CSC322 Structured Programming

CSC 322 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 PROGRAMING LANGUAGES
Unit 1 Computer Programming

Unit 2 Characteristics of a Good Program
Unit 3 Phases of Program Development (Programming)
UNIT 1 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Classification of Programming Languages
3.2 Low Level Language
3.3 High Level Language
3.4 Features of High-Level Language
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A program is a finite set of sequenced instructions or commands given to a

computer in order to carry out a particular task. To write a program for the
computer to carry out these instructions, there must be a means of
communication. Humans communicate via natural languages such as English,
French, Chinese etc. Likewise, to communicate with the computer, we also
use languages known as programming languages. Programming is the art of
program writing using a particular programming language. It can also be said
to be the process of writing a set of instructions in sequential manner using
programming language to control the activity of a computer system. A
computer programming language is an artificial language which is used in
writing a set of formal instructions to control the activities of a computer
system.
There are two main types of computer programming languages; these are:
Low-level language and High-level language. Low-level languages also
known as machine language, are machine dependent and makes fast and
efficient use of the computer. It requires no translator to translate the code. It
is directly understood by the computer. On the contrary, writing a program in
high-level language does not require knowledge of the computer in which the
program is run. Hence, high-level languages are
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CSC 322 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING
machine independent, and which programs are portable to other computers,

and very easy to learn and write.
2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define programs and classify programming languages

 State the advantages and disadvantages of high- and low-level
languages
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Classification of Programming Languages
There are two major types of computer programming languages: the low-level
language and high-level language.
3.2 Low level language
This type of language is closer to the machine compared with the human or
natural language. The two major examples are the Machine language and the
Assembly language.
Machine Language: This is the only language computer understands. It is the

native language of the computer. The computer directly executes a program
written in machine language. These programs are coded using strings of 0’s
and 1’s. It doesn’t need a translator.
Advantages of Machine Language

 Machine language makes fast and efficient use of the computer.
 It requires no translator to translate the code. It is directly understood
by the computer.
Disadvantages of Machine Language

 Very bulky.
 They require much time for writing and reading.
 They are prone to error which is difficult to detect and correct.
 Very difficult to learn.
 Can only run on the computer it is designed (i.e., it is machine
dependent)
Assembly Language: Assembly Language uses MNEMONICS (symbols) to

represent data and instructions. Such program eliminates problems associated
with machine language. Computer cannot execute
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CSC 322 MODULE 1
directly a program written in assembly language; it requires a translator called

assembler. Assembler is a special program designed to translate a program
written in assembly language to a machine language equivalent.
Advantages of Assembly Language

 It allows complex jobs to run in a simpler way.
 It is memory efficient, as it requires less memory.
 It is faster in speed, as its execution time is less.
 It is mainly hardware oriented.
 It requires less instruction to get the result.
 It is used for critical jobs.
Disadvantages of Assembly Language

 It is machine dependent; the programmer must be knowledgeable in
both subject area and the operations of the machine.
 It is cumbersome though less cumbersome than that of machine
language.
 Very expensive to develop
 It consumes time
3.3 High Level Language
A high-level language is a problem-orientated programming language. The

source programs are written in human readable languages like English instead
of mere symbols. In other words, a high-level language is a convenient and
simple means of describing the information structures and sequences of
actions required to perform a particular task.
Advantages of High-Level Language

 No knowledge of the computer in which the program will be run is
required
 The programs are portable
 Very easy to learn and write
Disadvantages of High-Level Language

 It takes additional translation times to translate the source to machine
code.
 High level programs are comparatively slower than low level
programs.
 Compared to low level programs, they are generally less memory
efficient.
 Cannot communicate directly with the hardware
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3.4 Features of High-Level Language
 Machine independent
 Problem oriented
 Ability to clearly reflect the structure of program written in it.
 Readability
 Programs are portable.
Examples of High-level Languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, QBASIC,

VISUAL BASIC, JAVA, PASCAL etc.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Classify programming languages and explain the different categories

Solution:
Programming languages are basically classified into two main categories, that
is Low-level language and High-level language. Every programming language
belongs to one of these categories and sub- category.
Low level languages: Low-level languages are used to write programs that
relate to the specific architecture and hardware of a particular type of
computer. They are closer to the native language of a computer (binary),
making them harder for programmers to understand. Programs written in low-
level languages are fast and memory efficient. However, it is very difficult to
write and debug and maintain. It is equally difficult to read and understand.
Low level program developers must be acquainted with the particular machine
architecture. Low level languages are subdivided into Machine language and
Assembly language.
Machine language: This is the native language of the computer. It consists of

0s and 1s. These 0s and 1s (i.e., sequence of binary bits) constitutes a set of
instructions that are directly executed by the computer. Each instruction
performs a very specific and small task. These instructions are machine
dependent and varies from computer to computer.
Assembly language: Assembly language uses mnemonics instead of bits.

Assembly language instructions interacts directly with the computer.
Assembly language instructions are translated into object code (i.e., specific
machine code) by a special program known as assembler.
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CSC 322 MODULE 1
High-level languages are similar to the human or natural language. high- level
languages are programmers friendly, easy to code, debug and maintain. It
provides a higher level of abstraction from machine language. They do not
interact directly with the hardware. Rather, they focus more on the complex
arithmetic operations, optimal program efficiency and easiness in coding.
Programs in a high-level language are written using English statements (e.g.,
Pascal, Java, C, BASIC, etc.). High-level programs require
compilers/interpreters to translate source code to machine language. We can
compile the source code written in the high-level language to multiple
machine languages. Thus, they are machine independent language. High-level
languages are grouped into two categories based on the execution model –
compiled or interpreted languages
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit introduced the students to the basic knowledge of computer

programming. It defined computer program and discussed the two major
classifications of programming languages (the low- and high-level
programming languages).
5.0 SUMMARY
A computer program is a set of instruction given to a computer to carry out a

particular task. Computer programs are written using programming languages.
These languages can be classified into low-level (i.e., machine and assembly
languages) and high-level languages. Machine language uses 0s and 1s while
assembly uses mnemonics. The high- level languages use mathematical
symbols in combination with English- like words. Both the low-level and
high-level programming languages have their advantages and disadvantages.
These are stated in the main contents of the unit
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Fundamentals of
Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016 Structured
Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012
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UNIT 2 PROGRAM DESIGN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Characteristics of a Good Program
3.2 Phases of Program Development (Programming)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The principles of data processing set the pace for obtaining the requirements
of a good program. In data processing, three phases are critical: The input,
processing and the output phases. Input constitutes what instruction and data
goes into the system. Processing has to do with what logic or tools are
required to manipulate the data. Hence, we expect certain characteristics from
a good program or tool intended to process the data to yield informed output.
There are various phases in the development of computer programs. These

phases must be strictly adhered to, to ensure a reliable, efficient program
devoid of syntax and semantic errors.
 State at least six characteristics of a good program

 List the various phases of program development.
 Explain the steps involved in problem definition and analysis
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Characteristics of a Good Program
 Portability/Transferability: Must be able to work on any

computer machine.
 Reliability: It can be relied upon to do what it is expected to do.
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CSC 322 MODULE 1
 Efficiency/cost saving: It must not cost more than its benefits and
enables problem to be solved appropriately, quickly and efficiently.
 Clarity and Simplicity: It should be as simple as possible to
understand.
 Understandability/Readability: It must be readable and understandable
by other programmers and end users.
 Flexibility/Adaptability/Maintainability: A good program must be
flexible adaptable and maintainable in order to suit user’s need.
Modification must be possible and very easy.
3.2 Phases of Program Development (Programming)
The process of producing a computer program (software) may be divided into

eight phases or stages:
1) Problem definition/Analysis
2) Selection or development of an algorithm
3) Designing the program
4) Coding the programming statements
5) Compiling/Compilation stage
6) Testing/Running and Debugging the program
7) Documentation.
8) Maintenance
1) Problem Definition/Analysis Stage: There is need to understand the

problem that requires a solution. The need to determine the data to be
processed, form or type of the data, volume of the data, what to be
done to the data to produce the expected/required output.
2) Selection or development of an algorithm: An algorithm is the set of
steps required to solve a problem written down in English language.
3) Designing the program: In order to minimize the amount of time to be
spent in developing the software, the programmer makes use of
flowchart. Flowchart is the pictorial representation of the algorithm
developed in step 2 above. Pseudocode IPO chart (input processing
output) and HIPO (Hierarchical Input Processing and Output) chart
may be used in place of flowchart or to supplement flowchart.
4) Coding the statement: This involves writing the program statements.
The programmer uses the program flow chart as a guide for coding the
steps the computer will follow.
5) Compiling: There is need to translate the program from the source
code to the machine or object code if it is not written in machine
language. A computer program is fed into the computer
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first, then as the source program is entered, a translated equivalent

(object program) is created and stored in the memory.
6) Running, Testing and Debugging: When the computer is activated to
run a program, it may find it difficult to run it because errors (syntax,
semantics or logic, or runtime) might have been committed. Manuals
are used to debug the errors. A program that is error free is tested using
some test data. If the program works as intended, real life data are then
loaded.
7) Documentation: This is the last stage in software development. This
involves keeping written records that describe the program, explain its
purposes, define the amount, types and sources of input data required
to run it. List the Departments and people who use its output and trace
the logic the program follows.
8) Maintenance: All the activities that occur after the completion of the
program come under the program maintenance. Program maintenance
includes the following: Finding and correcting the errors; Modifying
the program to enhance it – i.e., adapting to some new concepts or
when there is a change in the hardware or operating system; Update the
documentation; Add new features and functions; Remove useless or
redundant parts of code.
i. Explain any five characteristics of a good program

ii. Explain the phases or stages of program (or software)
development
iii. Describe the content of program documentation
Solution
1. Explain any five characteristics of a good program
Transferability/portability: Program written in one computer should be able to
run or execute on another computer. That means it should be easy to transfer a
program from the machine on which it developed to the other computer. A
program whose definition is independent of features of a
particular machine architecture can support
Transferability/portability. Example: Pascal, Java, C, c++, Java. A program
should be supported by many different computers. The program should
compile and run smoothly on different platforms. So, portability is measured
by how a software application can be transferred from one computer
environment to another without failure. A program is said to be more portable
if it is easily adopted in different computer systems.
Reliability: A good program is reliable. It does what it was designed to do
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CSC 322 MODULE 1
Efficiency/cost saving: The user’s actual needs will change from time- to-
time, so the program is said to be reliable if it works smoothly in every
version. It is measured as reliable if it gives same performance in all simple to
complex conditions.
Maintainability: It is the process of fixing program errors and improving the

program. If a program is easy to read and understand, then its maintenance
will be easier. It should also prevent unwanted works so that the maintenance
cost in the future will be low. It should also have quality to easily meet new
requirements. A maintainable program allows us to quickly and easily fix a
bug, increase usability and performance, add new features, make changes to
support multiple platforms, etc.
Efficiency: A program is efficient if it makes use of less amount of memory

and processing time and easily translated to machine code. The algorithm
should be more effective. Every program needs certain processing time and
memory to process the instructions and data. A program is equally said to be
efficient if it has high speed of runtime execution. A program that gives due
consideration to space and time efficiency is said to be efficient.
Machine Independent: Program should be machine-independent. Program

written on one system should be able to execute on many different types of
computers without any changes. It is not hardware specific and provides more
flexibility.
Cost Effectiveness: Cost Effectiveness is the key to measure the program

quality. Cost must be measured over the life of the program and must include
both financial cost and human cost of producing these programs. The benefit
of the program must outweigh the cost.
Simplicity/Understandability/Readability: A good program must be simple,

readable, easy to understand and use. The overall simplicity of a program
strongly affects the readability of the programs and programs that are easier to
read and understand are easier to maintain
2. Explain the phases or stages of program (or software) development

1 Problem Definition:
 The first step in the process of program development is the thorough
understanding and identification of the problem for which is the
program or software is to be developed.
 In this step the problem has to be defined formally.
 All the factors like Input/output, processing requirement, memory
requirements, error handling, interfacing with other programs have to
be taken into consideration in this stage.
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2 Program Design:
 In this phase the software developer makes use of tools like algorithms
to develop the design of the program.
o Algorithms are step by step methods to solving a problem and can
either be represented by a natural language or by symbols
(flowcharting)
3 Coding:
 Once the design process is complete, the actual computer program is
written, i.e., the instructions are written in a computer language.
 Coding is generally a very small part of the entire program
development process and also a less time-consuming activity in reality.
 In this process all the syntax errors i.e., errors related to spelling,
missing commas, undefined labels etc. are eliminated.
 For effective coding some of the guide lines which are applied are:
o Use of meaningful names and labels of variables
o Simple and clear expressions
o Modularity with emphasis on making modules generalized
o Making use of comments and indenting the code properly
o Avoiding jumps in the program to transfer control.
4 Debugging:
 At this stage the errors in the programs are detected and corrected.
 This stage of program development is an important process.
Debugging is also known as program validation.
 Some common errors which might occur in the programs include:
o Uninitialization of variables.
o Reversing of order of operands.
o Confusion of numbers and characters.
o Inverting of conditions e.g., jumping on zero instead of on not zero.
5 Testing:
 The program is tested on a number of suitable test cases.
 A test plan of the program has to be done at the stage of the program
design itself.
 This ensures a thorough understanding of the specifications.
 The most trivial and the most special cases should be identified and
tested.
 It is always useful to include the maximum and minimum values of all
variables as test data.
6 Documentation:
 Documentation is a very essential step in the program
development.
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CSC 322 MODULE 1
 Documentation helps the users and the people who maintain the
software.
 This ensures that future modification if required can be done easily.
Also, it is required during redesigning and maintenance.
7 Maintenance:
 Updating and correcting the program for changed conditions and field
experience is accounted for in maintenance.
 Maintenance becomes essential in following situations:
o Change in specification,
o Change in equipment,
o Errors which are found during the actual execution of the program.
3. Describe the content of program documentation
Program documentation should contain the following:
 Written records that describe the program,
 Explanation of its purposes,
 Define the amount, types and sources of input data required to run it.
 List the departments and people who use its output and
 The logic the program follows
4.0 CONCLUSION
When designing a program, a conscious effort should be made to build in

some characteristics that makes for a good and functional program. In this unit
some of these characteristics are stated. The phases involved in the
development of a program are enumerated. The steps for problem definition
and analysis are also explained.
.
5.0 SUMMARY
The characteristics of a good program are outlined which include:

transferability, reliability, efficiency, cost saving, simplicity,
understandability, readability, flexibility, adaptability, maintainability. The
Phases of Program Development are:
1. Problem definition/Analysis
2. Selection or development of an algorithm
3. Designing the program
4. Coding the programming statements
5. Compiling/Compilation stage
6. Testing/Running and Debugging the program
7. Documentation.
8. Maintenance
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Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012.
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CSC 322 MODULE 2
MODULE 2 ABSTRACTION AND MODULARITY
Unit 1 Introduction to Abstraction

Unit 2 Modular Programming
Unit 3 Modular Interface
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ABSTRACTION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Abstraction
3.2 Functions and Procedures
3.3 Classes
3.4 Abstraction Costs and Benefits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As programmers began to write instructions that were equivalent to a few

bytes, the level of thinking in terms of what the computer was doing on a
functional level raised the level of abstraction. Statements and structured code
can be thought of as assembly language operations, at a higher level of
abstraction. Statements are collected to form functions, procedures,
subroutines, or methods. The abstraction or grouping code and its data
structures is called object-oriented programming. However, the clump of code
and data definitions is called a class in most programming languages. In many
software maintenance projects, the cost of the additional performance of low
levels of abstraction is far higher than the cost of the computer cycles that
would be required to run the program.
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By the unit of this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe functions and Procedures in program

 Illustrate a typical function structure for sorting numerical arrays in C
language.
 Define a class in Object–oriented programming
 Explain the abstraction costs and benefits
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Abstraction
The history of programming has experienced rising levels of granularity.

