
• critically analyse investment and loan options, and decide on the best available
option.
Grade 11 summary
For compound growth, A = P(1 + i)n
• P is the amount borrowed or invested and is called the principal amount
• i is the interest rate per compounding period
• n is the number of compounding periods
• A is the accumulated amount, which includes P and the interest.
Depreciation
Fixed assets lose value over time as a result of use or age. We refer to this loss of value
as depreciation. We either calculate depreciation using the straight-line method or
the reducing-balance method, depending on the type of asset.
• Straight-line depreciation is calculated as a percentage of the original value of the

asset and is the same each year. The value of the asset reduces to zero over time.
• Reducing-balance depreciation is calculated as a percentage of the previous year’s
value. In this case, the depreciation changes each year, and decreases as the asset
loses value. With reducing-balance depreciation, the asset always retains some
value.
• The book value is the value of an asset after taking depreciation into account.
• The scrap value is the value of an asset at the end of its useful life.
• A sinking fund is a fund set up to replace an asset when it comes to the end of its
useful life.
Items that have very little resale value are depreciated on a straight-line basis. These
items include computers, printers, electronic equipment and furniture. Expensive
items that have a book value after a number of years, and so can be resold, are
normally depreciated on a reducing balance. These items would include heavy
machinery, trucks, aeroplanes and ships.
81
Calculating depreciation
The formulae we use to calculate depreciation are as follows:
Straight line depreciation: A = P(1 − i × n)
Reducing balance depreciation: A = P( 1 − i )
n
where:
• A is the value of the asset after depreciation
• P is the original value of the asset
• n is the number of years after the asset was purchased
• i is the per annum rate of depreciation of the asset.
Example
The value of a motor car depreciates by 15% per year on the reducing balance
method. The car is currently worth R70 000. Calculate the value of the car after four
years.
Solution
A = P( 1 − i )n
= 70 000(1 – 0,15)4
= R36 540,44
Nominal and effective interest rates

A nominal interest rate is one in which the quoted interest rate is different from the
compounding period. Examples of nominal interest rates are:
• 12% per annum (p.a.) compounded quarterly
• 9% per annum compounded monthly
It is common practice to quote interest rates per annum, but the compounding period
can be quarterly, monthly or daily. We call these interest rates nominal interest rates.
An effective interest rate is one in which the quoted interest rate is the same as the
compounding period. Examples of effective interest rates are:
• 12% per annum compounded annually

• 1% per month compounded monthly
• 2,5% per quarter compounded quarterly
In financial mathematics, we often change the nominal interest rates to effective

interest rates. So if the annual interest rate is compounded monthly, we change this
to a monthly interest rate. For example, if the rate is quoted as 12% p.a., compounded
0,12
monthly, we change this to i =  ____  = 0,01 = 1% per month, compounded monthly.
12
This is now an effective interest rate.
82
The formula to convert nominal interest rates to effective annual interest rates is:
( )
in m
1 + ie=  1 +  __
m  
where:
ie is the effective annual interest rate
in is the nominal interest rate
m is the number of compounding periods in one year
Example 1
Lindelani opens a savings account with an initial deposit of R3 000. Three months
later, she makes a second deposit of R700. One year after the account was opened,
she makes a third deposit of R2 400, followed by a fourth deposit R1 700 six months
after the third deposit. The bank pays interest of 6% p.a., compounded monthly.
Calculate how much she will have in her account at the end of three years.
Solution
Interest is compounded monthly, so our timeline is drawn in months. In other
words, T12 on the timeline is the end of one year, or 12 months, and T36 represents
the end of three years.
T0 T3 T12 T18 T36
R3 000 R 700 R2 400 R1 700
The interest rate is 6% p.a., compounded monthly, which is a nominal interest

rate. We need to change this to an effective interest rate per month, compounded
0,06
monthly: ____
  . This means our formula looks as follows:
12
( 0,06
) ( 0,06
) ( 0,06
) ( 0,06
)
36 33 24 18
A = 3 000 1 +  ____    + 700 1 +  ____    + 2 400 1 +  ____    + 1 700 1 +  ____ 
12 12 12 12
∴ A = R8 980,14
Example 2
Andrew plans to save R20 000 for a deposit on a new car. He decides to use part of
his annual bonus, and makes three equal annual deposits into a savings account at
the beginning of each year. Calculate how much money he needs to deposit to save
R20 000 after three years. Interest on the savings account is 8% p.a., compounded
quarterly.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T3
x x x
Here, T0 represents the beginning of the first year on the timeline. T1 is the end of
the first year, but also the beginning of the second year. T2 on the timeline is the
beginning of the third year.
83
The interest rate is 8% p.a. compounded quarterly, which is a nominal rate. Interest
0,08
is compounded quarterly (four times a year), so our effective rate is ____
 
