Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00455

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Short communication

Valorisation of dredged marine sediments for use as road

material
Ahmed Loudinia,*, Mounsif Ibnoussinaa , Omar Witama , Ali Limamb ,
Oksana Turchaninac
a
Semlalia GeoSciences Laboratory, Cadi Ayyad University, Boulevard Moulay Abdellah, Marrakech, Morocco
b
Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon, University of Lyon, 20 Avenue Albert Einstein, 69100, Villeurbanne, France
c
CIAUD, Faculty of Architecture, University of Lisbon, R. Sá Nogueira, 1349-063, Lisboa, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The aim of this study is to investigate the suitability of using dredged marine sediments
Received 16 July 2020 treated with a hydraulic binder in road construction works, particularly as a foundation
Received in revised form 5 October 2020 layer. The methodology was conducted as follows. First, the geotechnical, chemical and
Accepted 23 October 2020
mineralogical characteristics of the dredged sediments were determined to assess the
behaviour of the materials. Second, the composition of the mixture was defined through a
Keywords: formulation study. In this phase of the study, the basic criteria for determining the dosage of
Waste valorisation
each component of the mixture were specified. Third, the short-term and long-term
Road construction materials
Marine sediments
mechanical behaviours of the formulation were evaluated. The experimental results show
Mechanical performance that dredged sediments treated with Portland cement can be used as a road foundation
Hydraulic binder layer.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The maintenance dredging of ports is a vital operation that is performed to ensure the safe navigation of ships. Annually,
the maintenance dredging operation generates approximately 600 million m3 of sediment worldwide [1]. The management
of these sediments after they have been dredged poses an ecological and environmental challenge for port authorities [2–4].
Furthermore, the demand for construction materials is increasing, with a global production of approximately 50 billion
tonnes in 2020 [5], and the use of conventional aggregates may cause harmful effects on the environment (owing to the
overexploitation of quarries and the transportation of materials to the area of use) [6]. Several studies have been conducted
to explore the possibility of using dredged sediments as a sustainable, economic, and ecological alternative to traditional
aggregates. In particular, dredged sediments have been used in the manufacture of cement [2,7], concrete [6,8], bricks [9,10],
paving blocks [11,12], and mortar [13,14], as well as an aggregate in road construction [15,16].
Thus, the objective of this study is to produce material from marine-dredged sediments for use in road construction. The
study involved the development and validation of a formulation based on marine sediments treated with a hydraulic binder
(cement). The valorisation sector adopted in this study is the road sector because road construction requires large amounts of
several materials [17], which makes it possible to exploit materials of varied characteristics [18].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ahmed.loudini@ced.uca.ma (A. Loudini).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00455
2214-5095/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A. Loudini, M. Ibnoussina, O. Witam et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00455

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

The selected case study was sediments obtained from the Safi harbour (Fig. 1). The samples were collected at seven points
(P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, and P7) of two zones of the port (the channel zone and basin zone), placed in opaque drums, and kept in
a cold room protected from light. Next, homogeneous samples were mixed.
We note S1 is the mixture of P1, P2, and P3 that corresponds to the basin zone of the port, whereas S2 is the mixture of P4,
P5, P6, and P7 that corresponds to the channel zone of the port.
The geotechnical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics of the sediments were investigated before the sediment
valorisation project at the Safi harbour was commenced [19].
Overall, Sediment S1 collected from the harbour basin exhibited different characteristics from those of Sediment S2
obtained from the harbour channel.
Sediment S1 was characterised by a high initial water content (120 %, which decreased to 11 % after it was dried naturally
through evaporation for one month) and a particle size distribution dominated by fine grains (the diameter of 57 % of the
grains were less than 63 mm). Sediment S1 was a slightly plastic loam with a low organic matter content and high CaCO3
content.
Sediment S2 was characterised by an average initial water content (33 %, which decreased to 7% after the sediments were
dried naturally through evaporation for one month) and particle size distribution dominated by grains with diameters of 80–
315 mm. Sediment S2 was sandy, non-plastic, non-organic, calcareous soil.
In addition, the maximum dry density of S1 and S2 were 1.7 and 1.6 t/m3, respectively.
Finally, the mineralogical analysis indicated the presence of quartz, calcite, and dolomite in both sediments [19].