Decades ago, programmers manipulated individual bits of codes. Then the
assembly language was invented, and programmers began to write instructions
that were equivalent to a few bytes. The advantage was clear: Instead of
thinking in terms of essentially meaningless 1s and 0s, you could think in
terms of what the computer was doing on a functional level—move this value
to that memory location, multiply these two bytes together.
This is called raising the level of abstraction. Every time you raise the level of
abstraction in a programming language, you get more clearer, structured
program (as measured in terms of bits) for less work. The language at which
you communicate with the computer can also be altered into something closer
to the way we communicate in English.
Each unit of the level of abstraction has a contract or agreement: The language
makes an exact promise of what the computer will do when the unit is
executed. For the following assembly language instruction:
LD (BC), A
the language promises that it will move the value from the register named A
into the place in memory pointed to by registers B and C. Obviously, this is
only a very small piece of what you want the computer to do, such as word
processing, video processing, etc. but it’s a lot clearer and easier to use than its
binary equivalent:
00000010
It may not seem any shorter or easier to remember LD (BC), A; but each of
the letters here has an explicit and easily remembered meaning: LD is short for
LOAD; A, B, and C refer to some registers, and (BC) refers to a way to do
indirection into memory. 00000010 may be just seven 0s and a 1, but the order
is both critical and hard to memorize. Swapping two of the bits to 00000100
means INC B (increment the B register), which is totally different.
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CSC 322 MODULE 2
3.2 Functions and Procedures
Statements and structured code can be thought of as assembly language

operations, at a higher level of abstraction. The next level of abstraction is to
group statements into operational units with contracts of their own. Statements
are collected to form functions, procedures, subroutines, or methods, as they
are called in various languages. The beauty about functions is that they limit
even further the amount of code required to understand a piece of code.
A typical function structure for sorting a numerical array in C programming

language, is given below:
/** This function takes the array and returns a sorted version,
* removing duplicates. It may return the same array, or it
* may allocate a new one. If there are no duplicates, it'll
* probably return the old array. If there are, it'll have to
* create a new one. */
int[] sort(int[] array)
{ ... the body ...}
You can learn a lot about the function without even seeing the body. The name
sort, and the fact that it takes an array of integers and returns a (possibly
different) array of integers, tell you a lot about what the function is supposed
to do. The rest of the contract is described in the comment, which talks about
other things such as memory allocation. That’s even more important in C and
C++ than in Java, where it’s often up to the contract to express who’s
responsible for freeing memory allocated in the function.
The maintenance programmer’s life is made simpler because the program is

chopped up into these functional units. A common rule is that a function
should be only as long as a screenful of code. That makes it possible to
visualize, all at once, a complete, nameable, understandable unit of the
program you’re maintaining. That rule turns out to be a little bit too strict,
though.
The names of functions and procedures are a critical part of the abstraction. It
takes a chunk of code and allows you to refer to it later with a single word (or
a short collection of words, strungTogetherLikeThis or _like_this). This
strategy focuses every line in the function on achieving the goal with that
name. Once the scope of your function grows beyond the name you’ve
assigned to it, it’s time to consider breaking the function into pieces with
better names. If you find yourself writing code like this:
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void sortNamesAndSendEmail()
{ // Sort names
... Spend 100 lines sorting the names ...
// Send email
. .. Spend 500 lines sending out emails ...}
it’s a good indicator that it’s time to start breaking the function into pieces. In
effect, you’ll probably write two functions:
sortNames()
sendEmail()
which allows you to eliminate the verbose and weird function name
sortNamesAndSendEmail.
3.3 Classes
Structured programming and functions neatly solve some of the problems of

maintenance by limiting the amount of code you must look at in order to
understand any given line. There’s still one way that far- off pieces of code
can affect a particular line of code, however.
The sort example given earlier sorts only integers, which is not a particularly
interesting job. Why would you ever want to sort just a list of numbers? More
likely, you want to be able to sort a list of objects of some kind, based on an
integer key. Or, more generally, you’d like to be able to sort on any key, so
long as you can reliably compare any two objects.
Even before object-oriented programming, there were ways to group chunks of

data into functional units. In C, these units are called structs. However, structs
don’t have any reliable way to compare them. You need some level of
abstraction a little higher than provided by structs that allows you to tell which
of two structs should come first. The abstraction of grouping code and its data
structures is called object- oriented programming. The clump of code and data
definitions is called a class in most programming languages.
C++ is an object-oriented language. It provides a higher level of abstraction

than C does. In general, higher levels of abstraction come at a performance
penalty, and many people criticize C++ for its performance cost relative to C.
Java aims for an even higher level of abstraction than C++ by abstracting
away access to locations in memory. Though not the first language to do so
(Lisp and Basic readily come to mind, among general- purpose programming
languages), it probably has the highest market penetration.
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CSC 322 MODULE 2
And that level of abstraction also costs performance most of the time. Not
always, of course. An advantage to abstraction is that the intermediary
translators are allowed to make any optimizations they want, so long as they
don’t violate the contracts. The larger the program, the harder it is to perform
all the optimizations and still make the schedule. The longer a language has
been around, the more tricks the compiler writers learn for optimization.
Increasingly, languages at higher levels of granularity perform faster than
those at lower levels. There’s no way you could write a large program for a
Pentium processor and make it as efficient as the same program written in C;
the pipeline stalls would suck up all of your performance gains (even if you
knew what they were).
3.4 Abstraction Costs and Benefits
In many software maintenance projects, the cost of the additional performance

of low levels of abstraction is far higher than the cost of the computer cycles
that would be required to run the program. As a maintenance programmer,
your time is extremely expensive. The time of your users is even more
expensive (since there are usually more of them than there are for you), so
correctness of the program is key. If users lose work or time waiting for your
software to be corrected, that easily represents lots of money.
Higher levels of abstraction lead to improved maintenance, simply because

there’s less code. The less code, the less you have to read to understand it.
Certainly, there are limits to this, as 50 lines of clear code is preferable to 10
lines of total obscurity. In general, however, by using higher levels of
abstraction, improved maintainability is gained.
Of course, there’s a downside to these higher levels of abstraction in terms of

performance. The more flexible a program is, the harder it is to optimize. As a
maintainer, you’ll have to find the balance that works best. The old dictum of
C.A.R. Hoare that “Premature optimization is the root of all evil” is
particularly applicable to abstraction. Choose your levels appropriately and
optimize those parts that can’t be made to function at the level of abstraction
you choose. The payoff is in programming time, both in development and
maintenance, and that makes users happy.
SELF –ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. What is Abstraction?
ii. Write a function to select the largest of 3 numbers
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1) What is Abstraction?
Data abstraction is the reduction of a particular body of data to a simplified
representation of the whole. Abstraction, in general, is the process of refining
or taking away or removing characteristics from something in order to reduce
it to a set of essential characteristics. Abstraction hides some characteristics of
a system leaving only the essential characteristics for reason of simplicity
2) Write a function to select the largest of 3 numbers
#include<stdio.h>
// function to find largest among three numbers
float large (float a, float b, float c)
{
if(a>=b && a>=c) return a;
else if(b>=a && b>=c) return b;
else return c;
}
int main()
{
float num1, num2, num3, largest;
printf("Enter three numbers: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &num1, &num2, &num3);
largest = large(num1, num2, num3);
printf("Largest number = %.2f",largest); return
0;}
4.0 CONCLUSION
Abstraction is a programming principle that allows for the hiding of details of

the task at hand. Emphasis is on functionalities. In object- oriented
programming abstraction is achieved via the combination of code and data into
one container. The definition of both the code and data together is a class.
Class is a blue print for the production of objects.
5.0 SUMMARY
Abstraction is having a global view of the programming task at hand. It hides

details of the task. Abstraction has it costs and benefits. Functions and
procedures are ways of splitting a complex task into smaller units or modules.
This makes room for easy design and implementation a program.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016
Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012
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CSC 322 MODULE 2
UNIT 2 MODULAR PROGRAMMING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Modularity
3.2 Advantages of Using Modular Programming Approach
3.3 Real-life Example of Modules
3.4 Modular Programming in C
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A module is basically a set of interrelated files that shares their

implementation details but hide it from the outside world. The main
advantages of modular programming approach, includes ease of use,
reusability, and ease of maintenance. Modularity is applicable in real- life such
as electrical devices that can plug into any outlet/socket. Modularization is a
method to organize large programs in smaller parts, i.e., the modules. Every
module has a well-defined interface toward client modules that specifies how
“services” provided by this module are made available. Moreover, every
module has an implementation part that hides the code, and any other private
implementation details the clients’ module.
 Define modularity in programming.

 State the advantages of modular programming approach
 Describe the real-life application of modularity concept.
19
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Modularity
Modular programming is the process of subdividing a computer program into

separate sub-programs. A module is a separate software component. It can be
used in a variety of applications and functions with other components of the
system.
Some programs may have thousands or millions of lines and to manage. For
such programs such programs it becomes quite difficult as there might be too
many of syntax errors or logical errors present in the program, so to manage
such programs, the concept of modular programming is essential. The modular
programming concept permits that each sub-module contains something
necessary to execute only one aspect of the desired functionality. Modular
programming therefore places emphasis on breaking of large programs into
small problems to increase the maintainability, readability of the code and to
make the program handy for any changes in future.
3.2 Advantages of Using Modular Programming Approach
Ease of Use: This approach allows simplicity, as lines of program code can be
accessed in the form of modules, rather than focusing on the entire thousands
and millions of lines code. This allows ease in debugging the code and prone
to less error.
Reusability: It allows the user to reuse the functionality with a different
interface without typing the whole program again.
Ease of Maintenance: It helps in less collision at the time of working on
modules, helping a team to work with proper collaboration while working on a
large application.
3.3. Real-life Example of Modules
Let’s consider a familiar modular system. Consider the electrical devices

(microwaves, electric kettles, washers, dryers, etc.) that can plug into any
outlet/socket. None of these device care if they are plugged into the electrical
outlet in your house or your neighbor’s house or your office, etc. They are
designed to do their specific task and functionality when they are plugged in
and when the power is on, regardless the place they are in.
Application modules should follow the same philosophy. Regardless of the

application and even regardless of what application they plugged into, they
should do their specific task and only their specific task.
20
CSC 322 MODULE 2
Also, in exactly the same way that an electrical device can easily be unplugged
from the wall outlet, a code module should be designed in such a way that it
can easily be decoupled and removed from your application.
Furthermore, as the removal of one electrical device has no impact on the

functionality of other devices that are plugged into your electrical system, the
removal of a code module or a series of code modules from your application
should not have any effect on the functionality of the other parts of your
application.
This decoupling should also have no effect on the application, other than
perhaps just losing the specific functionality that was provided by that
particular module or group of modules in the application.
3.4. Modular Programming in C
C is called a structured programming language because to solve a large

problem, C programming language divides the problem into smaller modules
called functions or procedures each of which handles a particular
responsibility. The program which solves the entire problem is a collection of
such functions.
A module is basically a set of interrelated files that share their implementation

details but hide it from the outside world. Each function defined in C by
default is globally accessible. This can be achieved by including the header
file in which implementation of the function is defined.
Modularization is a method to organize large programs in smaller parts, i.e.,

the modules. Every module has a well-defined interface toward client modules
that specifies how “services” provided by this module are made available.
Moreover, every module has an implementation part that hides the code and
any other private implementation detail the clients’ modules should not care
of.
Modularization has several benefits, especially on large and complex

programs:
 modules can be re-used in several projects;
 changing the implementation details of a modules does not require to
modify the clients using them as far as the interface does not change;
 faster re-compilation, as only the modules that have been modified are
actually re-compiled;
 self-documenting, as the interface specifies all that is required to know
to use the module;
21
 easier debugging, as modules dependencies are clearly specified and

every module can be tested separately.
Programming by modules using the C language means splitting every source
code into an header file module1.h that specifies how that module talks to the
clients, and a corresponding implementation source file module1.c where all
the code and the details are hidden. The header contains only declarations of
constants, types, global variables and function prototypes that client programs
are allowed to see and to use. Every other private item internal to the module
must stay inside the code file. We describe in detail the general structure of the
interface and the implementation files.
i. State the benefits of modularization on large and complex programs
Solution
1 State the benefits of modularization on large and complex programs
 Efficient Program Development. Programs can be developed more
quickly with the modular approach since small subprograms are easier
to understand, design, and test than large programs.
 Multiple Use of Subprograms.
 Ease of Debugging and Modifying.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Modular programming is a programming approach that allows programming
task to be chopped into smaller tasks or modules. This in turn makes the job
easier and minimizes occurrence of errors. It therefore becomes imperative for
programmers to adopt this approach when designing a program.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt the concept of modularity and the advantages
derivable thereof. A real-life example was illustrated considering electrical
devices microwaves, electric kettles, washers, dryers, etc. You also leant how
to implement modular programming in C programming language.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Fundamentals of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016
Structured Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012
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CSC 322 MODULE 3
MODULE 3 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURED

PROGRAMMING
Unit 1 Overview of Structured Programming

Unit 2 Programming Language Paradigms
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURED

PROGRAMMING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Structured Programming Concept
3.2 Advantages of Structured Programming
3.3 Disadvantages of Structured Programming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In structured programming design, programs are broken into different

functions. These functions are also known as modules, subprograms,
subroutines or procedures. Structured programming minimizes the chances of
the function affecting another. It allows for clearer programs code. It made
global variables to disappear and replaced by the local variables.
 State the advantages and disadvantages of structured

programming
 Describe the examples of programming paradigms.
23
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Structured programming Concept
In structured programming design, programs are broken into different

functions these functions are also known as modules, subprogram, subroutines
or procedures.
Each function is design to do a specific task with its own data and logic.
Information can be passed from one function to another function through
parameters. A function can have local data that cannot be accessed outside the
function’s scope. The result of this process is that all the other different
functions are synthesized in another function. This function is known as main
function. Many of the high-level languages support structured programming.
Structured programming minimizes the chances of the function affecting

another. It allows for clearer programs code. It made global variables to
disappear and replaced by the local variables. Due to this change one can save
the memory allocation space occupied by the global variable. Its organization
helps in the easy understanding of programming logic. So that one can easily
understand the logic behind the programs. It also helps the
newcomers of any industrial technology company to
understand the programs created by their senior workers of the industry. The
languages that support Structured programming approach are:
• C
• C++
• Java
• C#
• Pascal
3.2 Advantages of Structured programming
 It is user friendly and easy to understand.

 Similar to English vocabulary of words and symbols.
 It is easier to learn.
 They require less time to write.
 They are easier to maintain.
 These are mainly problem oriented rather than machine based.
 Program written in a higher-level language can be translated into many
machine languages and therefore can run on any computer for which
there exists an appropriate translator.
 It is independent of machine on which it is used, i.e., programs
developed in high level languages can be run on any computer.
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CSC 322 MODULE 3
3.3. Disadvantages of Structured Programming
 Structured programming codes implemented in high-level language

has to be translated into the machine language by translator and thus a
price in computer time is paid.
 The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient
compared to an equivalent assembly language program.
 Data type are proceeds in many functions in a structured program.
When changes occur in those data types, the corresponding change
must be made to every location that acts on those data types within the
program. This is really a very time- consuming task if the program is
very large.
 In a structured program, each programmer is assigned to build a
specific set of functions and data types. Since different programmers
handle separate functions that have mutually shared data type, other
programmers in the team must reflect the changes in data types done
by the programmer in data type handled. Otherwise, it requires
rewriting several functions.
Describe how structured programming can lead to programming efficiency.
Solution:
Structured programming is a programming paradigm aimed at improving the
clarity, quality, and development time of a computer program by making
extensive use of the structured control flow constructs of selection
(if/then/else) and repetition (while and for), block structures, and subroutines.
It provides tools for efficient coding, save memory usage and program
performance. It provides pointers which has a lot of advantages as more
efficient code, faster execution and memory saving, higher productivity can be
achieved. It provides recursive function which also makes for efficiency.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Structured programming design allows a program to be subdivided into

different functions. These functions can also be called modules, subprogram,
subroutines and procedures. Each function performs a particular task. These
functions are logically combined to carry out the desired task.
25
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt structured programming concept, Advantages and
Disadvantages of Structured programming. Some programming languages that
support Structured programming approach are also listed.
26
CSC 322 MODULE 3
UNIT 2 PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Imperative Paradigm
3.2 Functional Paradigm
3.3 Logical Paradigm
3.4 Object Oriented Paradigm
3.5 Other Paradigms
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A programming paradigm, or programming model, is an approach to

programming a computer based on a mathematical theory or a coherent set of
principles. Examples of these paradigms are imperative, functional, logical,
object-oriented paradigms and others.
 State the various programming paradigms

 Describe each of the named programming paradigms and programming
languages associated with it.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Programming paradigms
Solving a programming problem requires choosing the right concepts. All but
the smallest toy problems require different sets of concepts for different parts
of the program. A programming paradigm, or programming model, is an
approach to programming a computer based on a mathematical theory or a
coherent set of principles. It is a way of conceptualizing what it means to
perform computation and how tasks to be carried out on the computer should
be structured and organized. Programming languages are used to realize
programming paradigms. Examples of programming paradigms are:
imperative, functional, logical, object-oriented. Most popular languages are
imperative and use
27
structured programming techniques. Structured programming techniques

involve giving the code you write structures, these often involve writing code
in blocks such as sequence (code executed line by line), selection (branching
statements such as if..then..else, or case) and repetition (iterative statements
such as for, while, repeat, loop).
3.2 Imperative paradigm
This paradigm is based on the ideas of a Von Neummann architecture. A

command has a measurable effect on the program and the order of commands
is important. First do this and next do that. Its main characteristics are
incremental change of the program state (variables) as a function of time;
execution of commands in an order governed by control structures; and the use
of procedures, abstractions of one or more actions, which can be called as a
single command. Examples: Fortran, Algol, Basic, C, Pascal.
3.3 Functional paradigm
This paradigm is based on mathematics and theory of functions. The values

produced are non-mutable and plays a minor role compared to imperative
program. All computations are done by applying functions with no side
effects. Functions are firsts class citizens. Evaluate an expression and use the
resulting value for something. Example: Haskell.
3.4 Logical paradigm
The logic paradigm fits well when applied in problem domains that deal with
the extractionof knowledge from basic facts and relations. Is based on axioms,
inference rules, and queries. Program execution becomes a systematic search
in a set of facts, making use of a set of inference rules. Examples: Prolog and
List.
3.5 Object-oriented paradigm
Data as well as operations are encapsulated in objects. Information hiding is

used to protect internal properties of an object. Objects interact by means of
message passing. In most object-oriented languages, objects are grouped in
classes and classes are organized as hierarchies. Examples: C++, Java.
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CSC 322 MODULE 3
3.6 Other Paradigms
Other paradigms include Visual paradigm, Constraint based paradigm, Aspect

oriented paradigm and Event-oriented paradigm.
i. List the examples of object-oriented programming language

ii. Differentiate with examples, the difference between functional and
object-oriented programming paradigms.
Solution
1) List the examples of object-oriented programming language
 Java
 C++
 C#
 Ruby
 Python
 TypeScript
 PHP
2) Differentiate with examples, the difference between functional and

object-oriented programming paradigms
Object-oriented programming, or simply referred to as “OOP”, is a
software programming model based on the concept of objects, instead
of just functions and procedures. OOP is so designed that real world
concepts can be programmed in a computer program. As the name
suggests, OOP uses objects in programming which are organized into
classes, allowing individual objects to be grouped together. Each
object in OOP is responsible for a set of tasks. So, various tasks in the
program are performed, by invoking the operations defined on
corresponding objects. Although, the fundamental features of OOP
were invented in the 1960s, it wasn’t until the 1980s that object-
oriented languages actually started getting the attention. OOP is a
revolutionary idea and there are a number of reasons why it has
become the dominant programming paradigm in the last few decades.
While
Functional programming is a programming methodology that emphasizes on
the use of function calls as the primary programming construct. It provides
practical approaches to problem solving in general and insights into many
aspects of computing. It is a style of programming where you focus on the
evaluation of expressions rather than the execution of commands. You use
expressions to transform the data in the functional programming approach
which ideally doesn’t contain side effects. Like the name implies, it uses
functions as building
29
blocks to create new functions. Functional programming is generally regarded

as a programming paradigm that can be applied in many languages, even those
that weren’t intended to be used with that paradigm. In functional languages,
there is no fixed execution order meaning the order does not affect the final
result. Higher order functions are also important in functional programming.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A programming paradigm, or programming model, is an approach to

programming a computer based on a mathematical theory or a coherent set of
principles.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt some programming paradigms. These include
Imperative, Functional, Logical, Object-Oriented Paradigms etc. These
Paradigms are briefly discussed. The programming languages associated with
these Paradigms are also discussed.
30
CSC 322 MODULE 4
MODULE 4 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING WITH C
Unit 1 Overview of C
Unit 2 C Program Design
Unit 3 Executing a C Program
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF C
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Brief History of C
3.2 Taxonomy of C Types
3.3 Why Study C?
3.4 Why is C Popular?
3.5 Characteristics of C program
3.6 Uses of C
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
C programming language is a structure-oriented programming language,

developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. It is defined with C
Types taxonomy. C language is popular because it is reliable, simple and easy
to use among others. It is also characterized with supports for loose typing and
extensive use of function calls. The C programming language is used for
developing system applications that forms a major portion of operating
systems such as Windows, UNIX and Linux.
 Give a brief history of C Programming Language.