4
• The first deposit is in the savings account for three years. There are 3 × 4 = 12
quarterly compounding periods in three years.
• The second deposit is in the savings account for two years. There are eight
quarterly periods.
• The last deposit has interest compounded four times in one year.
Therefore:
( ) ( ) ( )
12 8 4
0,08 0,08 0,08
x 1 +  ____     + x 1 +  ____    + x 1 +  ____    = 20 000
4 4 4
x [( 0,08
4 )
12
( 0,08 8
4 ) ( )]
0,08 4
1 +  ____    +  1 +  ____    +  1 +  ____      = 20 000
4
x = R6 320,06
So Andrew needs to deposit R6 320,06 each year to have R20 000 after three years.
Example 3
A savings account is opened with a deposit of R12 000. Three years later, a second
deposit of R13 500 is made into the savings account. The interest for the first two
years is 7,4% p.a., compounded annually. The interest rate then increases to 8,5%
p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate the total amount in the savings account after
five years.
Solution
T0 T2 T3 T5
R12 000 R13 500

i = 0,074 0,085
i=
12
There is a change in interest rate, which will affect the first deposit after two years.
The interest paid on the first deposit is 7,4% p.a., compounded annually. For the
remaining three years, the interest rate is 8,5% p.a., compounded monthly.
The interest on the second deposit is 8,5% p.a., compounded monthly for two years.
0,085
( ) 0,085
( )
36 24
A = 12 000( 1 + 0,074 )2 1 +  _____     + 13 500 1 +  _____ 
12 12
A = R33 838,18
84
Exercise 4.1
1. A savings account is opened with an initial deposit of R5 000. One year later,
a further R2 200 is added to the account. Six months after the second deposit,
R1 000 is withdrawn from the account. The interest on the savings is 9% p.a.,
compounded monthly. Calculate the balance in the savings account at the end of
two years.
2. Sisekelo plans to save R80 000 in four years, as a deposit on a house. He deposits
equal amounts of money at the beginning of each year for four years. Interest on
the savings is 8% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate how much money he will
need to deposit each year to achieve his objective.
3. Nelson deposits R3 500 into a savings account. Three years later, he adds R5 700
to the account. The interest for the first two years is 7% p.a., compounded
quarterly. The interest for the last three years is 8% p.a., compounded monthly.
Calculate the balance in the savings account at the end of five years.
4. A savings account is opened with an initial deposit of R8 000. Two further equal
amounts of R2 500 are added to the account. The first deposit is made one year
after the savings account was opened and second amount six months later.
Calculate the total amount in the savings account at the end of three years if the
interest rate is 7,6% p.a., compounded monthly.
5. Mr Modise makes three equal deposits of R9 000 into a savings account. He
makes the first deposit when he opens the savings account. The second and
third deposits are after two and four years, respectively. Interest is 6,3% p.a.,
compounded quarterly, for the first two years, and 7,8% p.a., compounded
monthly, for the last three years. Calculate the accumulated amount in the
savings account at the end of five years.
6. Jacob invests R20 000 in a pension fund on his 30th birthday. He adds another
R30 000 to the fund on his 40th birthday. When he turns 50, he deposits a
further R40 000. The expected growth on the investment in the pension fund
is 11% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate the amount he has saved for his
pension when he turns 60.
7. Gillian deposits R1 000 in a savings account at the beginning of each year for four
years. The interest paid on the savings is 8% p.a., compounded monthly, for the
first two years. The rate then increases to 9% p.a., compounded quarterly, for the
next three years. Calculate the total amount in the savings account at the end of
five years.
8. Thapelo deposits R2 000 into a savings account at the beginning of each year
for four years. Calculate how much money he will have accumulated in his
savings at the end of four years if the interest paid on the savings is 6% p.a.,
compounded quarterly.
9. A company has computer systems to the value of R1 000 000. If the value of this
equipment depreciates at 40% per annum on a reducing balance, calculate how
much it is worth after 3 years?
10. The rhino population of South Africa is depreciating on a reducing balance at
a rate of 12% p.a. If there are now 3 200 rhino left, how many will there be in
5 years’ time?
85
Future value annuities
An annuity is any terminating stream of fixed payments over a specified period of
time subject to a rate of interest. An annuity is a series of regular payments towards a
goal such as a retirement fund or the repayment of a bond. In a future value annuity
capital is accumulated by means of regular equal payments into a savings account or
an investment fund where compound interest is paid on the money accumulated in
the fund.
Example 1
R15 000 is invested into a fund at the beginning of each year for five years.
Calculate the total amount accumulated in the fund at the end of five years if
interest is compounded monthly at 9% p.a.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
R15 000 R15 000 R15 000 R15 000 R15 000
This time, we start on the right-hand side of the timeline. The last deposit was
R15 000 at time T4, at the end of four years. This was also the beginning of the fifth
year. This deposit accumulates 12 months interest. The deposit made at T3, which
is the beginning of the fourth year accumulates 24 months interest. Continuing in
this way, the accumulated amount is:
( 0,09 12
) (
0,09 24
) (
0,09 36
15 000 1 +  ____    + 15 000 1 +  ____    + 15 000 1 +  ____ 
12 12 12 )
(
+ 15 000 1 +  
0,09 48
____
12 )
    + 15 000 1 +   (
0,09 60
____
12 )
  = R98 939,28
We do not normally grow capital by random payments once a year. Saving requires
a more structured and disciplined approach. So for most people, this means regular
payments every month. It is more practical to invest money every month rather
than at the beginning of each year.
Example 2
An amount of R1 000 is invested in a fund at the beginning of each month for five
years. Calculate the total amount accumulated in the fund at the end of five years if
the interest is compounded monthly at 9% p.a.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T58 T59 T60
R1 000 R1 000 R1 000 R1 000 R1 000