2.2. Formulation

The optimum composition of the mixture of Safi sediments to achieve the best bearing capacity and mechanical
performance were determined. In addition to water, the following materials were used in preparing the mixture.
The first component was marine sediment S1 dredged from the basin of the commercial port of Safi (Morocco).
The second component was marine sediment S2 dredged from the access channel of the port of Safi (Morocco).
The third component was Portland cement CPJ-CEM II [20], which was manufactured by "Cements of Morocco" (located
in the Safi-Morocco– region). The Portland cement was produced by grinding clinker at 65 % with one or several secondary
ingredients, such as gypsum, filler, pozzolan, and fly ash.
The following principles were observed in determining the ideal composition of the material mixture for road
construction.

Fig. 1. Geographical location of Safi harbour.

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1 The proportion of the fine fraction in mixtures was limited to 35 % following the British Standard BS EN 14227-01 [21], and
the methylene blue value (MBV) of the mixtures were limited to 2.5 g/100 g, according to the French guideline for treating
soils using hydraulic binders applied to pavements [22].
2 The particle size distribution of the mixture was optimised using Hazen coefficients (curvature coefficient (Cc) and
uniformity coefficient (Cu)). The main reason for using this method was to obtain a mixture with good compactness. The
criteria retained for the curvature coefficient (Cc) and uniformity coefficient (Cu) were obtaining a value between 1 and 3
for the curvature coefficient (Cc) and a value higher than 6 for the uniformity coefficient (Cu). The application of this
method facilitated the optimisation of the granular skeleton of the formulation [23,24].
3 The organic matter content was limited to 3 % because of its adverse impact on soil–cement mixtures [25].

Regarding the cement content of the mixture, a dosage of 7 % of cement was selected. This dosage is consistent with values
typically adopted in soil treatment for roads, which generally ranges between 6 % and 8 % [5,17,23,24,26]. The cement
percentage was calculated in comparison to the dry mass of the mixture.
Finally, the water content of the mixture was determined through the modified Proctor test based on NF P 94-093
standards [27]. Soil samples were moistened with five different water contents and compacted following a conventional
process and energy. For each of water content value, the dry density of the soil was determined, and the curve of the variation
of its density with the water content was plotted. The plotted curve was bell-shaped, and the optimal water content (WOPM)
obtained corresponded to the maximum density (gdOPM). This test was performed immediately after the samples were
prepared.

2.3. Short-term mechanical behaviour

The short-term mechanical behaviour of the mixtures was determined in three steps, as follows.
First, the ability of the mixture to support the circulation of construction machinery was assessed by measuring the
immediate bearing ratio according to NF P 94-078 [28].
During the tests, the compacted material samples were punched through the penetration of a cylindrical punch at a
constant speed. We recorded the values of the forces corresponding to 2.5 and 5 mm penetration.
The relationship between these values and those obtained for the reference material was established to obtain the value
of the immediate bearing ratio. The tests were performed immediately after sample preparation.
Minimum criterion for immediate bearing ratio: The minimum value adopted in this study was 35 %, as recommended
by the French technical guide for roads [29].
Second, the age allowing for the circulation of construction machinery was determined based on the compressive
strength development of the mixture, according to NF EN 13286-41 [30].
Minimum criterion for age enabling circulation on treated layer: The minimum value corresponded to the age of the
mixture when the compressive strength reached 1 MPa [22].
Third, the sensitivity of the mixture to water was determined by calculating the ratio between the compressive strength
of the specimen at 28 days of normal curing followed by 32 days of total immersion in water at 20  C (Rci) and the
compressive strength of the specimen at 60 days of normal curing at 20  C (Rc60).
Minimum criterion for sensitivity of mixture to water: The minimum value of the sensitivity of the mixture to water
was considered satisfactory when Rci/Rc60  0.80 [22].