 Explain the taxonomy of C programming types
 Explain the importance of studying C programming language.
 Describe the characteristics and uses of C Program.
31
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Brief History of C
 The C programming language is a structure-oriented programming

language, developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie.
 C programming language features were derived from an earlier
language called “B” (Basic Combined Programming Language –
BCPL)
 C language was invented for implementing UNIX operating system.
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published the first
edition “The C Programming Language” and is commonly known as
K&RC.
 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established
a committee to provide a modern, comprehensive definition of C. The
resulting definition, the ANSI standard, or “ANSI C” was completed
late 1988.
 Many of C’s ideas & principles were derived from the earlier language
B, thereby naming this new language “C”.
3.2 Taxonomy of C Types
 Scalar types
 Arithmetic types
 Integral types: char, short, int, long
 Floating-point types: float, double, long double
 Pointer types
 Aggregate types
 Array types
 Structure types
 Union types
 Function types
 Void types
3.3 Why is C Popular?
 It is reliable, simple and easy to use.

 C is a small, block-structured programming language.
 C is a portable language, which means that C programs written on one
system can be run on other systems with little or no modification.
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
 C has one of the largest assortments of operators, such as those used

for calculations and data comparisons.
 Although the programmer has more freedom with data storage, the
languages do not check data type accuracy for the programmer.
3.4 Why Study C?
 By the early 1980s, C was already a dominant language in the

minicomputer world of Unix systems. Since then, it has spread to
personal computers (microcomputers) and to mainframes.
 Many software houses use C as the preferred language for producing
word processing programs, spreadsheets, compilers, and other
products.
 C is an extremely flexible language—particularly if it is to be used to
write operating systems.
 Unlike most other languages that have only four or five levels of
precedence, C has 15.
3.5 Characteristics of a C Program
 Middle level language.

 Small size – has only 32 keywords
 Extensive use of function calls- enables the end user to add their own
functions to the C library.
 Supports loose typing – a character can be treated as an integer & vice
versa.
 Structured language
 Low level (Bit Wise) programming readily available
 Pointer implementation - extensive use of pointers for memory, array,
structures and functions.
 It has high-level constructs.
 It can handle low-level activities.
 It produces efficient programs.
 It can be compiled on a variety of computers
3.6 Uses of C
 The C programming language is used for developing system

applications that forms a major portion of operating systems such as
Windows, UNIX and Linux. Below are some examples of C being
used:
 Database systems
 Graphics packages
 Word processors
33
 Spreadsheets
 Operating system development
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Network drivers and Interpreters
i. State the uses of C Programming language

ii. Explain the reasons C language is popular.
iii. List the application packages that C language is considered useful tools
for developments.
Solution:
1) State the uses of C Programming language
C is used for developing system applications such as:
 Database Systems
 Language Interpreters
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Operating Systems
 Network Drivers
 Word Processors
1) Explain the reasons C language is popular

There are various reasons why C has become popular. The following are some
of the reasons:
 C can be learnt quickly.
 C language is reliable, simple and easy to use.
 C language is a structured language.
 Modern programming concepts are based on C.
 It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms
 C has one of the largest assortments of operators, such as those used
for calculations and data comparisons.
 Universities preferred to add C programming in their courseware.
2) List the application packages that C language is considered useful tools

for developments.
C programming language can be used for the development of the following
application packages:
 Inventory systems
 Medical diagnostic systems
 Expert systems
 Accounting systems
 Scheduling systems
 etc
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
4.0 CONCLUSION
C programming language is a structure-oriented programming language,

developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. C programs are
reliable, simple and easy to use among others. C programming language is not
a strongly typed language. It makes use of extensive function calls. The C
programming language is used for developing system applications that forms a
major portion of operating systems such as Windows, UNIX and Linux etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you learnt a brief history of C programming language, taxonomy

of C types, the need to study C programming language. you also learnt some
characteristics of C program and it uses.
35
UNIT 2 C PROGRAM DESIGN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 C Program Structure
3.2 Files Used in A C Program
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer, which he

has to follow while writing a C program. A number of files are used in a C
Program. Examples of these files are: source, object, header and executable
files.
 Illustrate the structure of a C Programming language.

 Explain the contents of the C program structure.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 C Program Structure
The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer, which he

has to follow while writing a C program. The general basic structure of C
program is shown in the code below.Based on this structure, we can write a C
program. Example:
/* This program accepts a number and displays it to the user*/
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
{ int number;
printf( "Please enter a number: " );
scanf( "%d", &number );
printf( "You entered %d", number );
return 0;
}
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
Explanation:
 #include: The part of the compiler which actually gets your program
from the source file is called the preprocessor.
 #include <stdio.h>:#include is a pre-processor directive. It is not really
part of our program, but instead it is an instruction to the compiler to
make it do something. It tells the C compiler to include the contents of
a file (in this case the system file called stdio.h).
 The compiler knows it is a system file, and therefore must be looked
for in a special place, by the fact that the filename is enclosed in <>
characters
<stdio.h>: stdio.h is the name of the standard library definition file for all
STanDard Input and Output functions.
The program will almost certainly want to send information to the screen and
read things from the keyboard, and stdio.h is the name of the file in
which the functions that we want to use are defined.
The function we want to use is called printf. The actual code of printf will be
tied in later by the linker.
The ".h" portion of the filename is the language extension, which denotes an
include file.
 void:This literally means that this means nothing. In this case, it is
referring to the function whose name follows. Void tells C compiler
that a given entity has no meaning and produces no error.
 main:In this example, the only function in the program is called main.
A C program is typically made up of large number of functions. Each
of these is given a name by the programmer and they refer to each
other as the program runs. C regards the name main as a special case
and will run this function first i.e. the program execution starts from
main.
 (void): This is a pair of brackets enclosing the keyword void. It
tells the compiler that the function main has no parameters.
A parameter to a function gives the function something to work on.
 { (Brace): This is a brace (or curly bracket). As the name implies,
braces come in packs of two - for every open brace there must be a
matching close one. Braces allow us to group pieces of program
together, often called a block.A block can contain the declaration of
variable used within it, followed by a sequence of program statements.
In this case the braces enclose the working parts of the function main.
 ; (semicolon): The semicolon marks the end of the list of variable
names, and also the end of that declaration statement.All statements in
C programs are separated by ";" (semicolon) characters. The ";"
character is actually very important. It tells the compiler where a given
statement ends.
37
 If the compiler does not find one of these characters where it expects to
see one, then it will produce an error.
 scanf:In other programming languages, the printing and reading
functions are a part of the language. In C this is not the case; instead
they are defined as standard functions which are part of the language
specification, but are not a part of the language itself.
 The standard input/output library contains a number of functions for
formatted data transfer; the two we are going to use are scanf (scan
formatted) and printf (print formatted).
 printf:The printf function is the opposite of scanf.
 It takes text and values from within the program and sends it out onto
the screen.
 Just like scanf, it is common to all versions of C and just like scanf, it
is described in the system file stdio.h.
 The first parameter to a printf is the format string, which contains text,
value descriptions and formatting instructions.
3.2 Files Used in a C Program
 Source File- This file contains the source code of the program. The file
extension of any c file is .c. The file contains C source code that
defines the main function & maybe other functions.
 Header File- A header file is a file with extension .h which contains the
C function declarations and macro definitions and to be shared
between several source files.
 Object File- An object file is a file containing object code, with an
extension .o, meaning relocatable format machine code that is usually
not directly executable. Object files are produced by an assembler,
compiler, or other language translator, and used as input to the linker,
which in turn typically generates an executable or library by
combining parts of object files.
 Executable File- The binary executable file is generated by the linker.
The linker links the various object files to produce a binary file that
can be directly executed.
i. Explain all the reserved words used in the description of a C program

structure.
ii. Describe the types of files used in a C Program
Solution:
Explain all the reserved words used in the description of a C program
structure.
38
CSC 322 MODULE 4
1. volatile
This keyword is needed so as to create volatile objects. These volatile objects
have the ability to get modified in the unknown or unmentioned method
through hardware.
2. auto
This keyword is used to declare the automatic variables.
3. char
char keyword is used to declare the character variable. Variables that are of
type char are of 1-byte length. They can get signed (it is by default unless we
use the compiler option ‘-funsigned-char’ or ‘unsigned’), which implies they
have got a range of -128 to 127 and 0 to 255, respectively.
4. double and float
Both keywords double, as well as float, are needed for declaration of floating
type variables.
5. const
We can declare an identifier to be constant through the usage of the const
keyword.
6. if and else
We use if and else so as to make decisions in C programming.
7. break and continue
The break statement would make the program jump out of the most inner and
enclosing loop in an explicit manner. The continue is used for statements
skipping certain statements that are inside the loop.
8. enum
In C programming enumeration types get declared through keyword enum.
9. extern
The extern keyword indicates that the identifier has benn defined somewhere
else. It also indicates that in fact storage as well as the initial value, or function
body has been defined somewhere else, mostly in the
10. return
Return is used for exiting the function. It would exit from the current function
that is executing immediately and return to the calling routine. It can
optionally return value too.
11. sizeof
sizeof is used for returning the size of expression or type of it. It is used for
returning the size in bytes.
13. int
int keyword is used for declaration of the integer type variable.
14. register
This keyword is used for the creation of the register variables that are much
faster as compared to the normal variables.
15. static
This keyword is used for the creation of a static variable. The static variables’
values persist until the end of the program. It tells that the
39
function or the element is only known inside the scope of the current
compilation. Also, if we use the static keyword along with the variable which
is local to the function, it would allow the last value of the variable to get
preserved in successive calls to that function.
16. struct
struct keyword is used for the declaration of the structure. The structure is
used for holding the variables of varied data types under one name. Just like
the union, it groups the variables into a single record. Also, the struct-type-
name is considered to be the optional tag name which points to structure type.
The variables of a structure are data definitions, and they are optional.
Although both are optional, one of the two must appear.
17. union
Union keyword is needed for grouping the varied types of a variable under one
name.
18. void
This keyword denotes that the function won’t be returning any value.
19. typedef
This keyword is required so as to associate a type along with an identifier in
an explicit manner.
20. short, long, signed and unsigned
The short, long, signed as well as unsigned keywords are the type of modifiers
which alters the meaning of the base data type in order to yield the new type.
21. for
In total, there exist 3 kinds of loops in C. The for loop in C is written using the
keyword for.
22. switch, case and default
We use switch as well as case statements whenever the block of statements
needs to be executed among various blocks.
23. do-while loop
do is used along with a while to make a different form of repetition of the
statement.
24. while
It is used for repeating the execution when the condition is true.
Describe the types of files used in a C Program

C programming language supports two types of files and they are as follows...
1. Text Files (or) ASCII Files
2. Binary Files
Text Files (or) ASCII Files
 Source File- This file contains the source code of the program. The file
extension of any c file is .c. The file contains C source code that
defines the main function & maybe other functions.
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
 Header File- A header file is a file with extension .h which contains the
C function declarations and macro definitions and to be shared
between several source files.
Binary Files
 Object File- An object file is a file containing object code, with an
extension .o, meaning relocatable format machine code that is usually
not directly executable. Object files are produced by an assembler,
compiler, or other language translator, and used as input to the linker,
which in turn typically generates an executable or library by
combining parts of object files.
 Executable File- The binary executable file is generated by the linker.
The linker links the various object files to produce a binary file that
can be directly executed.
4.0 CONCLUSION
To write a C program certain must be followed. First of you must be

conversant with it structure and content, otherwise you will not be able write a
reasonable C program.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you have been exposed to the structure of a C program and some
programming elements such #include, stdio.h, void, main, printf, scanf, return
etc. These elements are adequately explained in the unit. Some of the files
used in C program are also outlined.
41
UNIT 3 EXECUTING A C PROGRAM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Compilation and Execution of a C Program
3.2 Commonly used Programs for execution on Linux System
3.3. Pictorial Diagram of C Compilation and Execution
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Program compilation and execution processes are divided into several steps,
namely: preprocessing, compilation, assembly, linking and loading. In each of
these input and output are defined during the compilation and execution
process depending on the operating systems e.g., Linux.
 Explain the processes involved in compilation and execution of C

program.
 Describe the sample input/ output steps used in program compilation
and execution.
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Compilation and Execution of a C Program
 The compilation and execution process of C can be divided into several

steps:
 Preprocessing - Using a Preprocessor program to convert C source
code in expanded source code. "#includes" and "#defines" statements
will be processed and replaced source codes in this step.
 Compilation - Using a Compiler program to convert C expanded
source to assembly source code.
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
 Assembly - Using an Assembler program to convert assembly source

code to object code.
 Linking - Using a Linker program to convert object code to
executable code. Multiple units of object codes are linked to together
in this step.
 Loading - Using a Loader program to load the executable code into
CPU for execution.
Sample I/O steps

Here is a simple table showing input and output of each step in the
compilation and execution process:
Input Program Output
source code > Preprocessor > expanded source code
expanded source code > Compiler > assembly source code
assembly code > Assembler > object code
object code > Linker > executable code
executable code > Loader > execution
3.2 Commonly used Programs for execution on Linux System
Below are examples of commonly used programs for different

compilation and execution steps on a Linux system:
 "cpphello.c -o hello.i" - Preprocessor preprocessing hello.c and saving
output to hello.i.
 "cc1hello.i -o hello.s" - Compiler compiling hello.i and saving output
to hello.s.
 "as hello.s -o hello.o" - Assembler assembling hello.s and saving
output to hello.o.
 "ldhello.o -o hello" - Linker linking hello.o and saving output to hello.
 "load hello" - Loader loading hello and running hello.
3.3 Pictorial Diagram of C Compilation and Execution
A pictorial diagram showing the compilation and execution of a C

program is shown following.
43
i. Illustrate the compilation and execution of a C program with diagram

only.
ii. State the examples of commonly used programs for different
compilation and execution steps on a Linux system
Illustrate the compilation and execution of a C program with diagram

only.
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CSC 322 MODULE 4
1 State the examples of commonly used programs for different

compilation and execution steps on a Linux system
 "cpphello.c -o hello.i" - Preprocessor preprocessing hello.c and saving

output to hello.i.
 "cc1hello.i -o hello.s" - Compiler compiling hello.i and saving output
to hello.s.
 "as hello.s -o hello.o" - Assembler assembling hello.s and saving
output to hello.o.
 "ldhello.o -o hello" - Linker linking hello.o and saving output to hello.
 "load hello" - Loader loading hello and running hello.
4.0 CONCLUSION
After writing a C program, you will need to compile and execute it. This
involves some steps which has been heighted in this unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been taken through the compilation and execution steps.
These include preprocessing, compilation, assembly, linking and loading.
these steps are illustrated with a diagram for clearer understanding.
45
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
MODULE 5 INTRODUCTION TO C PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE
Unit 1 Element of C
Unit 2 Data Type
Unit 3 Variables, Statements, Expressions
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Character Set
3.2 Keywords
3.3 Identifier
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every language has some basic elements and grammatical rules. Before
starting with programming, we should be acquainted with the basic elements
that build the language.
 List the character set in C

 Apply the character set in constructing variables and identifiers
 Differentiate between a variable and a keyword
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
Elements of C
Every language has some basic elements and grammatical rules. Before
starting with programming, we should be acquainted with the basic elements
that build the language.
47
3.1 Character Set
Communicating with a computer involves speaking the language the computer

understands. In C, various characters have been given to communicate.
Character set in C consists of:
3.2 Keywords
Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C
compiler. The keywords cannot be used as variable names because if we do so
we are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword, which is not allowed
by the computer. There are 32 keywords available in C. The figure gives a list
of these keywords for your ready reference.
3.3 Identifier:
In the programming language C, an identifier is a combination of

alphanumeric characters, the first being a letter of the alphabet or an underline,
and the remaining being any letter of the alphabet, any numeric digit, or the
underline.
Two rules must be kept in mind when naming identifiers.
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
 The case of alphabetic characters is significant. Using "INDEX" for a

variable is not the same as using "index" and neither of them is the
same as using "InDeX" for a variable. All three refer to different
variables.
 As C is defined, up to 32 significant characters can be used and will be
considered significant by most compilers. If more than 32 are used,
they will be ignored by the compiler.
i. What are the character sets used C programming language? Put your
response in a tabular format.
ii. List at least 10 key words used in C programming language.
Solution
1. What are the character set used C programming language? Put your
response in a tabular format.
2. List at least 10 key words used in C programming language.