The money is invested every month for five years, so there are 60 deposits into the fund.
We start with the deposits on the right-hand side of the timeline. The last deposit
is made at T59 which is the beginning of the 60th month. This deposit will only
accumulate interest for one month. The deposit at T58 accumulates two months
interest, and so on.
( 0,09 1
) ( 0,09 2
) ( )
0,09 3
1 000 1 +  ____    + 1 000 1 +  ____    + 1 000 1 +  ____    + …60 deposits
12 12 12
It would take a long time to add all these amounts together, even with the help of a
calculator. However, this is a geometric series. That means we can use a formula to
add the terms.
86
The formula for the sum of a geometric series is:
a( rn − 1 )
Sn=  _______
r−1
where
(
0,09 1
a = 1 000 1 +  ____  
12 )
( 0,09
r = 1 +  ____  
12 )
n = 60
Therefore:
(0,09
)[ (0,09 60
1 000 1 +  ____  1 +  ____    − 1
12
____________________________
Sn=        
12
 
) ]
1 +   (
0,09
____     − 1
12 )
= R75 989,82
Example 3
Hanyani plans to save R1 million in 15 years. He invests money in a pension fund
by making equal deposits at the end of each month for 15 years. He is expecting
growth in the capital of 14% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate how much
money he needs to pay each month to achieve his goal of becoming a millionaire.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T178 T179 T180
Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
In this question, there are 180 deposits, because the deposits are made monthly
for 15 years. We start with the right-hand side of the timeline. In this case, the last
deposit is made at the end of 15 years and so no interest is accumulated on the last
deposit. The deposit at T179 will accumulate interest for one month. The deposit at
T178 will accumulate interest for two months, and so on. If we add all the deposits,
we have:
( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 )
1 2 3
0,14 0,14 0,14
x + x 1 +  ____     + x 1 +  ____    + x 1 +  ____    + … 180 terms
We once again have a geometric series. In this case:
a=x
(
0,14
r =  1 +  ____  
12 )
n = 180
Sn = R1 000 000
Substituting these values into the formula for a geometric series, we have:
a( rn − 1 )
Sn=  _______
r−1
     