2.4. Long-term mechanical behaviour

The long-term mechanical behaviour of the formulation was evaluated by first calculating the direct tensile strength Rt
(deduced from the diametral compressive strength Rtb using the equation Rt = 0.8  Rtb) and elastic modulus (or Young's
modulus) E according to BS EN13286-42 and BS EN13286-43, respectively [31,32].
Next, the parameters Rt and E were evaluated using a chart provided in BS EN14227-10 [33] to determine the resistance
class of the material and to verify the viability of the treated sediments as a foundation layer.
Cylindrical specimens of the hydraulically bound mixture were subjected to compressive loads applied along the two
opposite generatrix until failure to determine the indirect tensile strength of the mixture. The indirect tensile strength values
were calculated based on the failure loads.
Specimens of the mixture were subjected to indirect tensile tests to determine the modulus of elasticity. During the tests,
the applied force F and the strains were recorded. Subsequently, Poisson's ratio and the modulus of elasticity of the material
were computed.
These two characteristics were measured after 90 days of normal curing.
Minimum criterion for long-term mechanical behaviour: It is recommended that materials lower than the T2 class
(the resistance class according to NF EN 14227-10 [33]) should not be used as a road foundation layer [29].
All the test results presented in the next section correspond to at least the average of three measurements obtained
during each test.

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3. Results and discussion

This study was based on the evaluation of the essential criteria mentioned in the previous section. The investigated
mixture was composed of 39 % fine sediment S1 and 61 % sandy sediment S2.
It should be noted that the cement content of the mixture was fixed at 7 % (this dosage was calculated relative to the dry
mass of the mixture), and the selected water content was the optimum water content WOPM that corresponded to the
maximum dry density of the mixture gdOPM.
The same formulation (but without adding a hydraulic binder) was also investigated to evaluate the effect of treatment.

3.1. Particle-size distribution of mixture

Before water was added to the mixtures, the particle size analysis of the mixtures was carried out, and the particle size
distribution curves were plotted (Fig. 2).
The main characteristics of the mixture are listed in Table 1.
The result analysis of the particle size distribution showed that the mixture had a uniformity coefficient Cu higher than 20
and a coefficient of curvature Cc ranging between 1 and 3. Thus, it could be inferred that the mixture was a well-graded
material.

Fig. 2. Grain size distribution of mixture.

Table 1
Main characteristics of sediment-based mixture treated with hydraulic binder.

Samples 1 2 3 Average Median Mean Standard

deviation deviation

Particle size distribution (%) Ø < 1 (mm) 1.9 1.8 2 1.9 1.9 0.1 0.2
Ø < 2 (mm) 4 3.9 4.4 4.0 4.0 0.3 0.4
Ø < 10 (mm) 9.1 8.9 9.9 9.3 9.1 0.5 0.7
Ø < 32 (mm) 21 20.6 22 21.2 21.0 0.6 0.8
Ø < 63 (mm) 27.2 26.8 28.5 27.0 26.5 1.0 1.3
Ø < 80 (mm) 29.5 29 30.6 29.7 29.5 1.0 1.4
Ø < 160 (mm) 35.4 34.8 37.2 35.8 35.4 1.1 1.4
Ø < 315 (mm) 84.2 84 85.9 84.7 84.2 0.9 1.2
Ø < 400 (mm) 92 93 94 93.0 93.0 0.7 1.0
Ø < 500 (mm) 96 96.4 97.4 96.6 96.4 0.5 0.7
Ø < 630 (mm) 97.6 98 99 98.2 98.0 0.5 0.7
Ø < 1250 (mm) 99.5 99.6 100 99.7 99.6 0.2 0.3
Ø < 10,000 (mm) 100 100 100 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0
MBV (g/100 g) 0.44 0.44 0.56 0.48 0.44 0.05 0.07
Organic content (%) 1.8 1.9 2.3 2 1.9 0.20 0.26
Hazen coefficients Uniformity coefficient 21.35
Curvature coefficient 2.62

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Additionally, the percentage of fine elements (grains with particle sizes less than 63 mm) and the MBV of the mixture
were restricted to 27 % and 0.48 g/100 g, respectively. The results indicated that the mixture was composed of 4% clay, 23 %
silt, and 63 % sand. The MBV showed limited sensitivity to water present in the mixture.
Another parameter measured in this study was the organic matter content. Given the harmful effects of the presence of
organic matter on the mechanical and compaction performance of soil [24,25], the percentage of organic matter in the
mixture was limited to 2%.
Therefore, all the conditions specified in Section 2.2 were satisfied to determine the optimal composition of the mixture.