The following are some of the key words used in C programming
language: auto, signed, const, extern, register, unsigned, return,
continue, enum, sizeof, struct, typedef, union, etc.
4.0 CONCLUSION
C programming language has some basic elements and rules that students must
be acquainted with before starting to write a program. These elements include
character set, key words, identifiers etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this you have learnt the basic elements of C programs. These elements
include character set (letters of the alphabet, both upper and lower cases), key
words (e.g., auto, double, struct, if, return, while etc), identifiers (this include
both key words and user defined variables). There are rules to be followed in
constructing identifiers.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED EXERCISE
49
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
UNIT 2 DATA TYPE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Data Types
3.2 Constants
3.3 Rules for Constructing Integer Constants
3.4 Rules for Constructing Real Constants
3.5 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in
exponential form
3.6 Rules for Constructing Character Constants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A data type defines a set of values and the operations that can be defined on
those values. Data types are especially important in C programming language
All operations are type checked by the compiler for type compatibility. Illegal
operations will not be compiled. Thus, strong type checking helps prevent
errors and enhances reliability.
 Explain what a data type is

 Define a constant
 State the rules for constructing integer constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants expressed in exponential
form
 State the rules for constructing character constants
51
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Data Types
In the C programming language, data types refer to a domain of allowed

values and the operations that can be performed on those values. The type of a
variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the bit
pattern stored is interpreted. There are 4 fundamental data types in C, which
are- char, int, float and, double. Char is used to store any single character; int
is used to store any integer value, float is used to store any single precision
floating point number and double is used to store any double precision floating
point number. We can use 2 qualifiers with these basic types to get more
types.
There are 2 types of qualifiers
 Sign qualifier- signed & unsigned

 Size qualifier- short & long
The data types in C can be classified as follows:
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
3.2 Constants
A constant is an entity that doesn’t change whereas a variable is an entity that

may change. C constants can be divided into two major categories:
 Primary Constants
 Secondary Constants
Here our only focus is on primary constant. For constructing these different
types of constants certain rules have been laid down.
3.3 Rules for Constructing Integer Constants
 An integer constant must have at least one digit.

o It must not have a decimal point.
o It can be either positive or negative.
o If no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be positive.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
o The allowable range for integer constants is -32768to 32767.
o Eg.: 426, +782,-8000, -7605
3.4 Rules for Constructing Real Constants
 Real constants are often called Floating Point constants.

 The real constants could be written in two forms—Fractional form and
Exponential form.
 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in fractional form:
o A real constant must have at least one digit.
53
o It must have a decimal point.

o It could be either positive or negative.
o Default sign is positive.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.
o Ex. +325.34, 426.0, -32.76, -48.5792
3.5 Rules for constructing real constants expressed in exponential

form
o The mantissa part and the exponential part should be separated by a

letter e. b) The mantissa part may have a positive or negative sign.
o Default sign of mantissa part is positive.
o The exponent must have at least one digit, which must be a positive or
negative integer. Default sign is positive.
o Range of real constants expressed in exponential form is -3.4e38 to
3.4e38.
o Ex. +3.2e-5, 4.1e8, -0.2e+3, -3.2e-5
3.6 Rules for Constructing Character Constants
 A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single

special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.
 The maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character.
 Ex.: ‘M’, ‘6’, ‘+’
i. Differentiate between a variable and a constant in C programs

ii. What are the rules for constructing an integer constant?
Solution:
1. Differentiate between a variable and a constant in C programs
A variable is a programming element that can change during program
execution where as constant do not change.
2. What are the rules for constructing an integer constant? An

integer constant must have at least one digit.
 It must not have a decimal point.
 It can be either positive or negative.
 If no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be
positive.
 No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
 The allowable range for integer constants is -32768to 32767.

 Eg.: 426, +782,-8000, -7605
4.0 CONCLUSION
Data types in C programming language refer to a domain of allowed values

and the operations that can be performed on those values. The type of a
variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and how the bit
pattern stored is interpreted. There are four fundamental data types in C, which
are- char, int, float and double. Char is used to store any single character; int is
used to store any integer value, float is used to store any single precision
floating point number and double is used to store any double precision floating
point number.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about C data types which include char, int, float
and double. You have also learnt about the various classifications of these data
types as well as constant and the rules for constructing the various constants.
55
UNIT 3 VARIABLES, STATEMENTS, EXPRESSIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Variables and Variable Declaration
3.2 Initialization of Variables
3.3 Expressions
3.4 Statements
3.5 Compound Statements (Blocks)
3.6 Input-Output in C
3.7 Input-Output of integers in C
3.8 Input-Output of floats in C
3.9 Input-Output of characters and ASCII code
3.10 ASCII code
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A variable is the name given to a memory location that allows values to be

stored in those locations. When declaring variables, the type of value or data to
be stored is also indicated. A statement is an executable instruction given to
the computer to execute. An expression is a combination of operands,
operators and constant for the purpose of evaluation
 Explain what a data type is

 Define a constant
 State the rules for constructing integer constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants
 State the rules for constructing real constants expressed in exponential
form
 State the rules for constructing character constants
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
7.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Variables and Variable Declaration
Variables are names that are used to store values. It can take different values
but one at a time. A data type is associated with each variable & it decides
what values the variable can take. When you decide your program needs
another variable, you simply declare (or define) a new variable and C makes
sure you get it. You declare all C variables at the top of whatever blocks of
code need them. Variable declaration requires that you inform C of the
variable's name and data type.
Syntax: datatype variablename;
Eg:
int page_no;
char grade;
float salary;
long y;
There are two places where you can declare a variable:

 After the opening brace of a block of code (usually at the top of a
function)
 Before a function name (such as before main() in the program)
Consider various examples:

Suppose you had to keep track of a person's first, middle, and last initials.
Because an initial is obviously a character, it would be prudent to declare three
character variables to hold the three initials. In C, you could do that with the
following statement:
1. main()
{
char first, middle, last;
// Rest of program follows
}
2. main()
{
char first;
char middle;
char last;
// Rest of program follows
}
57
3.2 Initialization of Variables
When a variable is declared, it contains undefined value commonly known as

garbage value. If we want, we can assign some initial value to the variables
during the declaration itself. This is called initialization of the variable.
Eg.,
int pageno=10;
char grade=’A’;
float salary= 20000.50;
3.3 Expressions
An expression consists of a combination of operators, operands, variables &

function calls. An expression can be arithmetic, logical or relational. Here are
some expressions:
a+b – arithmetic operation
a>b- relational operation
a == b – logicaloperation
func (a,b) – function call
4+21
a*(b + c/d)/20
q = 5*2
x = ++q % 3
q>3
As you can see, the operands can be constants, variables, or combinations of

the two. Some expressions are combinations of smaller expressions, called
subexpressions. For example, c/d is a subexpression of the sixth example.
An important property of C is that every C expression has a value. To find the

value, you perform the operations in the order dictated by operator precedence.
3.4 Statements
Statements are the primary building blocks of a program. A program is a series

of statements with some necessary punctuation. A statement is a complete
instruction to the computer. In C, statements are indicated by a semicolon at
the end. Therefore
legs = 4
is just an expression (which could be part of a larger expression), but, legs
= 4;
is a statement. What makes a complete instruction? First, C considers any
expression to be a statement if you append a semicolon. (These are
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
called expression statements.) Therefore, C won't object to lines such as the

following:
8;
3 + 4;
However, these statements do nothing for your program and can't really be
considered sensible statements. More typically, statements change values and
call functions:
x = 25;
++x;
y = sqrt(x);
Although a statement (or, at least, a sensible statement) is a complete
instruction, not all complete instructions are statements. Consider the
following statement:
x = 6 + (y = 5);
In it, the subexpression y = 5 is a complete instruction, but it is only part of the
statement. Because a complete instruction is not necessarily a statement, a
semicolon is needed to identify instructions that truly are statements.
3.5 Compound Statements (Blocks)
A compound statement is two or more statements grouped together by

enclosing them in braces; it is also called a block. The following while
statement contains an example:
while (years < 100)
{
wisdom = wisdom * 1.05; printf("%d
%d\n", years, wisdom); years = years
+ 1;
}
If any variable is declared inside the block, then it can be declared only at the
beginning of the block. The variables that are declared inside a block can be
used only within the block.
3.6 Input-Output in C
When we are saying Input that means we feed some data into program. This
can be given in the form of file or from command line. C programming
language provides a set of built-in functions to read given input and feed it to
the program as per requirement.
When we are saying Output that means to display some data on screen, printer
or in any file. C programming language provides a set of built-in functions to
output the data on the computer screen. Functions printf() and scanf() are the
most commonly used to display out and take input respectively.
59
Let us consider an example:

#include <stdio.h> //This is needed to run printf() function. int
main()
{
printf("C Programming"); //displays the content inside quotation return
0;
}
Output:
C Programming
Explanation:
 Every program starts from main() function.
 printf() is a library function to display output which only works if
#include<stdio.h>is included at the beginning.
 Here, stdio.h is a header file (standard input output header file) and
#include is command to paste the code from the header file when
necessary. When compiler encounters printf()function and doesn't find
stdio.h header file, compiler shows error.
 return 0; indicates the successful execution of the program.
3.7 Input-Output of integers in C
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c=5; printf("Number=
%d",c); return 0;
}
Output:
Number=5
Inside quotation of printf() there, is a conversion format string "%d" (for

integer). If this conversion format string matches with remaining argument,
i.e, c in this case, value of c is displayed.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&c);
printf("Number=%d",c);
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number
4
Number=4
The scanf() function is used to take input from user. In this program, the user
is asked an input and value is stored in variable c. Note the '&' sign before c.
&c denotes the address of c and value is stored in that address.
3.8 Input-Output of floats in C
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float a;
printf("Enter value: ");
scanf("%f",&a);
printf("Value=%f",a); //%f is used for floats instead of %d
return 0;
}
Output Enter
value:
23.45
Value=23.450000
Conversion format string "%f" is used for floats to take input and to display
floating value of a variable.
3.9 Input-Output of characters and ASCII code
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char var1;
printf("Enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1); printf("You
entered %c.",var1); return 0;
}
Output
Enter character:
61
g
You entered g.
Conversion format string "%c" is used in case of characters.
3.10 ASCII code
When character is typed in the above program, the character itself is not
recorded a numeric value (ASCII value) is stored. And when we displayed that
value by using "%c", that character is displayed.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char var1;
printf("Enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&var1);
printf("You entered %c.\n",var1);
/* \n prints the next line(performs work of enter). */
printf("ASCII value of %d",var1);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter character:
g
103
When, 'g' is entered, ASCII value 103 is stored instead of g.
You can display character if you know ASCII code only. This is shown by
following example.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int var1=69;
printf("Character of ASCII value 69: %c",var1);
return 0;
}
Output
Character of ASCII value 69:
E
The ASCII value of 'A' is 65, 'B' is 66 and so on to 'Z' is 90. Similarly, ASCII
value of 'a' is 97, 'b' is 98 and so on to 'z' is 122.
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
i. What is a Variable?
ii. Declare a variable for each of the following C data type: integer, float,
double, and character and assign appropriate data value at the pointer
of declaration
iii. What is a statement? Give few examples.
iv. What is an Expression? Give few examples.
v. Write a program to display the upper- and lower-case letter “B”, using
two printf() function
Solution
1 What is a Variable? Give few meaningful examples
Variable is basically a name of a memory location that we use for
storing data. We can change the value of a variable in C or any other
language, and we can also reuse it multiple times.
Examples:
rate
salary
product
2 Declare a variable for each of the following C data type: integer, float,
double, and character and assign appropriate data value at the pointer
of declaration.
int num = 76; float
= height 4.6;
double amount = 34456677.55; char
singleChar = ‘a’;
3 What is a statement? Give few examples.

A statement is a command given to the computer that instructs the
computer to take a specific action, such as display to the screen, or
collect input or evaluate an expression. A computer program is made
up of a series of statements.
Examples:
area =length * breadth;
printf (“Structured Programming”);
scanf("%d",&c);
63
4 What is an expression? Give few examples.

An expression is a combination of operators, operands and/or constants
which reduces to a single value. An operation is performed on a data
item which is called an operand. An operator indicates an operation to
be performed on data.
Example:
simpleInt = (principal * time * rate)/100;
sum = num1 + num2;
z = (4 + (4%2)/ 3);
5 Write a program to display the upper- and lower-case letter “B”. use
two printf () function
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int var1=66;
int var2=98;
return 0;
}
4.0 CONCLUSION
A variable is the name given to a memory location that allows values to be
stored in those locations. When declaring variables, the type of value or data
to be stored is also indicated. A statement is an executable instruction given to
the computer to execute. An expression is a combination of operands,
operators and/or constant for the purpose of evaluation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learned about variables, statements and expressions. You
have also learnt how variables are declared and initialized, how expressions
are constructed, and what constitutes a statement including compound
statements. All these are well illustrated with examples.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Fundamentals
of Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016 Structured
Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012 UNIT 4
FORMATTED INPUT-OUTPUT
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Formatted Input-Output
3.2 Variations in Output for integer and floats
3.3 Variations in Input for integer and floats
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Normally printf() method display output on the screen in an unpleasant and

undesirable manner. It therefore implies that the programmer must format the
output to suit his requirements. For example, he must specify how many
places of decimal are required, the space between two outputs, etc.
 Format your input

 Format your output
 Differentiate between the output of integer float
 Differentiate between the input of integer float
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Formatted Input-Output
Data can be entered & displayed in a particular format. Through format

specifications, better presentation of results can be obtained.
3.2 Variations in Output for integer and floats
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("Case 1:%6d\n",9876);
/* Prints the number right justified within 6 columns */
65
printf("Case 2:%3d\n",9876);
/* Prints the number to be right justified to 3 columns but, there are 4 digits so
number is not right justified */
printf("Case 3:%.2f\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number rounded to two decimal places */
printf("Case 4:%.f\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number rounded to 0 decimal place, i.e, rounded to integer
*/
printf("Case 5:%e\n",987.6543);
/* Prints the number in exponential notation (scientific notation) */
return 0;
}
Output
Case 1: 9876
Case 2:9876
Case 3:987.65
Case 4:988
Case 5:9.876543e+002
3.3 Variations in Input for integer and floats
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b;
float c,d;
printf("Enter two intgers: ");
/*Two integers can be taken from user at once as below*/
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
printf("Enter integer and floating point numbers: ");
/*Integer and floating point number can be taken at once from user as below*/
scanf("%d%f",&a,&c);
return 0;
}
Similarly, any number of inputs can be taken at once from user.
1. To print out a and b given below, which of the following printf()

statement or statement will you use?
#include<stdio.h>
float a=3.14;
double b=3.14;
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CSC 322 MODULE 5
A. printf("%f %lf", a, b);

B. printf("%Lf %f", a, b);
C. printf("%Lf %Lf", a, b);
D. printf("%f %Lf", a, b);
2. To scan a and b given below, which of the following scanf() statement

will you use?
#include<stdio.h>
float a;
double b;
A. scanf("%f %f", &a, &b);

B. scanf("%Lf %Lf", &a, &b);
C. scanf("%f %Lf", &a, &b);
D. scanf("%f %lf", &a, &b);
3. For a typical program, the input is taken using.

A. scanf
B. Files
C. Command-line
D. None of the mentioned
4. What is the output of this C code?

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 10, j = 2;
printf("%d\n", printf("%d %d ", i, j)); }
A. Compile time error

B. 10 2 4
C. 10 2 2
D. 10 2 5
5. What is the output of this C code?

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i = 10, j = 3;
printf("%d %d %d", i, j); }
A. Compile time error

B. 10 3
C. 10 3 some garbage value
D. Undefined behavior
67
Solution
1. A and D
2. C and D
3. D
4. A
5. C
4.0 CONCLUSION
Using the printf() function you can output your result, display the output in a
desirable format. It therefore becomes imperative that the programmer formats
the output to his desired format. This is achieved via some format
specifications.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt how to format your output to your desired format.
You have also learnt the variations in output for integer and floats as well as
the variations in input for integer and floats.
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
MODULE 6 OPERATORS AND CONTROL

STATEMENTS
Unit 1 Operators
Unit 2 Overview of Control Statements
UNIT 1 OPERATORS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Arithmetic Operators
3.2 Relational Operators
3.3 Logical Operators
3.4 Bitwise Operators
3.5 Assignment Operators
3.6 Increment and decrement operators
3.7 Conditional operators
3.8 Misc Operators
3.9 Operators Precedence in C
4.0 Conclusion
1.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators
and provides the following types of operators:
 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Increment and decrement operators
 Conditional operators
 Misc Operators
 Operators Precedence in C
69
 Define an operator
 Use operators in expressions
 Mention the various operators applicable to C programming
 Describe each of the operators
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Arithmetic operators
These are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division and modulus.
The following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by C language.
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:
3.2 Relational Operators:
These operators are used to compare the value of two variables. Following
table shows all the relational operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
3.3 Logical Operators:
These operators are used to perform logical operations on the given two
variables.
The following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language.
Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then:
3.4 Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. Bitwise

operators are used in bit level programming. These operators can operate upon
int and char but not on float and double.
Showbits( ) function can be used to display the binary representation of any

integer or character value.
71
Bit wise operators in C language are; & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR),
~ (bitwise OR), ^ (XOR), << (left shift) and >> (right shift). The
truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows:
The Bitwise operators supported by C language are explained in the following

table. Assume variable A holds 60 (00111100) and variable B holds 13
(00001101), then:
3.5 Assignment Operators:
In C programs, values for the variables are assigned using assignment

operators.
There are following assignment operators supported by C language:
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
3.6 Increment and Decrement Operators
In C, ++ and – are called increment and decrement operators respectively.