[(
12 )
0,14
x 1 +  ____
1 000 000 =  ________________
]
180
    − 1
 
( 1 +  ____  )  − 1
0,14
12
x = R1 605,75
87
Exercise 4.2
1. James deposits R500 into a savings account at the beginning of each month for
ten years. Calculate how much money will have accumulated in the savings
account at the end of ten years if the interest paid on the savings is 8% p.a.,
compounded monthly.
2. Lindelani has R400 deducted from her salary every month towards her pension.
Calculate how much money will have accumulated in her pension fund at the
end of 12 years if the money grows at 11% p.a., compounded monthly.
3. Ipeleng wants to buy a new car, but needs to save R20 000 for a deposit. She
opens a savings account that pays interest of 9,4 % p.a., compounded monthly.
Calculate how much she must deposit at the end of each month to have enough
for her deposit after two years.
4. Cathi opens a savings account. She deposits R1 000 every month, starting
immediately. Calculate how much money she will have saved at the end of five
years, one month after her 60th payment, if the interest paid on the savings is 7%
p.a., compounded monthly.
5. A company sets up a fund that it will use to extend the business. They make
quarterly deposits of R280 000, starting in three months’ time. The last deposit is
made at the end of six years. How much money is in the fund immediately after
the 24th deposit?
6. Miriam opens a savings account. She deposits R20 000 at the beginning of January
2014. She then adds to the savings by depositing R700 at the end of every month,
starting at the end of January 2014. Interest on the savings account is 6,8% p.a.,
compounded monthly. Calculate how much money will have accumulated in the
savings account at the end of December 2015, immediately after her last deposit.
7. An amount of R25 000 is deposited into an investment every six months for
seven years, starting immediately. The investment is expected to grow at 9% p.a.,
compounded semi-annually. Calculate the value of the investment at the end of
seven years, assuming there were 14 deposits.
8. Zinhle saves money for a deposit on a car. She deposits R400 at the end of each
month for three years. Calculate how much money she will have saved after her
last deposit if the interest is 8,1% p.a., compounded monthly.
So far, all the problems we have worked through have used the formula for the sum of
the geometric series. In the next section, we see how to find a formula specifically for
the future value of an annuity.
88
The formula for future value annuities
In an annuity, an amount of Rx is paid each month into an investment for n months,
starting in one months’ time. The interest rate per month, compounded monthly, is i.
We now derive a general formula for the total amount accumulated in the investment
at the end of n months.
T0 T1 T2 Tn – 2 Tn – 1 Tn
Rx Rx Rx
i is the interest per month compounded monthly
Let F be the total amount accumulated at the end of n months immediately after the
nth payment, together with all the compound interest.
F = x + x( 1 + i )+ x( 1 + i )2   + x( 1 + i )3   + …n terms
We can use the formula for a geometric series to calculate the sum of this series:
a( rn− 1 )
Sn =  _______ a = x and r = ( 1 + i )
( r − 1 )
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 ) ___________
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n n
∴ F =  ___________
     =    
( 1 + i )− 1 i
We can use the same formula for any future value annuity where the payments
are made at regular intervals. The payments can be over any period with interest
compounded at the end of each period. In general:
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
F =  ___________
  
i
where:
F is the total amount accumulated after n periods, immediately after the last payment
x is the amount deposited at regular intervals at the end of each period
i is the interest rate per period, compounded at the end of each period
n is the number of periods of the investment.
We can use this formula for any future value annuity. However, the payments must
start at the end of the first period, and the last payment must be made at the end of n
periods.
Example 1
Ayanda has R600 deducted from her salary at the end of every month for her
pension. Calculate how much money she will accumulate in her fund at the end of
12 years if the growth is 10 % p.a., compounded monthly.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T142 T143 T144
R600 R600 R600

10% p.a. compounded monthly
89
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
F =  ___________
  
i
x = R600 The amount paid into the annuity at the end of every month
0,10
____
i =   Interest rate per month, compounded monthly
12
n = 144 The investment in this annuity takes place every month for 12 years
∴ F =    
(( 0,10 144
  
12
___________________ 
)
600 1 +  ____    − 1 )
0,10
____
 
12
∴ F = R165 852,73
Example 2
Nolwazi wants to save R800 000 in ten years. She opens a savings account and
pays money into the account at the end of every month. The interest paid on the
account is 8,5% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate how much she must deposit
each month so that she will have R800 000 after her last payment.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T118 T119 T120
Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
8,5% p.a. compounded monthly
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
F =  ___________
  
i
x = ? We need to calculate the amount paid into the annuity at the end of
every month
0,085
i =  _____ The interest rate per month, compounded monthly
12
n = 120 The number of payments into the savings account
F = R800 000
(( 0,085
x 1 +  _____
12
800 000 =  _______________
  