3.2. Short-term mechanical behaviour of mixture

3.2.1. Immediate bearing capacity

The compaction parameters and bearing capacity of the mixture were determined. The maximum dry density, optimum
water content, and immediate bearing ratio were measured through the modified Proctor test [27,28].
The immediate bearing ratio indicates the maximum dry density, which defines the capacity of the mixture to support the
circulation of construction machinery. The minimum value adopted in this study was 35 %, as recommended by the French
technical guide for road construction [29].
The values of the optimum compaction and the immediate bearing ratio of the mixture, as well as those of the mixture
without cement content, are listed in Table 2.
The analysis of Table 2 showed two mains observations.

1 The maximum dry density of the mixture (1.83 t/m3) was higher than that of S1 (1.7 t/m3), S2 (1.6 t/m3) [19], and that of the
mixture without cement (1.76 t/m3). This difference could be explained by the increase in the compactness of the mixture
owing to the treatment of the sediments with cement.
2 a significant improvement in the immediate bearing capacity of the mixture after treatment was observed. The immediate
bearing capacity increased from 25 % to 38 % after treatment; this value exceeded the value recommended for soil use in
the foundation layer (35 %). The improvement was attributed to increased density and compactness [23].

3.2.2. Age allowing for circulation on treated layer

The second parameter investigated for the short-term mechanical behaviour of the formulation was the age allowing for
circulation on the treated layer. The age depended on the compressive strength (Table 3).
The compressive strength values at 7, 14, 28, 60, and 90 days of three samples were measured. The compressive strength
development with age is depicted in Fig. 3.
Based on the results obtained for all the samples, an increase in the compressive strength over time was observed to reach
0.85, 1.31, 1.8, 1.95, and 2.1 MPa at 7, 14, 28, 60, and 90 days, respectively.
The result analysis showed that the age enabling the circulation of Types A, B, and C traffic were 9, 12, and 20 days,
respectively (Fig. 3).

Table 2
Compaction parameter and bearing capacity of mixture with and without cement.

Samples 1 2 3 4 5 Average Median Mean Standard

deviation deviation

Mixture without cement WOPM (%) 14 13.8 14.3 15.1 15.3 14.5 14.3 0.56 0.67
gdOPM (t/m3) 1.7 1.77 1.78 1.8 1.76 1.76 1.77 0.03 0.04
Immediate bearing capacity (%) 22 24 28 28 25 25 25 2.08 2.61
Mixture WOPM (%) 16.1 16.3 15.2 14.8 14.6 15.4 15.2 0.64 0.76
gdOPM (t/m3) 1.8 1.8 1.83 1.86 1.88 1.83 1.83 0.03 0.04
Immediate bearing capacity (%) 35 37 37 42 40 38 37 2 2.45

Table 3
Minimum thresholds retained for circulation on treated layer depending on level of aggressiveness of site traffic [22].

Traffic aggressiveness level Corresponding traffic type Thresholds

retained
(MPa)
A Light traffic, limited to cars 1
B Light and heavy traffic required for annexe works 1.2
(heavy traffic  500 crossings for heavy vehicle)
C Supply traffic of foundation and base layer materials 1.5

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Fig. 3. Compressive strength evolution of mixture.

The analysis also indicated that the compressive strength at 28 days was approximately twice as high as that at seven
days. After 28 days, the rate of increase of the compressive strength declined.
The obtained results showed that the treatment of the mixture with cement increased the compressive strength.

3.2.3. Immersion resistance at early age

The evaluation of the sensitivity of the mixture to water was determined using the ratio between Rci and Rc60. For soil
with an MBV  0.5 g/100 g, the resistance to immersion is considered satisfactory if Rci/Rc60  0.80 [22]. The evolution of the
compressive strength parameters Rc60 and Rci are presented in Table 4.
The results showed a decrease in the compressive strength of the mixture immersed in water (Rci = 1.61 MPa) compared
to that of normal curing (Rc60 = 1.95 MPa). This variation was mainly attributed to the penetration of water into the pores,
which weakened the bonds that held the particles together.
The calculated Rci/Rc60 ratio was 0.83, which indicated that the resistance of the mixture to immersion was satisfactory.
The treatment of the sediments with the hydraulic binder strengthened the bonds agglomerating the particles of the
mixture. This bond restricted the decrease in the compressive strength after the mixture was immersed in water to obtain a
Rci/Rc60 value higher than the expected value.
In conclusion, the investigated mixture exhibited adequate short-term mechanical performance suitable for application
as the foundation layer of road pavements.