Both of these operators are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++
adds 1 to operand and – subtracts 1 to operand respectively. For example:
Let a=5 and b=10 a+
+; //a becomes 6
a--; //a becomes 5
73
++a; //a becomes 6

--a; //a becomes 5
When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value of var
and then return it but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++), operator will return
the value of operand first and then only increment it. This can be demonstrated
by an example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c=2,d=2;
printf(“%d\n”,c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1
to 3.
Printf(“%d”,++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is
displayed.
Return 0;
}
Output
2
4
3.7 Conditional Operators (?)
Conditional operators are used in decision making in C programming, i.e.,

executes different statements according to test condition whether it is either
true or false.
Syntax of conditional operators:

conditional_expression?expression1:expression2
If the test condition is true (that is, if its value is non-zero), expression1 is
returned and if false expression2 is returned.
Let us understand this with the help of a few examples: int
x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 3 : 4 ) ;
This statement will store 3 in y if x is greater than 5, otherwise it will store 4
in y.
The equivalent if statement will be, if
(x>5)
y = 3;
else
y = 4;
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
3.8 Misc Operators
There are few other operators supported by c language.
3.9 Operators Precedence in C
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This

affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher
precedence than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher
precedence than the addition operator.
For example x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator *

has higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds
into 7.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table,
those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher
precedence operators will be evaluated first.
i. What are the operators used in C programming language?

ii. What will be the value of y, given x is equals 9.
{int x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 1 : 4 ) ; }
3. Given the mathematical expression: S + 3 x Y – 1, where S = 5 and Y =
34. Reconstruct the expression in C format and evaluate it. Reconstruct the
express such that the result will be 271
75
Solution
1. What are the operators used in C programming language?
The following are the operators used in C:

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Increment and decrement operators
 Conditional operators
 Misc Operators
2, What will be the value of y, given x is equals 9.

{int x, y;
scanf ( “%d”, &x ) ;
y = ( x> 5 ? 1 : 4 ) ; }
The value of y will be 1
3. Given the mathematical expression: S + 3 x Y – 1, where S = 5 and Y =

34. Reconstruct the expression in C format and evaluate it. Reconstruct the
express such that the result will be 271
S + 3 x Y – 1 => S + 3*Y -1
5+ 3*34 -1
107 – 1
106
(S + 3)* Y – 1
(5 + 3) *34 – 1
8 * 34 – 1
272 – 1
271
4.0 CONCLUSION
Operators are symbols or special characters used to perform mathematical,

logical, relational as well as bitwise manipulations. This also includes
assignment operators used in assigning values to variables.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to the operators used in C programs. This
includes mathematical, logical, relational, bitwise, assignment, increment and
decrement operators etc. These operators are used to manipulate data. The
details of these operators are adequately discussed within the unit.
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
77
UNIT 2 OVERVIEW OF CONTROL STATEMENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Selection Statements
3.1.1 if Statement
3.1.2 else-if Statement
3.1.3 Nested if-else
3.1.4 switch case
3.2 Iterative Statements
3.2.1 while statement
3.2.2 do-while Loop
3.2.3 for Loop
3.2.4 Nesting of Loops
3.3 Jump Statements
3.3.1 The break statement
3.3.2 The continue Statement
3.3.3 The goto statement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
C programming language has basically three control structures which make C

qualify as a structured programming language. These structures include
sequence, selection and repetition structure. Normally programming are
executed sequentially but the last two structures i.e. selection and repetition
allow the sequence to be broken. That is the sequence of execution is
transferred a different line or block of code. These structures will be examined
in more details in this module.
By the of this unit, you should be able to:
 State the three control structures inherent in C

 State the generic syntax for the various structures
 Use these structures to write a program code or a block of code
 Describe each of the structure
 Manually simulate a program code involving the structures
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
In C, programs are executed sequentially in the order of which they appear.

This condition does not hold true always. Sometimes a situation may arise
where we need to execute a certain part of the program. Also, it may happen
that we may want to execute the same part more than once. Control statements
enable us to specify the order in which the various instructions in the program
are to be executed. They define how the control is transferred to other parts of
the program. Control statements are classified in the following ways:
3.1 Selection Statements
The selection statements are also known as Branching or Decision Control

Statements. Sometimes we come across situations where we have to make a
decision. E.g., If the weather is sunny, I will go out and play, else I will be at
home. Here my course of action is governed by the kind of weather. If it’s
sunny, I can go out and play, else I have to stay indoors. I choose an option out
of 2 alternate options. Likewise, we can find ourselves in situations where we
have to select among several alternatives. We have decision control statements
to implement this logic in computer programming.
79
The programmer therefore specifies one or more conditions to be evaluated or

tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if
the condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be
executed if the condition is determined to be false.
3.1.1 If Statement
The keyword if tells the compiler that what follows is a decision control
instruction. The if statement allows us to put some decision -making into our
programs. A flowchart illustrating the general form of the if statement is
shown below:
Fig 2: if statement construct
Syntax of if statement:
if (condition )
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
…………..
…………..
…………..
Statement n;
}
//Rest of the code
If the condition is true(nonzero), the statement will be executed. If the

condition is false(0), the statement will not be executed. For example, suppose
we are writing a billing program.
if (total_purchase>=1000)
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
printf("You are gifted a pen drive.\n");

Multiple statements may be grouped by putting them inside curly braces
{}. For example:
if (total_purchase>=1000)
{
gift_count++;
printf("You are gifted a pen drive.\n");
}
For readability, the statements enclosed in {} are usually indented. This allows
the programmer to quickly tell which statements are to be conditionally
executed. As we will see later, mistakes in indentation can result in programs
that are misleading and hard to read.
Programs:
1. Write a program to print a message if negative no is entered.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int no;
printf("Enter a no : ");
scanf("%d", &no);
if(no<0)
{
printf("no entered is negative");
no = -no;
}
printf("value of no is %d \n",no);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a no: 6
value of no is 6
Output:
Enter a no: -2
value of no is 2
2. Write a program to perform division of 2 nos

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a,b;
float c;
printf("Enter 2 nos : ");
81
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);

if(b == 0)
{
printf("Division is not possible");
}
c = a/b;
printf("quotient is %f \n",c);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter 2 nos:
62
quotient is 3
Output: Enter 2 nos:
60
Division is not possible
3.1.2 If-else Statement
The if statement by itself will execute a single statement, or a group of

statements, when the expression following if evaluates to true. By using else
we execute another group of statements if the expression evaluates to false.
if (a > b)
{
z = a;
printf(“value of z is :%d”,z);
}
else
{
z = b;
printf(“value of z is :%d”,z);
}
The group of statements after the if is called an ‘if block’. Similarly, the statements
after the else form the ‘else block’.
Programs:
3. Write a program to check whether the given no is even or odd
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter an integer\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
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if ( n%2 == 0 )
printf("Even\n");
else printf("Odd\
n"); return 0;
}
Output: Enter an integer 3
Odd
Even
4. Write a program to check whether a given year is leap year or not

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int year;
printf("Enter a year to check if it is a leap year\n");
scanf("%d", &year);
if ( (year%4 == 0) && (( year%100 != 0) || ( year%400 == 0 ))
printf("%d is a leap year.\n", year);
else
printf("%d is not a leap year.\n", year);
return 0;
}
Output: Enter a year to check if it is a leap year 1996
1996 is a leap year
Output: Enter a year to check if it is a leap year 2015
2015 is not a leap year
else-if Statement
This sequence of if statements is the most general way of writing a multi−way
decision. The expressions are evaluated in order; if an expression is true, the
statement associated with it is executed, and this terminates the whole chain.
As always, the code for each statement is either a single statement, or a group
of them in braces.
if (expression)
statement
else if (expression)
statement
statement
statement
else
statement
83
The last else part handles the ``none of the above'' or default case where none
of the other conditions is satisfied. Sometimes there is no explicit action for
the default; in that case the trailing can be omitted, or it may be used for error
checking to catch an “impossible” condition.
Program
6. The above program can be used as an e.g., here.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40,n=20;
if (m>n)
{
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else if(m<n)
{
printf("m is less than n");
}
else
{
printf("m is equal to n");
}
}
Output: m is greater than n
3.1.3 Nested if-else
An entire if-else construct can be written within either the body of the if
statement or the body of an else statement. This is called ‘nesting’ of ifs. This
is shown in the following structure.
if (n > 0)
{
if (a > b)
z = a;
}
else
z = b;
The second if construct is nested in the first if statement. If the condition in the
first if statement is true, then the condition in the second if statement is
checked. If it is false, then the else statement is executed.
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
Program:
5. Write a program to check for the relation between 2 nos

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int m=40, n=20;
if ((m >0 ) && (n>0))
{
printf("nos are positive"); if
(m>n)
{
printf("m is greater than n");
}
else
{
printf("m is less than n");
}
}
else
{
printf("nos are negative");
}
return 0;
}
Output
40 is greater than 20
3.1.4 Switch Case
This structure helps to make a decision from the number of choices. The
switch statement is a multi−way decision that tests whether an expression
matches one of a number of constant integer values, and branches accordingly.
switch( integer expression)
{
case constant 1 : do this; case
constant 2 : do this ; case
constant 3 : do this ; default :
do this ; }
The integer expression following the keyword switch is any C expression that
will yield an integer value. It could be an integer constant like 1, 2 or 3, or an
expression that evaluates to an integer. If a case matches the expression value,
execution starts at that case. All case
85
expressions must be different. The case labelled default is executed if none of

the other cases are satisfied. A default is optional; if it isn't there and if none of
the cases match, no action at all takes place. Cases and the default clause can
occur in any order.
Consider the following program:
main( )
{
int i = 2;
switch ( i )
{
case 1:
printf ( "I am in case 1 \n" ) ;
case 2:
case 3:
default :
printf ( "I am in default \n" ) ;
}
}
The output of this program would be:
I am in case 2 I
am in case 3 I
am in default
Here the program prints case 2 and 3 and the default case. If you want that
only case 2 should get executed, it is up to you to get out of the switch then
and there by using a break statement.
main( )
{
int i = 2 ; switch ( i )
{
case 1:
break ;
case 2:
break ;
case 3:
break ;
default:
printf ( "I am in default \n" ) ;
}
}
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
The output of this program would be:

I am in case 2
Program
7. Write a program to enter a grade and check its corresponding remarks.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
char grade;
printf(“Enter the grade”);
scanf(“%c”, &grade);
switch(grade)
{
case 'A' : printf("Outstanding!\n" ); break;
case 'B' :
printf("Excellent!\n" );
break;
case 'C' : printf("Well done\n" );
break;
case 'D' : printf("You passed\n" );
break;
case 'F' : printf("Better try again\n" );
break;
default : printf("Invalid grade\n" );
}
printf("Your grade is %c\n", grade ); return
0;
}
Output
Enter the grade
B
Excellent
Your grade is B
3.2 Iterative Statements
3.2.1 while statement
The while statement is used when the program needs to perform

repetitive tasks. The general form of a while statement is:
while ( condition)
statement ;
87
The program will repeatedly execute the statement inside the while until the
condition becomes false(0). (If the condition is initially false, the statement
will not be executed.)

main( )
{
int p, t, count;
float r, si;
count = 1;
while ( count <= 3 )
{
printf ( "\nEnter values of p, t and r " ) ;
scanf(“%d %d %f", &p, &t, &r ) ;
si=p * t * r / 100;
printf ( "Simple interest = N. %f", si ) ;
count = count+1;
}
}
Some outputs of this program:

Enter values of p, t and r 1000000 5 13.5
Simple Interest = N. 675000.000000 Enter
values of p, t and r 2000000 5 13.5 Simple
Interest = N. 1350000.000000 Enter values
of p, t and r 3500000 5 13.5 Simple Interest
= N. 612000.000000
The program executes all statements after the while 3 times. These statements
form what is called the ‘body’ of the while loop. The parentheses after the
while contain a condition. As long as this condition remains true all statements
within the body of the while loop keep getting executed repeatedly.
Consider the following program;

/* This program checks whether a given number is a palindrome or not
*/
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, reverse = 0, temp;
printf("Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
temp = n;
while( temp != 0 )
{
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
reverse = reverse * 10; reverse

= reverse +temp%10; temp =
temp/10;
}
if ( n == reverse )
printf("%d is a palindrome number.\n", n);
else
printf("%d is not a palindrome number.\n", n);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not
12321
12321 is a palindrome
Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not
12000
12000 is not a palindrome
3.2.2 do-while Loop
The body of the do-while executes at least once. The do-while structure is
similar to the while loop except the relational test occurs at the bottom (rather
than top) of the loop. This ensures that the body of the loop executes at least
once. The do-while tests for a positive relational test; that is, as long as the test
is True, the body of the loop continues to execute.
The format of the do-while is
do
{
block of one or more C statements;
} while (test expression)
The test expression must be enclosed within parentheses, just as it does with a
while statement.
Consider the following program

// C program to add all the numbers entered by a user until user enters 0.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int sum=0,num;
do
/* Codes inside the body of do...while loops are at least executed once.
*/
{
89
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d",&num);
sum+=num;
} while(num!=0);
printf("sum=%d",sum);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number
3
Enter a number
-2
Enter a number
0
sum=1

#include <stdio.h> main()
{
int i = 10;
do
{
printf("Hello %d\n", i ); i
= i -1;
}while ( i> 0 ); }
Output
Hello 10
Hello 9
Hello 8
Hello 7
Hello 6
Hello 5
Hello 4
Hello 3
Hello 2
Hello 1
Program
8. Program to count the no of digits in a number
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n,count=0; printf("Enter
an integer: ");
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
scanf("%d", &n);
do
{
n/=10;
/* n=n/10 */
count++;
} while(n!=0);
printf("Number of digits: %d",count);
}
Output
Enter an integer: 34523
Number of digits: 5
3.2.3 for Loop
The for is the most popular looping instruction. The general form of for statement
is shown below:
for ( initialize counter ; test counter ; Updating counter )
{
do this;
and this;
and this;
}
The for keyword allows us to specify three things about a loop in a single
line:
 Setting a loop counter to an initial value.
 Testing the loop counter to determine whether its value has reached the
number of repetitions desired.
 Updating the value of loop counter either increment or
decrement.
Consider the following program

int main(void)
{
int num;
printf(" n n cubed\n");
for (num = 1; num <= 6; num++) printf("%5d
%5d\n", num, num*num*num); return 0;
}
The program prints the integers 1 through 6 and their cubes. n n

cubed
1 1
2 8
91
3 27
4 64
5 125
6 216
The first line of the for loop tells us immediately all the information about the
loop parameters: the starting value of num, the final value of num, and the
amount that num increases on each looping Grammatically, the three
components of a for loop are expressions. Any of the three parts can be
omitted, although the semicolons must remain. Consider the following
program:
main( )
{
int i ;
for ( i = 1 ; i<= 10 ; )
{
printf ( "%d\n", i ) ; i
=i+1;
}
}
Here, the increment is done within the body of the for loop and not in the for
statement. Note that in spite of this the semicolon after the condition is
necessary.
Programs:
9. Program to print the sum of the first N natural numbers.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n, i, sum=0;
printf("Enter the limit: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum = sum +i;
}
printf("Sum of N natural numbers is: %d",sum);
}
Output
Enter the limit: 5 Sum of N natural numbers is 15.
10. Program to find the reverse of a number
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
int num,r,reverse=0;
printf("Enter any number: ");
scanf("%d",&num); for(num!
=0;num=num/10)
{
r=num%10;
reverse=reverse*10+r;
}
printf("Reversed of number: %d",reverse);
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter any number: 123
Reversed of number: 321
3.2.4 Nesting of Loops
C programming language allows using one loop inside another loop. Following
section shows few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax:
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:
for ( init; condition; increment )