)
120
    − 1

)
0,085
_____
 
12
∴ x = R4 252,19
Example 3
Mbali owns her own business. She plans to save R1 million to expand her business
in four years’ time. She decides to make equal quarterly deposits into a savings
account, starting in three months’ time. She will make the last deposit at the end
of four years. The interest paid on the savings is 7% p.a., compounded quarterly.
Calculate how much she must deposit so that she will have sufficient funds in four
years’ time.
90
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T14 T15 T16
Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
7% p.a. compounded quarterly
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
F =  ___________
  
i
x=?
0,07
i =  ____
4
n = 16
F = R1 000 000
The investment into this annuity takes place every three months for four years.
[(0,07
x 1 +  ____
1 000 000 =  ________________
  
4
16
)
    − 1
 
]
0,07
____
 
4
∴ x = R54 699,58
Comparing investments
Whenever you decide to start investing money, you will have many choices of
investment options. You can use the formula for the future value of an investment to
compare these options. In this way, you can decide which offers the best return.
Example 4
You have just started your first job, and so you decide to save part of what you earn
each month. You visit your bank, who offers you three savings options:
Plan Payment Interest
Savings plan 1: R100 per month 8% per annum compounded monthly
Savings plan 2: R600 every six months 9% per annum compounded semi-
annually
Savings plan 3: R1 200 per year 8,5% per annum, compounded annually
Which saving plan offers the best return over the next ten years?
Solution
We need to use the future value formula to calculate the return for each plan:
Savings plan 1: Savings plan 2:
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 ) x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n n
F =  ___________
   F =  ___________
  
i i
((
___________________
=      
12 )
0,08 120
100 1 +  ____    − 1
 
) (( )
__________________
=      
)
0,09 20
600 1 +  ____    − 1
2
 
0,08
____ 0,09
____
   
12 2
= R18 294,60 = R18 822,85
91
Savings plan 3:
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
F =  ___________
  
i
1200( ( 1 + 0,085 )10
  )
  − 1
= __________________
  
0,085
= R17 802,12
Therefore, Savings plan 2 offers the best return over the next ten years.
Exercise 4.3
1. At the end of each month, Simphiwe deposits R400 into a savings account. Interest
is calculated at 6% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate how much money she
will have saved at the end of eight years.
2. Wandile plans to save R120 000 in three years for a deposit on a house. He deposits
Rx into a savings account at the end of each month, with the last deposit made at
the end of three years. Interest is calculated at 7,4% p.a., compounded monthly.
Calculate x.
3. Vusi has R700 deducted from his salary each month for his pension. Calculate how
much money he will have accumulated for his pension at the end of 12 years if the
growth of money in the pension fund is 14% p.a., compounded monthly.
4. Nomusa has her own transport company and plans to replace one of her trucks in
five years’ time. The new truck is expected to cost R1,4 million. She wants to save
enough money so that she can pay cash for the truck. She opens a savings account
and deposits equal amounts every quarter starting at the end of the first quarter.
Interest is calculated at 8,2% p.a., compounded quarterly. Calculate her quarterly
deposits so that she will have enough money to buy the new truck. The final
payment will be made at the end of five years.
5. John deposits R500 at the end of each month in a savings account for four years.
Interest is calculated at 6,7% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate how much
money he will have accumulated in the savings account immediately after the 48th
payment.
6. Lerato starts working in January 2014. At the end of each month, she deposits R800
of her salary into a savings account. How much money will she have saved by the
end of 2016 if the bank pays 8% interest p.a., compounded monthly?
7. Thato has a business and plans to expand his business in four years’ time. He opens
a savings account and deposits R40 000 into the account every six months, starting
in six months’ time. He makes the last payment at the end of four years. Interest is
calculated at 9,5% p.a., compounded semi-annually.
a) Calculate how much money he will have accumulated in the savings account
at the end of four years.
b) Calculate how much money he would have saved at the end of four years if he
had started his first deposit immediately. Assume he made eight deposits into
the savings account.
92
8. Mrs Naidoo buys R30 000 of unit trusts every three months, starting at the
end of March 2014. Calculate the value of the unit trusts at the end of 2018 if
the investment grows at 12% p.a., compounded quarterly. (Unit trusts are an
investment in a collection of shares on the stock market.)
Loans and loan repayments