3.3. Long-term mechanical behaviour of mixture

For the foundation layer of a road, it is necessary to investigate the behaviour of the material under traffic loads. The
passage of vehicles over the layers of materials creates a charge–discharge effect. The material must, therefore, possess the
minimum tensile strength and should be able to deform without breaking.
Two characteristics, i.e., the elastic modulus E and tensile strength Ts, were measured to determine the mechanical
performance of the mixture.
In this study, the direct tensile strength of the mixture was estimated through the Brazilian tensile test performed
following BS EN13286-42 standards [32], and the elastic modulus E was determined according to BS EN 13286-43 [31]. These
characteristics were measured after 90 days of normal curing [29].

Table 4
Effect of water immersion on compressive strength of mixture.

Samples 1 2 3 Average Median Mean deviation Standard deviation

Rci* 1.48 1.62 1.74 1.61 1.62 0.09 0.13
Rc60** 1.82 1.93 2.10 1.95 1.93 0.10 0.14
Rci/Rc60 0.81 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.01 0.01
*
Compressive strength (28 days of normal curing followed by 32 days of total immersion in water).
**
Compressive strength (60 days of normal curing).

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Fig. 4. Classification of mixture (Ts, E).

From the obtained results, the treated soil was classified according to NF EN 14227-10 standards [33]. It is recommended
that materials of a lower class than T2 should not be used as a road foundation layer [29].
The Brazilian tensile strength value at 90 days of normal curing was Rtb = 0.72 MPa. Therefore, Rt = 0.8 Rtb = 0.576 MPa.
For the modulus of elasticity, the obtained value was 5.165 GPa.
These two results (Rt, E) [33] showed that the material could be classified in resistance class T2. The values were
calculated from measurements of three specimens, and the average values were obtained (Fig. 4).
It was found that the investigated mixture exhibited adequate long-term mechanical performance for use as a foundation
layer in road pavements.
It should be noted that the results obtained from evaluation of the mechanical behaviour of the formulation were similar
to those of previous studies [15,24,34] on dredged sediments treated with hydraulic binders.

4. Conclusions

The valorisation of sediments after they have been dredged has several economic and environmental advantages. First, it
improves the waste management of dredged sediments. Second, the valorisation of dredged sediments provides an
innovative solution to the problem of scarcity of building material resources.
The objective of this study was to assess the possibility of using dredged sediments from Safi harbour (Morocco) as a road
construction material, particularly for as a layer of pavement foundations.
The approach adopted in this study required the analyses of the geotechnical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics
of the sediments [19]. Next, we developed an adapted formulation based on several criteria, i.e. the limitation of fine element
proportion, MBV, and organic matter content, as well as the optimisation of the particle size distribution of the mixture.
The experimental results showed that the mixture of dredged sediments S1 and S2 treated with only 7% Portland cement
was suitable for use as a road-base layer material, according to current relevant standards [21,22,29,33].
The treatment of sediments using cement improved the short-term and long-term mechanical performance as follows.
First, the mixture treated with cement exhibited a better immediate bearing capacity than the untreated mixture. This
improvement was attributed to increased density and compactness.
Second, the ages enabling circulation in the layer for treated sediments of Types A, B, and C traffic were 9, 12, and 20 days,
respectively.
Third, the treatment facilitated the bonding of the particles to agglomerate inside the mixture, which restricted the
reduction in the compressive strength after the mixture was immersed in water. Thus, the Rci/Rc60 value was higher than the
expected value.
Fourth, the classification of the mixture as a T2 material using the couple (Rt, E) showed that the mixture exhibited
adequate long-term mechanical performance for use as a foundation layer in road pavements.
This study has demonstrated that it is possible to reuse sediments dredged at the Moroccan harbour in road works. Future
research should be conducted on sediments dredged from Moroccan ports to explore other valorisation aspects.

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Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships, which have, or
could be perceived to have, influenced the work reported in this article.

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted with the support of the Faculty Semlalia of Marrakech and the LABOTEST laboratory.

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