{
for ( init; condition; increment)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}
The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming

language is as follows:
while(condition)
{
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}
The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language

is as follows:
93
do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
}while( condition );
}while( condition );
A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any
other type of loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice
versa.
Programs: 11. program using a nested for loop to find the prime numbers from
2 to 20:
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int i, j;
for(i=2; i<20; i++)
{
for(j=2; j <= (i/j); j++)
if(!(i%j))
break;
// if factor found, not prime
if(j > (i/j))
printf("%d is prime\n", i);
}
return 0; }
Output
2 is prime
3 is prime
5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
Programs: 12. Using for loops reproduce the star triangle below
*
***
*****
*******
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
*********
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int row, c, n,I, temp;
printf("Enter the number of rows in pyramid of stars you wish to see ");
scanf("%d",&n);
temp = n;
for ( row = 1 ; row <= n ; row++ )
{
for ( i= 1 ; i< temp ; i++ )
{
printf(" ");
temp--;
for ( c = 1 ; c <= 2*row - 1 ; c++ )
{
printf("*");
printf("\n");
}
}
}
return 0;
}
13. Write a program to print series from 10 to 1 using nested loops.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{ int a; a=10;
for (k=1;k=10;k++)
{
while (a>=1)
{
printf ("%d",a); a--;
} printf("\n");
a= 10;
}
}
Output:
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
95
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1
3.3 Jump Statements
3.3.1 The break Statement
The break statement provides an early exit from for, while, and do, just as
from switch. A break causes the innermost enclosing loop or switch to be
exited immediately. When break is encountered inside any loop, control
automatically passes to the first statement after the loop.
Consider the following example;

main( )
{
int i = 1 , j = 1 ; while
( i++ <= 100 )
{
while ( j++<= 200 )
{
if ( j == 150 )
break ;
else
printf ( "%d %d\n", i, j );
}
}
}
In this program when j equals 150, break takes the control outside the inner
while only, since it is placed inside the inner while.
3.3.2 The continue Statement
The continue statement is related to break, but less often used; it causes the
next iteration of the enclosing for, while, or do loop to begin. In the while and
do, this means that the test part is executed immediately; in the for, control
passes to the increment step. The continue statement applies only to loops, not
to switch.

main( )
{
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CSC 322 MODULE 6
int i, j ;
for ( i = 1 ; i<= 2 ; i++ )
{
for ( j = 1 ; j <= 2 ; j++ )
{
if ( i == j)
continue ;
printf ( "\n%d %d\n", i, j ) ;
}
}
}
The output of the above program would be... 1 2

21
Note that when the value of I equals that of j, the continue statement takes the
control to the for loop (inner) by passing rest of the statements pending
execution in the for loop (inner).
3.3.3 The goto statement
Kernighan and Ritchie refer to the goto statement as "infinitely abusable" and
suggest that it "be used sparingly, if at all. The goto statement causes your
program to jump to a different location, rather than execute the next statement
in sequence.
The format of the goto statement is;
goto statement label;
Consider the following program fragment if

(size > 12)
goto a;
goto b;
a: cost = cost * 1.05;
flag = 2;
b: bill = cost * flag;
Here, if the if conditions satisfies the program jumps to block labelled as a: if

not then it jumps to block labelled as b:.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
i. Differentiate between if and if else statements in C programming

language using diagram ONLY.
ii. Write a C program to print EVEN or ODD depending on the
integer number supplied at the prompt and simulate the output.
iii. Give the syntax of an if statement.
97
Solution
1 Differentiate between if and if else statements in C programming
language using diagram ONLY.
if statement
if else statement
2 Write a C program to print EVEN or ODD depending on the integer

number supplied at the prompt and simulate the output. #include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter an integer\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
if ( n%2 == 0 )
printf("EVEN\n");
else printf("ODD\
n"); return 0;
}
ODD
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CSC 322 MODULE 6

EVEN
3 Give the syntax of an if statement.
Syntax of if statement:
if (condition )
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
…………..
…………..
…………..
Statement n;
}
//Rest of the code
4.0 CONCLUSION
C programming language has basically three control structures which make C
qualify as a structured programming language. These structures include
sequence, selection and repetition structure.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt Selection (if Statement, else-if Statement, nested
if-else and switch case), iterative (while statement, do-while loop, for loop,
and nesting of loops), jump statements (the break statement, the continue
statement, the goto statement). Details are discussed in the unit
99
MODULE 7 FUNCTIONS AND ARRAYS IN C

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Unit 1 Overview of Functions in C

Unit 2 Arrays
Unit 3 Fundamentals of Strings
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONS IN C
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Monolithic Vs Modular Programming:
3.2 Function
3.2.1 Function Declaration OR Function Prototype:
3.2.2 Function Definition:
3.5 User Define Functions Vs Standard Function:
3.5.1 User Define Function:
3.5.2 Standard Function:
3.6 Function Categories
3.6.1 Function with no arguments and no return values:
3.6.2 Function with no arguments and a return value:
3.6.3 Function with arguments and return value:
3.7 Actual Arguments and Formal Arguments
3.7.1 Actual Arguments
3.7.2 Formal Arguments
3.7.3 Basic difference between formal and local
argument
3.7.4 Parameter Passing Techniques
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a

single, related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application
and a high degree of code reusing. Different programming languages name
them differently, for example, functions, methods, subroutines, procedures,
etc. function interface is a declaration of a function
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
that specifies the function's name and type signature (arity, data types of
parameters, and return type), but omits the function body.
 Differentiate between monolithic vs. modular Programming

 State the disadvantages of monolithic Programming
 State the advantages of modular Programming
 Declare a function
 Outline the various function categories
 Differentiate between a user define functions vs standard function.
 Differentiate between call by value and call by reference
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Monolithic vs. Modular Programming:
 Monolithic Programming indicates the program which contains a

single function for the large program.
 Modular programming helps the programmer to divide the whole
program into different modules and each module is separately
developed and tested. Then the linker will link all these modules to
form the complete program.
 Monolithic programming will not divide the program and it is a single
thread of execution. When the program size increases it leads to
inconvenience and difficult to maintain.
Disadvantages of monolithic programming:

 Difficult to check error on large programs.
 Difficult to maintain
 Code can be specific to a particular problem. i.e., it cannot be reused.
Advantage of modular programming

 Modular programs are easier to code and debug.
 Reduces the programming size.
 Code can be reused in other programs.
 Problem can be isolated to specific module so easier to find the error
and correct it.
101
3.2 Function
A function is a group of statements that together performs a task. Every C

program has at least one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial
programs can define additional functions.
3.2.1 Function Declaration OR Function Prototype
1. It is also known as function prototype.

2. It informs the computer about these three things:
a) Name of the function
b) Number and type of arguments received by the function.
c) Type of value return by the function
Syntax:
return_typefunction_name (type1arg1, type2arg2); OR
return_typefunction_name (type1type2);
1. The calling function needs information about the called function. If a

called function is placed before a calling function, then the declaration
is not needed.
3.2.2 Function Definition
1. It consists of code description and code of a function.

It consists of two parts
a) Function header
b) Function coding
Function definition tells what are the I/O function and what is going to do.
Syntax:
return_typefunction_name (type1arg1, type2arg2)
{
local variable;
statements;
return (expression);
}
2. Function definition can be placed anywhere in the program but
generally placed after the main function.
3. Local variable declared inside the function is local to that function. It
cannot be used anywhere in the program and its existence is only
within the function.
4. Function definition cannot be nested.
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
5. Return type denote the type of value that function will return and
return type is optional if omitted it is assumed to be integer by default.
3.3 User Define Functions Vs Standard Function:
3.3.1 User Define Function:
A function that is declare, calling and define by the user is called user defined
function. Every user define function has three parts as:
1. Prototype or Declaration
2. Calling
3. Definition
3.3.2 Standard Function:
The C standard library is a standardized collection of header files and library

routines used to implement common operations, such as input/output and
character string handling. Unlike other languages (such as COBOL,
FORTRAN, and PL/I) C does not include built in keywords for these tasks, so
nearly all C programs rely on the standard library to function.
3.4 Function Categories
There are four main categories of the functions these are as follows:
1. Function with no arguments and no return values.
2. Function with no arguments and a return value.
3. Function with arguments and no return values.
4. Function with arguments and return values.
3.4.1 Function with no arguments and no return values:

syntax:
void funct (void);

main ( )
{
funct ( );
}
void funct ( void );
{
}
103
NOTE: There is no communication between calling and called function.

Functions are executed independently, they read data and print result in same
block.
Example:
void link (void) ;
int main ()
{ link ();
}
void link ( void );
{
printf (“ link the file “)
}
3.4.2 Function with no arguments and a return value:
This type of functions has no arguments but a return value

example:
int msg (void) ;
int main ( )
{
int s = msg ( );
printf( “summation = %d” , s);
}
int msg ( void )
{
int a, b, sum ;
sum = a+b ;
return (sum) ;
}
NOTE: Here called function is independent, it read the value from the
keyboard, initialize and return a value .Both calling and called function are
partly communicated with each other.
Function with arguments and no return values: Here functions have arguments
so, calling function send data to called function but called function does no
return value. such functions are partly dependent on calling function and result
obtained is utilized by called function .
Example:
void msg ( int , int );
int main ( )
{
int a,b;
a= 2;
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
b=3;
msg( a, b);
}
void msg ( int a , int b)
{
int s ;
sum = a+b;
printf (“sum = %d” , s ) ;
}
3.4.3 Function with arguments and return value:
Here calling function of arguments that passed to the called function and called
function return value to calling function.
example:
int msg ( int , int ) ;
int main ( )
{
int a, b;
a= 2;
b=3;
int s = msg (a, b);
printf (“sum = %d” , s ) ;
}
int msg( int a , int b)
{
int sum ; sum
=a+b ; return
(sum);
}
3.5 Actual Arguments and Formal Arguments
3.5.1 Actual Arguments:
1. Arguments which are mentioned in the function call are known as

calling function.
2. These are the values which are actual arguments called to the function.
It can be written as constant , function expression on any function call which

return a value .
ex: funct (6,9) , funct ( a,b )
105
3.7.2 Formal Arguments:
1. Arguments which are mentioned in function definition are called

dummy or formal argument.
2. These arguments are used to just hold the value that is sent by calling
function.
3. Formal arguments are like other local variables of the function which
are created when function call starts and destroyed when end function.
3.7.3 Basic difference between formal and local argument are:
a) Formal arguments are declared within the ( ) where as local variables

are declared at beginning.
b) Formal arguments are automatically initialized when a value of actual
argument is passed.
c) Where other local variables are assigned variable through the statement
inside the function body.
Note: Order, number and type of actual argument in the function call should
be matched with the order, number and type of formal arguments in the
function definition.
3.7.4 Parameter Passing Techniques:
1. call by value
2. call by reference
Call by value:
Here value of actual arguments is passed to the formal arguments and
operation is done in the formal argument.
Since formal arguments are photo copy of actual argument, any change of the
formal arguments does not affect the actual arguments.
Changes made to the formal argument t are local to block of called function,
so when control back to calling function changes made vanish.
Example:
void swap (int a , int b) /* called function */
{
int t;
t = a;
a=b;
b = t;
}
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
main( )
{
int k = 50, m= 25;
swap( k, m) ; / * calling function */
print (k, m); / * calling function */
}
Output:
50, 25
Explanation:
int k= 50, m=25 ;
Means first two memory space are created k and m , store the values 50 and 25
respectively.
swap (k,m);
When this function is calling the control goes to the called function. void
swap (int a , int b),
k and m values are assigned to the ‘a’ and ‘b’.
then a= 50 and b= 25 ,
After that control enters into the function a temporary memory space ‘t’ is
created when int t is executed.
t=a; Means the value of a is assigned to the t , then t= 50.
a=b; Here value of b is assigned to the a, then a= 25; b=t;
Again t value is assigned to the b, then b= 50;
after this control again enters into the main function and execute the print
function print (k,m). it returns the value 50, 25.
NOTE: Whatever change made in called function does not affect the values
in the calling function.
Call by reference:
Here instead of passing value, address or reference are passed. Function
operators or address rather than values. Here, formal arguments are the
pointers to the actual arguments.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void add(int *n);
int main()
{
int num=2;
printf(“\n The value of num before calling the function=%d”, num);
add(&num);
printf(“\n The value of num after calling the function = %d”, num);
return 0;
}
void add(int *n)
107
{
*n=*n+10;
printf(“\n The value of num in the called function = %d”, n);
}
Output:
The value of num before calling the function=2 The
value of num in the called function=20 The value
of num after calling the function=20 NOTE:
In call by address mechanism whatever change made in called function affect
the values in calling function.
EXAMPLES:
1: Write a function to return larger number between two numbers: int
fun(int p, int q)
{
int large;
if(p>q)
{
large = p;
}
else
{
large = q;
}
return large;
}
2: Write a program using function to find factorial of a number.

#include <stdio.h>
int factorial (int n)
{
int i, p;
p = 1;
for (i=n; i>1; i=i-1)
{
p = p * i;
}
return (p);
}
void main()
{
int a, result;
printf ("Enter an integer number: ");
scanf ("%d", &a);
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result = factorial (a);

printf ("The factorial of %d is %d.\n", a, result);
}
i. What do you mean by function?

ii. Why is function used in a program?
iii. What do you mean by call by value and call by address?
iv. Mention the main categories of function Categories
Solution
1. What do you mean by function?
A function is a block of statements that performs a specific task. Let's
say you are writing a C program and you need to perform a same task
in that program more than once. In such case you have two options:
a) Use the same set of statements every time you want to perform the
task.
b) Create a function to perform that task, and just call it every time you
need to perform that task.
2. Why is function used in a program?
 It provides modularity to the program.
 Easy code reusability. You just have to call the function by its name to
use it.
 In case of large programs with thousands of code lines, debugging and
editing becomes easier if you use functions.
 A function is independent:
 It is “completely” self-contained.
 It can be called at any place in the code and can be ported to another
program
 Reusable: Use existing functions as building blocks for new programs
 Readable - more meaningful
 procedural abstraction: hide internal details
 factoring of code- divide and conquer
3. What do you mean by call by value and call by address?

The call by value method of passing arguments to a function
copies the actual value of an argument into the formal parameter of the
function. In this case, changes made to the parameter inside the
function have no effect on the argument. By default, C programming
uses call by value to pass arguments.
109
WHILE
The call by Address method of passing arguments to a function copies the
address of an argument into the formal parameter. Inside the function, the
address is used to access the actual argument used in the call.2. Why function
is used in a program?
4. Mention the main categories of function Categories

There are four main categories of the functions these are as follows:
1. Function with no arguments and no return values.
2. Function with no arguments and a return value.
3. Function with arguments and no return values.
4. Function with arguments and return values.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A function is a block of code that performs a single but related action.

Function can be reusable. and functions provide better modularity for your
application. Different programming languages name them differently, for
example, functions, methods, sub-routines, procedures, etc. Function interface
is a declaration of a function that specifies the function's name and type
signature (arity, data types of parameters, and return type), but omits the
function body.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about functions. The difference between
monolithic and modular programming has been highlighted. The advantages
of modular programming and disadvantages of monolithic programming are
also outlined. You have also learnt the difference between user define function
and standard function, function declaration or function prototype, its syntax,
function categories etc.
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
UNIT 2 ARRAYS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Arrays
3.1.1 One Dimensional Array
3.1.2 Declaration One Dimensional Array
3.1.3 Initialization of One-Dimensional Array
3.1.4 Array Processing
3.1.5 Two Dimensional Arrays
3.1.6 Declaration of Two-Dimensional Arrays
3.1.7 Initialization of one-Dimensional Array
3.1.8 Multidimensional Array
3.1.9 Arrays Using Functions
3.1.10 Passing Whole 1-D array to a Function
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In C programming language an array is a collection of similar data items

stored at contiguous memory locations and elements can be accessed
randomly using indices of an array. They can be used to store collection of
primitive data types such as int, float, double, char, etc of any particular type.
Note the items in an array must be of the same data type. In computer science,
array programming refers to solutions which allow the application of
operations to an entire set of values at once. Such solutions are commonly
used in scientific and engineering settings.
 Describe an array
 Differentiate between one-dimensional and a two-dimensional array
 Initialize one-dimensional, two-dimensional and multi-
dimensional arrays
 State the syntax of array declaration
111
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Arrays
A data structure is the way data is stored in the machine and the functions used
to access that data. An easy way to think of a data structure is a collection of
related data items. An array is a data structure that is a collection of variables
of one type that are accessed through a common name. Each element of an
array is given a number by which we can access that element which is called
an index. It solves the problem of storing a large number of values and
manipulating them.
Previously we use variables to store the values. To use the variables we have
to declare the variable and initialize the variable i.e, assign the value to the
variable. Suppose there are 1000 variables are present, so it is a tedious
process to declare and initialize each and every variable and also to handle
1000 variables. To overcome this situation we use the concept of array .In an
Array values of same type are stored. An array is a group of memory locations
related by the fact that they all have the same name and same type. To refer to
a particular location or element in the array we specify the name to the array
and position number of particular element in the array.
3.1.1 One Dimensional Array
3.1.2 Declaration one Dimensional Array
Before using the array in the program, it must be declared
Syntax:
data_typearray_name[size];
data_type represents the type of elements present in the array.

array_name represents the name of the array.
Size represents the number of elements that can be stored in the array.
Example:
int age[100];
float sal[15];
char grade[20];
Here age is an integer type array, which can store 100 elements of integer
type. The array sal is floating type array of size 15, can hold float values.
Grade is a character type array which holds 20 characters.
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
3.1.3 Initialization of One-Dimensional Array
We can explicitly initialize arrays at the time of declaration.
Syntax:
data_typearray_name[size]={value1, value2,................valueN};
Value1, value2, valueN are the constant values known as initializers, which
are assigned to the array elements one after another.
Example:
int marks[5]={10,2,0,23,4};
The values of the array elements after this initialization are:
marks[0]=10, marks[1]=2, marks[2]=0, marks[3]=23, marks[4]=4
Note:
1. In 1-D arrays it is optional to specify the size of the array. If size is omitted
during initialization, then the compiler assumes the size of array equal to the
number of initializers.
Example:
int marks[ ]={10,2,0,23,4};
Here the size of array marks is initialized to 5.
2. We can’t copy the elements of one array to another array by simply
assigning it.
Example:
int a[5]={9,8,7,6,5};
int b[5];
b=a; //not valid
we have to copy all the elements by using for loop.
for (a=i; i<5; i++)

b[i]=a[i];
3.1.4 Array Processing
For processing arrays, we mostly use for loop. The total no. of passes is equal
to the no. of elements present in the array and in each pass one element is
processed.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
113
int a[3], i;
for(i=0;i<=2;i++) //Reading the array values
{
printf(“enter the elements”);
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
}
for(i=0;i<=2;i++) //display the array values
{
printf(“%d”,a[i]);
printf(“\n”);
}
}
This program reads and displays 3 elements of integer type.
Example 1. Write a C Program to increment every element of the array by one

and print incremented array.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i;
int array[4] = {10, 20, 30, 40};
for (i = 0; i< 4; i++)
arr[i]++;
for (i = 0; i< 4; i++)
printf("%d\t", array[i]);
}
Example 2. Write a C Program to print the alternate elements in an array