In the previous section, we worked out the future value of a series of payments into
a savings account. In this section, we look at loans. If you take out a loan from the
bank, the bank will expect you to pay it back, usually as a series of fixed monthly
payments. When we save money in a bank account, the bank pays us interest.
Naturally, if we borrow money from the bank, we have to pay them interest.
Example 1
Nkululeko buys a house and takes out a loan of R1 000 000. He repays the loan over
25 years. The interest on the loan is 11% p.a., compounded monthly.
1. Determine the monthly repayments on the loan. Assume that the first payment
starts one month after drawing the loan.
2. Calculate the total amount of money required to repay the loan.
Solution
1. T0 T1 T2 T298 T299 T300
(R1 000 000) Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx

11% p.a. compounded monthly
The monthly repayments must equal the value of the loan plus any interest
that we owe over the full period of the loan. Therefore:
Loan plus interest = Repayments plus interest at T300
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0,11 300 0,11 0,11 0,11
1 000 000 1+  ____    =  x + x 1 +  ____    + x 1 +  ____    + x 1 +  ____  …300 terms
12 12 12 12
The right-hand side of the equation forms a geometric series, so we can use our
formula to add up the 300 terms.
a( rn− 1 )
Sn=  _______
r−1
0,11  ( )
300
  = 1 000 000 1+ ____
12
The first value in the series is x. Therefore a = x. The number of terms on the
0,11
right-hand side is 300. Therefore, n = 300. The common ratio is r =  1 +  ____  ( 12 )
{( 0,11 300
)
1 +  ____    − 1 }
(0,11 300
_____
1 000 000 1+
12 )
    = x       
(
12
_____________
0,11
1 +  ____    − 1 )

12
x = R9 801,13
2. The total amount paid = 300 × R9 801,13 = R2 940 339,23
93
In general, loan repayments start at the end of the first period after the loan was
drawn. For example, in the previous example, the loan repayments started at T1,
which is the end of the first month.
The present value formula for annuities

We can work out a general formula for the present value of an annuity. We prove the
formula using a similar method to the previous example.
A loan of P rand is taken out from a bank. The loan is repaid in n equal payments of
x rand at the end of every month, starting one month after the loan was drawn. The
interest paid on the outstanding balance is i per month, compounded monthly.
T0 T1 T2 Tn – 2 Tn – 1 Tn
P Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
i per month compounded monthly
The value of the loan plus the interest to Tn must equal the total of the repayments
plus interest to Tn. In this way, the loan then balances with the repayments at Tn.
Therefore:
Loan plus interest = Repayments plus interest at Tn
P( 1 + i ) = x + x( 1 + i )+ x( 1 + i )2   + x( 1 + i )3   + …n equal payments
n
The right-hand side is a geometric series. So we can use the formula for the sum of a
geometric series to add up the n terms.
a( rn − 1 )
Sn=  _______
r−1
The sum of the series on the right-hand side must be S n= P(1 + i)n
The first value in the series is x. Therefore a = x
The number of terms on the right-hand side is n
The common ratio r = ( 1 + i )
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
P( 1 + i ) =  ___________
n
  
( 1 + i )− 1
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 )
n
  =  ___________
  
i
−n
Multiply both sides of the equation by ( 1 + i ) :
x( ( 1 + i ) − 1 ) ______
−n
( 1 + i )
n
−n
P( 1 + i ) × ( 1 + i ) =  ___________
n
   ×  
i n 1
x( 1( 1 + i ) ( 1 + i ) − ( 1 + i ) )
−n −n
P( 1 + i )0   =  ______________________

      
i
x( 1( 1 + i )0   − ( 1 + i ) )
–n
P =  ________________
  
i −n
x( 1 − ( 1 + i ) )
___________
P =    
i
x( 1 − ( 1 + i ) )
−n
This formula P =  ___________

   is known as the present value formula for annuities. We
i
can use it to solve most problems with loans and loan repayments. We derived the
formula based on making monthly payments and an interest rate of i. We can use this
formula for payments over any period.
94
In general:
• x is the amount paid at any regular period
• i is the interest rate per period, compounded at the end of every period
• n is the number of payments
Example 1
Phumzile takes out a loan of R150 000 to buy a new car. The loan is repaid over
five years. The interest paid on the amounts outstanding is 9,3% p.a., compounded
monthly.
Calculate the monthly repayments.
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T58 T59 T60
(R150 000) Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
x[ 1 − ( 1 + i ) ]

−n
___________
P =    
i
[ ( 0,093 −60
x 1 −  1 +  _____
__________________
150 000 =       
12
 