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int array[10];
int i, j, temp;
printf("enter the element of an array \n"); for
(i = 0; i< 10; i++)
scanf("%d", &array[i]);
printf("Alternate elements of a given array \n"); for
(i = 0; i< 10; i += 2)
printf( "%d\n", array[i]) ;
}
Example 3: Write a C program to accept N numbers and arrange them in an

ascending order
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
{
int i, j, a, n, number[30];
printf("Enter the value of N \n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter the numbers \n");
for (i = 0; i< n; ++i)
scanf("%d", &number[i]); for (i = 0; i< n; ++i)
{
for (j = i + 1; j < n; ++j)
{
if (number[i] > number[j])
{
a =number[i]; number[i]
= number[j]; number[j] =
a;
}
}
}
printf("The numbers arranged in ascending order are given below \n"); for (i
= 0; i< n; ++i)
printf("%d\n", number[i]);
}
3.1.4 Two Dimensional Arrays
Arrays that we have considered up to now are one dimensional array, a single
line of elements. Often data come naturally in the form of a table,
e.g. spreadsheet, which need a two-dimensional array.
3.1.5 Declaration of Two-Dimensional Array
The syntax is same as for 1-D array but here 2 subscripts are used.
Syntax:
data_typearray_name[rowsize][columnsize];
Rowsize specifies the no.of rows Columnsize specifies the no.of

columns.
Example:
int a[4][5];
This is a 2-D array of 4 rows and 5 columns. Here the first element of the
array is a[0][0] and last element of the array is a[3][4] and total no.of elements
is 4*5=20.
115
col 0 col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4

row 0 a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2] a[0][3]
a[0][4]
row 1 a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2] a[1][3]
a[1][4]
row 2 a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2] a[2][3]
a[2][4]
row 3 a[3][0] a[3][1] a[3][2] a[3][3]
a[3][4]
3.1.6 Initialization of one-Dimensional Array
2-D arrays can be initialized in a way similar to 1-D arrays.

Example:
int m[4][3]={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12};
The values are assigned as follows:
int m[4][3]={{11},{12,13},{14,15,16},{17}};
The values are assigned as:
Note:
In 2-D arrays it is optional to specify the first dimension but the second dimension
should always be present.
Example: int
m[][3]={
{1,10},
{2,20,200},
{3},
{4,40,400} };
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
Here the first dimension is taken 4 since there are 4 roes in the
initialization list. A 2-D array is known as matrix.
Processing:
For processing of 2-D arrays we need two nested for loops. The outer loop
indicates the rows and the inner loop indicates the columns.
Example: int a[4][5];

a) Reading values in a
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&a[i][j]);
b) Displaying values of a
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
printf(“%d”,a[i][j]);
Example 1: Write a C program to find sum of two matrices
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
float a[2][2], b[2][2], c[2][2];
int i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the elements of 1st matrix\n");
/* Reading two dimensional Array with the help of two for loop. If there is an
array of 'n' dimension, 'n' numbers of loops are needed for inserting data to
array.*/
for(i=0;i<2;I++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
scanf("%f",&a[i][j]);
}
printf("Enter the elements of 2nd matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
scanf("%f",&b[i][j]);
}
/* accessing corresponding elements of two arrays. */
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
/* Sum of corresponding elements of two arrays. */
}
117
/* To display matrix sum in order. */

printf("\nSum Of Matrix:");
for(i=0;i<2;++i)
{
for(j=0;j<2;++j)
printf("%f", c[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Example 2: Program for multiplication of two matrices

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int i,j,k;
int row1,col1,row2,col2,row3,col3;
int mat1[5][5], mat2[5][5], mat3[5][5];
clrscr();
printf(“\n enter the number of rows in the first matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &row1);
printf(“\n enter the number of columns in the first matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &col1);
printf(“\n enter the number of rows in the second matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &row2);
printf(“\n enter the number of columns in the second matrix:”);
scanf(“%d”, &col2);
if(col1 != row2)
{
printf(“\n The number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the
number of rows in the second matrix ”);
getch();
exit();
}
row3= row1;
col3= col3;
printf(“\n Enter the elements of the first matrix”);
for(i=0;i<row1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col1;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&mat1[i][j]);
}
printf(“\n Enter the elements of the second matrix”);
for(i=0;i<row2;i++)
{
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
for(j=0;j<col2;j++)
scanf(“%d”,&mat2[i][j]);
}
for(i=0;i<row3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col3;j++)
{
mat3[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<col3;k++)
mat3[i][j] +=mat1[i][k]*mat2[k][j];
}
}
printf(“\n The elements of the product matrix are”):
for(i=0;i<row3;i++)
{
printf(“\n”);
for(j=0;j<col3;j++) printf(“\t
%d”, mat3[i][j]);
} return 0;
}
Output:
Enter the number of rows in the first matrix: 2 Enter
the number of columns in the first matrix: 2 Enter the
number of rows in the second matrix: 2
Enter the number of columns in the second matrix: 2
Enter the elements of the first matrix
1234
Enter the elements of the second matrix 5
678
The elements of the product matrix are 19
22
43 50
Example 3: Program to find transpose of a matrix.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a[10][10], trans[10][10], r, c, i, j;
printf("Enter rows and column of matrix: ");
scanf("%d %d", &r, &c);
printf("\nEnter elements of matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<r; i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{
119
printf("Enter elements a%d%d: ",i+1,j+1); scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);

}
/* Displaying the matrix a[][] */
printf("\n Entered Matrix: \n");
for(i=0; i<r; i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{
printf("%d ",a[i][j]);
if(j==c-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
/* Finding transpose of matrix a[][] and storing it in array trans[][]. */
for(i=0; i<r;i++)
for(j=0; j<c; j++)
{
trans[j][i]=a[i][j];
}
/* Displaying the array trans[][]. */
printf("\nTranspose of Matrix:\n");
for(i=0; i<c;i++) for(j=0; j<r;j++)
{
printf("%d ",trans[i][j]);
if(j==r-1)
printf("\n\n");
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter the rows and columns of matrix: 2
3
Enter the elements of matrix:
Enter elements a11: 1
Entered matrix: 1 2 9 0 4 7
ranspose of matrix: 1 0 2 4 9 7
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
3.1.8 Multidimensional Array
More than 2-dimensional arrays are treated as multidimensional arrays.

Example:
int a[2][3][4];
Here a represents two 2-dimensional arrays and each of these 2-d arrays contains 3
rows and 4 columns.
The individual elements are:
a[0][0][0], a[0][0][1],a[0][0][2],a[0][1][0]…..................a[0][3][2]
a[1][0][0],a[1][0][1],a[1][0][2],a[1][1][0]…....................a[1][3][2]
the total no. of elements in the above array is 2*3*4=24.

Initialization:
int a[2][4][3]={ {
{1,2,3},
{4,5},
{6,7,8},
{9}
},
{
{10,11},
{12,13,14},
{15,16},
{17,18,19}
}
}
The values of elements after this initialization are as:

a[0][0][0]:1 a[0][0][1]:2 a[0][0][2]:3
a[0][1][0]:4 a[0][1][1]:5 a[0][1][2]:0
a[0][2][0]:6 a[0][2][1]:7 a[0][2][2]:8
a[0][3][0]:9 a[0][3][1]:0 a[0][3][2]:0
a[1][0][0]:10 a[1][0][1]:11 a[1][0][2]:0
a[1][1][0]:12 a[1][1][1]:13 a[1][1][2]:14
a[1][2][0]:15 a[1][2][1]:16 a[1][2][2]:0
a[1][3][0]:17 a[1][3][1]:18 a[1][3][2]:19
Note: The rule of initialization of multidimensional arrays is that last subscript

varies most frequently and the first subscript varies least rapidly.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int d[5];
121
int i;
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
d[i]=i;
}
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“value in array %d\n”,a[i]);
}
}
Pictorial representation of d will look like
d[0] d[1] d[2] d[3]

d[4]
0 1 2 3 4
3.1.9 Arrays Using Functions
1-d arrays using functions

Passing individual array elements to a function
We can pass individual array elements as arguments to a function like other
simple variables.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void check(int);
void main()
{
int a[10],i;
clrscr();
printf(“\n enter the array elements:”);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
scanf(“%d”,&a[i]);
check(a[i]);
}
void check(int num)
{
if(num%2==0)
printf(“%d is even\n”,num);
else
printf(“%d is odd\n”,num);
}
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Output: enter the array elements:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 is odd
2 is even
3 is odd
4 is even
5 is odd
6 is even
7 is odd
8 is even
9 is odd
10 is even
Example:
C program to pass a single element of an array to function
#include <stdio.h>
void display(int a)
{
printf("%d",a);
}
int main()
{
int c[]={2,3,4};
display(c[2]); //Passing array element c[2] only. return 0;
}
Output
234
3.1.10 Passing whole 1-D array to a function
We can pass whole array as an actual argument to a function the

corresponding formal arguments should be declared as an array variable of the
same type.
Example 1:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i, a[6]={1,2,3,4,5,6};
func(a);
printf(“contents of array:”); for(i=0;i<6;i++)
printf(“%d”,a[i]); printf(”\n”);
}
func(int val[])
123
{
int sum=0,i;
for(i=0;i<6;i++)
{
val[i]=val[i]*val[i]; sum+=val[i];
}
printf(“the sum of squares:%d”, sum);
}
Output
contents of array: 1 2 3 4 5 6
the sum of squares: 91
Example 2:
Write a C program to pass an array containing age of person to a function.
This function should find average age and display the average age in main
function.
#include <stdio.h> float

average(float a[]); int
main()
{
float avg, c[]={23.4, 55, 22.6, 3, 40.5, 18};
avg=average(c); /* Only name of array is passed as argument. */ printf("Average
age=%.2f",avg);
return 0;
}
float average(float a[])
{
int i;
float avg, sum=0.0;
for(i=0;i<6;++i)
{
sum+=a[i];
}
avg =(sum/6);
return avg;
}
Output
Average age= 27.08
Further Examples:
1. Write a program to find the largest of n numbers and its location in an
array.
#include <stdio.h>
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int array[100], maximum, size, c, location = 1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");
scanf("%d", &size);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", size);
for (c = 0; c < size; c++)
scanf("%d", &array[c]); maximum = array[0]; for
(c = 1; c < size; c++)
{
if (array[c] > maximum)
{
maximum = array[c]; location
= c+1;
}
}
printf("Maximum element is present at location %d and it's value is
%d.\n", location, maximum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the number of elements in array 5
Enter 5 integers
2
4
7
9
1
Maximum element is present at location 4 and it's value is 9
2. Write a program to enter n number of digits. Form a number using these

digits.
# include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
{
int number=0,digit[10], numofdigits,i;
clrscr(); printf(“\n Enter the number of digits:”);
scanf(“%d”, &numofdigits);
for(i=0;i<numofdigits;i++)
{
125
printf(“\n Enter the %d th digit:”, i);

scanf(“%d”,&digit[i]);
}
i=0;
while(i<numofdigits)
{
number= number + digit[i]* pow(10,i) i+
+;
}
printf(“\n The number is : %d”,number);
getch(); }
Output:
Enter the number of digits:
3
Enter the 0th digit:
5
4
3
The number is: 543
3. Matrix addition:
#include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int m, n, c, d, first[10][10], second[10][10], sum[10][10];
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix\n");
scanf("%d%d", &m, &n);
printf("Enter the elements of first matrix\n"); for
( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
scanf("%d", &first[c][d]);
printf("Enter the elements of second matrix\n"); for
( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
scanf("%d", &second[c][d]);
for ( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
sum[c][d] = first[c][d] + second[c][d];
printf("Sum of entered matrices:-\n"); for
( c = 0 ; c < m ; c++ )
{
for ( d = 0 ; d < n ; d++ )
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
printf("%d\t", sum[c][d]);
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix 2
2
Enter the elements of first matrix 1
234
Enter the elements of second matrix 5
621
Sum of entered matrices:- 6 8 5 5
i. Compute sum of elements of an array in a C program?

ii. Write a program to declare an array with 10 elements, populate it and
display the contents
iii. Write C program to add two multi-dimensional arrays
Solution:
1. Compute sum of elements of an array in a C program?
//let's assume the maximum array size as 100.
//initialize sum as 0. Otherwise, it will take some garbage value. int
arr[100], size, i, sum = 0;
//Get size input from user

printf("Enter array size\n");
scanf("%d",&size);
//Get all elements using for loop and store it in array

printf("Enter array elements\n");
for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
//add all elements to the variable sum.

for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
sum = sum + arr[i]; // same as sum += arr[i];
//print the result

printf("Sum of the array = %d\n",sum);
return 0;
}
127
2 Write a program to declare an array with 10 elements, populate it and

display the contents
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int n[ 10 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */ int
i,j;
/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ ) {
n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i + 100 */
}
/* output each array element's value */

for (j = 0; j < 10; j++ ) {
printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
}
return 0;
}
3 Write C program to add two multi-dimensional arrays
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int r, c, a[100][100], b[100][100], sum[100][100], i, j;
printf("Enter the number of rows (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &r);
printf("Enter the number of columns (between 1 and 100): ");
scanf("%d", &c);
printf("\nEnter elements of 1st matrix:\n"); for

(i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element a%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &a[i][j]);
}}
printf("Enter elements of 2nd matrix:\n"); for

(i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j) {
printf("Enter element b%d%d: ", i + 1, j + 1);
scanf("%d", &b[i][j]);
}}
// adding two matrices
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j)
{ sum[i][j] = a[i][j] + b[i][j];
}}
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
// printing the result

printf("\nSum of two matrices: \n");
for (i = 0; i < r; ++i) {
for (j = 0; j < c; ++j)
{ printf("%d ", sum[i][j]);
if (j == c - 1) {
printf("\n\n");
}}
return 0;
}
4.0 CONCLUSION
An array is a collection of similar data items stored at contiguous memory

locations and each element can be accessed randomly using indices of an
array. An array can be one dimensional, two dimensional or multi-
dimensional. Arrays must be declared before it can be used. Array can be
manipulated just like any other variable.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to arrays, it declarations, initialization

and manipulation. You have also learnt how to read and display elements of
an array. Several examples are provided for clearer understanding array and it
manipulations.
129
UNIT 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF STRINGS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 String
3.2 Reading strings
3.3 Writing string
3.4 Common Functions in String
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A string is defined as a contiguous sequence of code units terminated by the

first zero code unit (often called the NUL code unit). What this means is that a
string cannot contain the zero code unit, as the first one seen marks the end of
the string. The length of a string is the number of code units before the zero-
code unit. The memory occupied by a string is always one more code unit than
the length, as space is needed to store the zero terminator. Generally, the term
string means a string where the code unit is of type char which is exactly 8 bits
on all modern machines. String literals ("text" in the C source code) are
converted to arrays during compilation.
 Define a string
 Differentiate between a string and a character
 Manipulate string
 Mention some commonly used string input/output library
functions
 Read and write string
 Declare a string variable
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 String
A string is a series of characters treated as a single unit. A string may include

letters, digits and various special characters such as +, -, *, / and
$. String literals or string constants in C are written in double quotation marks as
follows:
“1000 Main Street” (a street address)
“(080)329-7082” (a telephone number)
“Kalamazoo, New York” (a city)
In C language strings are stored in array of char type along with null terminating
character ‘\0’ at the end.
When sizing the string array, we need to add plus one to the actual size of the
string to make space for the null terminating character, ‘\0’.
Syntax:
char fname[4];
The above statement declares a string called fname that can take up to 3 characters.
It can be indexed just as a regular array as well. fname[]={‘t’,’w’,’o’};
character T w o \0
ASCII code 116 119 41 0
Generalized syntax is:

char str[size];
when we declare the string in this way, we can store size-1 characters in the
array because the last character would be the null character.
For example,
char mesg[10]; can store maximum of 9 characters.
If we want to print a string from a variable, such as four name string above we
can do this.
printf(“First name:%s”,fname);
We can insert more than one variable. Conversion specification %s is used to

insert a string and then go to each %s in our string, we are printing.
A string is an array of characters. Hence it can be indexed like an array. char
ourstr[6] = “EED”;
– ourstr[0] is ‘E’
– ourstr[1] is ‘E’
– ourstr[2] is ‘D’
131
– ourstr[3] is ‘\0’
‘E’ ‘E’ ‘D’ \0 “\0 “ “\0 “
ourstr[0] ourstr[1] ourstr[2] ourstr[3] ourstr[4]

ourstr[5]
3.2 Reading Strings
If we declare a string by writing

char str[100];
then str can be read from the user by using three ways;
1. Using scanf() function
2. Using gets() function
3. Using getchar(), getch(), or getche() function repeatedly
The string can be read using scanf() by writing

scanf(“%s”,str);
Although the syntax of scanf() function is well known and easy to use, the
main pitfall with this function is that it terminates as soon as it finds a blank
space. For example, if the user enters Hello World, then str will contain only
Hello. This is because the moment a blank space is encountered, the string is
terminated by the scanf() function.
Example:
char str[10]; printf(“Enter a
string\n”); scanf(“%s”,str);
The next method of reading a string a string is by using gets() function.