) ]
   
0,093
_____
 
12
∴ x = R3 135,64
 
Example 2
Bonginkosi takes out a loan of R1 300 000 to buy a house. The loan is repaid over
20 years and interest charged on the loan at 10,5% p.a., compounded monthly.
1. Calculate his monthly repayments.
2. How much money has Bonginkosi paid on the loan at the end of eight years?
3. Calculate the balance outstanding on the loan after eight years, immediately
after Bonginkosi’s 96th payment.
4. How much of the capital has he repaid at the end of eight years?
5. How much of the money he has paid after eight years was interest?
Solution
1.
T0 T1 T2 T238 T239 T240
(R1 300 000) Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx

95
x[ 1 − ( 1 + i ) ]
−n
P =  ___________
  
i
[ ( 0,105 −240
x 1 −  1 +  _____
__________________
1 300 000 =       
12
 
    ) ]
0,105
_____
 
12
∴ x = R12 978,94
 
2. He paid R12 978,94 each month for eight years. Therefore, he paid
R12 978,94 × 96 = R1 245 978,01
After eight years, he has almost paid back the amount he originally borrowed.
However, he still has to pay R12 978,94 each month for another 12 years
because of the interest that has accumulated.
3. We use the same present value formula to calculate the balance outstanding at
the end of eight years. We know how much he has to pay each month for the
remaining 12 years. To find the balance on the loan, we do not need to know
how much he has paid, nor do we need to know the original loan amount. All
we need to know is the amount of the monthly payment and the number of
payments remaining.
x[ 1 − ( 1 + i ) ]

−n
P =  ___________
  
i
x = R12 978,94 He must still pay R12 978,94 each month for the next 12 years
n = 12 × 12 = 144 There are 12 years, and 12 monthly payments in each year
[ ( 0,105
) ]
−144
12 978,941 −  1 +  _____   
12
__________________________
P =        
0,105
_____
 
 
12
= R1 060 249,05
It is important to realise that, although Bonginkosi has paid R1 245 978,24 in the
first eight years, the balance on the loan is still R1 060 249,05. Most of the money
that he paid in the first eight years was interest.
4. The actual amount paid off on the loan in the first eight years is:
1 300 000 − 1 060 249,05 = R239 750,95
5. The amount of interest paid is:
1 245 978,24 − 239 750,95 = R1 006 227,29
Example 3
Cebile starts her own business and takes out a loan of R1,5 million. She repays
the loan through equal semi-annual payments over a period of six years. The
repayments start six months after the loan was drawn. The interest on the
outstanding balance of the loan is 8% p.a., compounded semi-annually.
1. Calculate the semi-annual payments.
2. Calculate the balance on the loan at the end of three years.
96
Solution
T0 T1 T2 T10 T11 T12
(R1,5 million) Rx Rx Rx Rx Rx
8% p.a. compounded semi-annually
1.
x[ 1 − ( 1 + i ) ]
−n
___________
P =    
i
[ (
_________________
1 500 000 =    
0,08 −12
x 1 −  1 +  ____
 
2 ) ]
   
0,08
____
 
2
∴ x = R159 828,26
 
2.
To find the outstanding balance on the loan, we need to find the present value
of all the outstanding payments.
The semi-annual payments are: x = R159 828,26
The number of outstanding payments: n = 6
x[ 1 − ( 1 + i ) ]
−n
P =  ___________
  
i
 
[ (
=  _________________________
        
0,08 −6
159 828,261 −  1 +  ____   
2 ) ]
0,08
____
 
2
= R837 841,61
 
Exercise 4.4
1. A loan of R140 000 is repaid over six years through equal monthly payments.
The interest charged on the outstanding balance of the loan is 11,4% p.a.,
compounded monthly. Calculate the monthly repayments on the loan.
2. Zenzele buys a house and takes out a loan of R1,2 million. The loan is repaid over
25 years. Calculate:
a) the monthly instalment if the interest charged on the loan is 10% p.a.,
compounded monthly.
b) the outstanding balance on the loan at the end of ten years.
3. Erin buys a new car and takes out a loan of R180 000. She repays the loan
over five years. The bank charges interest on the reducing balance at 12% p.a.,
compounded monthly.
a) Calculate her monthly repayments on the loan.
b) Erin wants to sell her car at the end of three years. Calculate how much
money she still owes on the car.
4. Nkosinathi buys a house for R1,8 million. He pays a 20% deposit and takes out a
loan for the balance, which he repays over 25 years. The interest charged on the
loan is 9,6% p.a., compounded monthly. Calculate:
a) the loan amount
b) his monthly repayments
97

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Clever Keeping

© J Aird, L du Toit, I Harrison, C van Duyn and J van Duyn, 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

First published 2013

Typeset by Ink Design

It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book

Chapter 2 Functions and inverse functions............................................ 40

Chapter 3 Exponential and logarithmic functions................................. 61

Chapter 4 Finance, growth and decay.................................................... 81

Chapter 5 Compound angles.................................................................. 108

Chapter 7 Solving problems using trigonometry.................................... 134

Chapter 8 Polynomial functions............................................................. 162

Chapter 9 Differential calculus................................................................ 176

Chapter 10 Analytical geometry............................................................... 238

Chapter 12 Statistics (regression and correlation).................................... 315

Chapter 13 Counting and probability....................................................... 348

Chapter 14 Revision.................................................................................. 381

Answers to exercises........................................................................................ 456

Glossary of mathematical terms.................................................................... 503

In this chapter you will:

Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 Term 4

Arithmetic progressions (AP) Geometric progressions (GP)

∴ This is an arithmetic sequence with ∴ This is a geometric sequence with r = 3

∴ This is an arithmetic sequence with ∴ This is a geometric sequence with r

Determine whether a sequence

Arithmetic progressions (AP) Geometric progressions (GP)

1. Determine whether the following sequences are arithmetic, geometric or neither:

Fill in the spaces:

Arithmetic progressions (AP) Geometric progressions (GP)

From the previous exercise, we found that:

a = 1, d = 5 and Tn = a + (n − 1)d: a = 3, r = 3 and Tn = ar n – 1:

1. Determine the required term in each sequence:

Arithmetic progressions (AP) Geometric progressions (GP)

d=5 Since there are two values of r, there will

a​( ​8 ​ )​ = ​ _23​ a​( ​ 8 ​ )​ = ​ _23​

a​( ​8 ​ )​ × ​ __ a​( ​ ​ )​ × ​ ___

1. Determine T10 of the following arithmetic sequences:

Arithmetic and geometric means

Arithmetic mean (AM) Geometric mean (GM)

1. Determine the arithmetic mean between

Writing a series in sigma notation

1. Evaluate the following:

The sum of an arithmetic series

Proof of the formula for the sum of an

The sum of a geometric series

Arithmetic series Geometric series

= 610 27​( 1 − ​ __

​S​4​ = 27​( _____

Tn = a + (n − 1)d ​S​n​ = _n2​ ​​( a + l )​

​ × ​ _18​ = ​ _18 ​ × 8​​( _​ 12​ )​​ ​

8​( 1 − ​​( ​ 2​ )​​ ​ )​

​S​9​ = 8​( _____512 )

​S​9​ = ​ _81​​( ___512 )

1. Calculate the sum of the following:

Arithmetic sequences and series Geometric sequences and series

This is an arithmetic series with a = 7

Since this trinomial does not factorise,

​ ​2​ + 6n − 150 < 0

1. In an arithmetic sequence, T2 = 1 and T7 = 16. Determine the sum of the first

a( 8   )  =  _23 a( 8   )  =  _23

a( 8   )  ×   a(   )  ×  _

= 610 27( 1 −  __

S4  = 27( _____

Tn = a + (n − 1)d Sn = _n2 ( a + l )

  ×  _18  =  _18   × 8( _  12  )

8( 1 − (  2  )   )

S9  = 8( _____512 )

S9  =  _81( ___512 )

2  + 6n − 150 < 0

3. In a geometric sequence, T3 = _14 and T6 = 2. Determine the sum of the first 11

3. 1 +  _12  +  _14   +  _18  + …

a) ∑ 2 . (  13 ) b) ∑ ( −  45 ) c) ∑  __13 (2) n−1

Test T3 − T2 = T2 − T1 T3  =  __

2−x − 1 = 21 Raising a power to a power

c) h(x) = abx+ q d) p(x) = ax2 + bx + c

g) Write down the domain and range of g −1.

f(x) = 2x Inverse

y = ( _ 12  )

Definition: If ab= c then b = logac

So if x = aythen y = loga x if a > 0 and a ≠ 1.

 If g = ( _ 12  ) then g −1