The string can be read by writing
gets(str);
gets() is a function that overcomes the drawbacks of scanf(). The gets()
function takes the starting address of the string which will hold the input. The
string inputted using gets() is automatically terminated with a null character.
Example:
char str[10]; printf(“Enter a
string\n”); gets(str);
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
The string can also be read by calling the getchar() repeatedly to read a
sequence of single characters (unless a terminating character is encountered)
and simultaneously storing it in a character array as follows:
int i=0;
char str[10],ch;
getchar(ch);
while(ch!=’\0’)
{
str[i]=ch; // store the read character in str
i++;
getch(ch); // get another character
}
str[i]=’\0’; // terminate str with null character
3.3 Writing string
The string can be displayed on screen using three ways:
1. Using printf() function

2. Using puts() function
3. Using putchar() function repeatedly
The string can be displayed using pintf() by writing

printf(“%s”,str);
We can use width and precision specification along with %s. The width
specifies the minimum output field width and the precision specifies the
maximum number of characters to be displayed.
Example:
printf(“%5.3s”,str);
This statement would print only the first three characters in a total field of five
charaters; also these three characters are right justified in the allocated width.
The next method of writing a string is by using the puts() function. The string
can be displayed by writing:
puts(str);
It terminates the line with a newline character (‘\n’). It returns an EOF(-

1) if an error occurs and returns a positive number on success.
Finally the string can be written by calling the putchar( ) function
repeatedly to print a sequence of single characters.
int i=0;
char str[10];
while(str[i]!=’\0’)
133
{
putchar(str[i]); // print the character on the screen i+
+;
}
Example:
Read and display a string
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char str[20];
clrscr();
printf(“\n Enter a string:\n”);
gets(str);
scanf(“The string is:\n”);
puts(str);
getch(); }
Output:
Enter a string:
vssut burla
The string is:
vssut burla
3.4 Common Functions in String
Method Description char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string char strcat(s1, s2)
Append string int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings int strlen(s) Return string
length char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in string char strstr(s1, s2) Find
string s2 in string s1
Type Method Description
char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string
char char strcat(s1, s2) Append string
int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings
int strlen(s) Return string length
char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in
string
char strstr(s1, s2) Find string s2 in string
s1
strcpy():
It is used to copy one string to another string. The content of the second string
is copied to the content of the first string.
Syntax:
strcpy (string 1, string 2);
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
Example:
char mystr[10];
mystr = “Hello”; // Error! Illegal!!! Because we are assigning the value
to mystr which is not possible in case of an string. We can only use "=" at
declarations of C-String.
strcpy(mystr, “Hello”);
It sets value of mystr equal to “Hello”.
strcmp():
It is used to compare the contents of the two strings. If any mismatch occurs
then it results the difference of ASCII values between the first occurrence of 2
different characters.
Syntax:
int strcmp(string 1, string 2);
Example:
char mystr_a[10] = “Hello”; char
mystr_b[10] = “Goodbye”;
– mystr_a == mystr_b; // NOT allowed!
The correct way is
if (strcmp(mystr_a, mystr_b ))
printf ("Strings are NOT the same.");
else
printf( "Strings are the same.");
Here it will check the ASCII value of H and G i.e, 72 and 71 and return the
diference 1.
strcat():
It is used to concatenate i.e, combine the content of two strings.
Syntax:
strcat(string 1, string 2);
Example:
char fname[30]={“bob”};
char lname[]={“by”}; printf(“%s”,
strcat(fname,lname));
Output:
bobby.
strlen():
It is used to return the length of a string.
135
Syntax:
int strlen(string);
Example:
char fname[30]={“bob”};
int length=strlen(fname);
It will return 3
strchr():
It is used to find a character in the string and returns the index of occurrence
of the character for the first time in the string.
Syntax:
strchr(cstr);
Example:
char mystr[] = "This is a simple string";
char pch = strchr(mystr,‘s’);
The output of pch is mystr[3]
strstr():
It is used to return the existence of one string inside another string and it
results the starting index of the string.
Syntax:
strstr(cstr1, cstr2);
Example:
Char mystr[]="This is a simple string";
char pch = strstr(mystr, “simple”); here
pch will point to mystr[10]
• String input/output library functions
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CSC 322 MODULE 7
NOTE:
Character arrays are known as strings.
i. What is a string in c?
ii. Show 2 different methods of initializing character array vowel with the
string of vowels “AEIOU”.
iii. Outline the commonly used string functions in C. Put your answer in
tabular format indicating type, method and description.
Solution
1 What is a string in c?
The string in C programming language is actually a one- dimensional
array of characters which is terminated by a null character '\0'. Thus, a
null-terminated string contains the characters that comprise the string
followed by a null.
2 Show 2 different methods of initializing character array vowel with the
string of vowels “AEIOU”.
Method1: char vowels [6] = “AEIOU”
Method 2: char vowels [6] = {'A','E','I','O','U','N','\0'}; // NULL
character '\0' is required at end in this declaration
3 Outline the commonly used string functions in C. Put your answer in

tabular format indicating type, method and description.
137
Type Method Description

char strcpy(s1, s2) Copy string
char char strcat(s1, s2) Append string
int strcmp(s1, s2) Compare 2 strings
int strlen(s) Return string length
char strchr(s, int c) Find a character in string
char strstr(s1, s2) Find string s2 in string s1
4.0 CONCLUSION
A string is a sequence of characters. Particularly in C program, a string is an

array of characters. A string may include letters, digits and various special
characters such as +, -, *, / and $. String literals or string constants in C are
written in double quotation marks. String can be concatenated, that is
“addition of two or more strings”. A string can be a constant and it can also be
assigned to a string variable.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about string, how to declare a string, how to read
and write a string, how to manipulate a string, how to differentiate between a
string and a character, common function in string (such as strcpy(s1, s2),
strcmp(s1, s2), strlen(s) etc). Examples are given to illustrate string
manipulation and functions.
138
CSC 322 MODULE 8
MODULE 8 STRUCTURE AND POINTERS IN C
Unit 1 Structure and Pointers
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure
3.2 Pointers
3.3 Pointers and Addresses
3.4 Pointers and Function Arguments
3.5 Pointers and Arrays
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A structure is a user defined data type in C. A structure allows us to create

data type that can be used to group items of different types into a single type.
It is similar to array but array allows only a set of data values of one data type
to be stored in it. It is equally similar to records in Pascal programming
language. A pointer is an object in many programming languages that
stores a memory address. This can be that of another value located in
computer memory, or in some cases, that of memory-mapped computer
hardware. A pointer references a location in memory, and obtaining the value
stored at that location is known as dereferencing the pointer. As an analogy,
a page number in a book's index could be considered a pointer to the
corresponding page; dereferencing such a pointer would be done by flipping to
the page with the given page number and reading the text found on that page.
The actual format and content of a pointer variable is dependent on the
underlying computer architecture.
2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand C structures and pointers

 Know how to define and use structures and pointers in C
139
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Structure
A Structure is a user defined data type that can store related information
together. The variable within a structure is of different data types and each has
a name that is used to select it from the structure. C arrays allow you to define
type of variables that can hold several data items of the same kind, but
structure is another user defined data type available in C programming, which
allows you to combine data items of different kinds.
Structures are used to represent a record. Suppose you want to keep track of
your books in a library, you might want to track the following attributes about
each book:
 Title
 Author
 Subject
 Book ID
Structure Declaration:
It is declared using a keyword struct followed by the name of the structure.
The variables of the structure are declared within the structure. Example:
Struct struct-name
{
data_type var-name;
data_type var-name;
};
Structure Initialization:
Assigning constants to the members of the structure is called initializing of
structure. Syntax:
struct struct_name
{
data _type member_name1;
data _type member_name2;
} struct_var={constant1,constant2};
Accessing the members of a structure
A structure member variable is generally accessed using a ‘.’ operator.
Syntax:
strcut_var.
member_name;
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CSC 322 MODULE 8
The dot operator is used to select a particular member of the structure. To

assign value to the individual
Data members of the structure variable stud, we write,
stud.roll=01;
stud.name=”Rahul”;
To input values for data members of the structure variable stud, can be written as,
scanf(“%d”,&stud.roll);
scanf(‘’%s”,&stud.name);
To print the values of structure variable stud, can be written as:

printf(“%s”,stud.roll);
printf(“%f”,stud.name);
3.2 Pointers
A pointer is a variable that contains the address of a variable. Pointers are

much used in C, partly because they are sometimes the only way to express a
computation, and partly because they usually lead to more compact and
efficient code than can be obtained in other ways. Pointers and arrays are
closely related; this chapter also explores this relationship and shows how to
exploit it. Pointers have been lumped with the goto statement as a marvelous
way to create impossible to understand programs. This is certainly true when
they are used carelessly, and it is easy to create pointers that point somewhere
unexpected. With discipline, however, pointers can also be used to achieve
clarity and simplicity. This is the aspect that we will try to illustrate. The main
change in ANSI C is to make explicit the rules about how pointers can be
manipulated, in effect mandating what good programmers already practice and
good compilers already enforce. In addition, the type void
* (pointer to void) replaces char * as the proper type for a generic pointer.
3.3 Pointers and Addresses
Let us begin with a simplified picture of how memory is organized. A typical

machine has an array of consecutively numbered or addressed memory cells
that may be manipulated individually or in contiguous groups. One common
situation is that any byte can be a char, a pair of one-byte cells can be treated
as a short integer, and four adjacent bytes form a long. A pointer is a group of
cells (often two or four) that can hold an address. So if c is a char and p is a
pointer that points to it, we could represent the situation this way:
141
The unary operator & gives the address of an object, so the statement
p = &c; assigns the address of c to the variable p, and p is said to ``point to'' c.
The &operator only applies to objects in memory: variables and array
elements. It cannot be applied to expressions, constants, or register variables.
The unary operator * is the indirection or dereferencing operator; when
applied to a pointer, it accesses the object the pointer points to. Suppose that x
and y are integers and ip is a pointer to int. This artificial sequence shows how
to declare a pointer and how to use & and *:
int x = 1, y = 2, z[10];
int *ip;
ip = &x;
y = *ip;
*ip = 0;
ip = &z[0];
The declaration of x, y, and z are what we've seen all along. The declaration of
the pointer ip.
int *ip;
is intended as a mnemonic; it says that the expression *ip is an int. The syntax
of the declaration for a variable mimics the syntax of expressions in which the
variable might appear. This reasoning applies to function declarations as well.
For example,
double *dp, atof(char *);
says that in an expression *dp and atof(s) have values of double, and that the
argument of atof is a pointer to char. You should also note the implication that
a pointer is constrained to point to a particular kind of object: every pointer
points to a specific data type. If ip points to the integer x, then *ip can occur in
any context where x could, so
*ip = *ip + 10;
increments *ip by 10. The unary operators * and & bind more tightly than
arithmetic operators, so the assignment
y = *ip + 1
takes whatever ip points at, adds 1, and assigns the result to y, while
*ip += 1
increments what ip
points to, as do
++*ip and (*ip)++
The parentheses are necessary in this last example; without them, the expression
would increment ip instead of what it points to, because
142
CSC 322 MODULE 8
unary operators like * and ++ associate right to left. Finally, since pointers are
variables, they can be used without dereferencing. For example, if iq is
another pointer to int,
iq = ip
copies the contents of ip into iq, thus making iq point to whatever ip pointed
to.
3.4 Pointers and Function Arguments
Since C passes arguments to functions by value, there is no direct way for the
called function to alter a variable in the calling function. For instance, a
sorting routine might exchange two out of order arguments with a function
called swap. It is not enough to write
swap(a, b);
where the swap function is defined as
void swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}
Because of call by value, swap can't affect the arguments a and b in the routine
that called it. The function above swaps copies of a and b. The way to obtain
the desired effect is for the calling program to pass pointers to the values to be
changed:
swap(&a, &b);
Since the operator & produces the address of a variable, &a is a pointer to a. In
swap itself, the parameters are declared as pointers, and the operands are
accessed indirectly through them.
void swap(int *px, int *py) /* interchange *px and *py */
{
int temp;
temp = *px;
*px = *py;
*py = temp;
}
Pointer arguments enable a function to access and change objects in the

function that called it. As an example, consider a function getint that performs
free-format input conversion by breaking a stream of characters into integer
values, one integer per call. getint has to return the value it found and also
signal end of file when there is no more
143
input. These values have to be passed back by separate paths, for no matter
what value is used for EOF, that could also be the value of an input integer.
One solution is to have getint return the end of file status as its function value,
while using a pointer argument to store the converted integer back in the
calling function. This is the scheme used by scanf as well. The following loop
fills an array with integers by calls to getint:
int n, array[SIZE], getint(int *);

for (n = 0; n < SIZE &&getint(&array[n]) != EOF; n++) ;
Each call sets array[n] to the next integer found in the input and increments n.
Notice that it is essential to pass the address of array[n] to getint. Otherwise
there is no way for getint to communicate the converted integer back to the
caller. Our version of getint returns EOF for end of file, zero if the next input
is not a number, and a positive value if the input contains a valid number.
#include <ctype.h>
int getch(void); void
ungetch(int); int
getint(int *pn)
{
int c, sign;
while (isspace(c = getch()));
if (!isdigit(c) && c != EOF&& c != '+' && c != '-')
{
ungetch(c);
return 0;
}
sign = (c == '-') ? -1 : 1;
if (c == '+' || c == '-') c
= getch();
for (*pn = 0; isdigit(c), c = getch())
*pn = 10 * *pn + (c - '0');
*pn *= sign; if
(c != EOF)
ungetch(c);
return c;
}
Throughout getint, *pn is used as an ordinary int variable. We have also used
getch and ungetch so the one extra character that must be read can be pushed
back onto the input.
144
CSC 322 MODULE 8
3.5 Pointers and Arrays
In C, there is a strong relationship between pointers and arrays, strong enough

that pointers and arrays should be discussed simultaneously. Any operation
that can be achieved by array subscripting can also be done with pointers. The
pointer version will in general be faster but, at least to the uninitiated,
somewhat harder to understand. The declaration
int a[10];
defines an array of size 10, that is, a block of 10 consecutive objects named
a[0], a[1], .. , a[9]. The notation a[i] refers to the i-th element of the array. If pa
is a pointer to an integer, declared as
int *pa;
then the assignment
pa = &a[0];
sets pa to point to element zero of a; that is, pa contains the address of a[0].
Now the assignment
x =*pa;
will copy the contents of a[0] into x. If pa points to a particular element of an
array, then by definition pa+1 points to the next element, pa+i points i
elements after pa, and pa-i points i elements before. Thus, if pa points to a[0],
*(pa+1) refers to the contents of a[1], pa+i is the address of a[i], and *(pa+i) is
the contents of a[i]. These remarks are true regardless of the type or size of the
variables in the array a. The meaning of `àdding 1 to a pointer,'' and by
extension, all pointer arithmetic, is that pa+1 points to the next object, and
pa+i points to the i-th object beyond pa. The correspondence between indexing
and pointer arithmetic is very close. By definition, the value of a variable or
expression of type array is the address of element zero of the array. Thus after
the assignment
pa = &a[0];
pa and a have identical values. Since the name of an array is a synonym for the
location of the initial element, the assignment
pa=&a[0]
can also be written as
pa = a;
Rather more surprising, at first sight, is the fact that a reference to a[i] can also
be written as *(a+i). In evaluating a[i], C converts it to *(a+i) immediately; the
two forms are equivalent. Applying the operator & to both parts of this
equivalence, it follows that &a[i] and a+i are also identical: a+i is the address
of the i-th element beyond a. As the other side of this coin, if pa is a pointer,
expressions might use it with a subscript; pa[i] is identical to *(pa+i). In short,
an array-and-index expression is equivalent to one written as a pointer and
offset. There is one difference between an array name and a pointer that must
be kept in mind. A pointer is a variable, so pa=a and pa++ are legal. But an
array
145
name is not a variable; constructions like a=pa and a++ are illegal. When an
array name is passed to a function, what is passed is the location of the initial
element. Within the called function, this argument is a local variable, and so
an array name parameter is a pointer, that is, a variable containing an address.
We can use this fact to write another version of strlen, which computes the
length of a string.
int strlen(char *s)
{
int n;
for (n = 0; *s != '\0', s++)
n++;
return n;
}
Since s is a pointer, incrementing it is perfectly legal; s++ has no effect on the

character string in the function that called strlen, but merely increments strlen's
private copy of the pointer. That means that calls like
strlen("hello, world");
strlen(array); strlen(ptr);
all work.
As formal parameters in a function definition,
char s[]; and char *s;
are equivalent; we prefer the latter because it says more explicitly that the
variable is a pointer. When an array name is passed to a function, the function
can at its convenience believe that it has been handed either an array or a
pointer, and manipulate it accordingly. It can even use both notations if it
seems appropriate and clear. It is possible to pass part of an array to a
function, by passing a pointer to the beginning of the subarray. For example, if
a is an array,
f(&a[2])and f(a+2)
both pass to the function f the address of the subarray that starts at a[2].
Within f, the parameter declaration can read
f(int arr[])
{ ... } or
f(int *arr) { ... }
So as far as f is concerned, the fact that the parameter refers to part of a larger
array is of no consequence. If one is sure that the elements exist, it is also
possible to index backwards in an array; p[-1], p[2], and so on are syntactically
legal, and refer to the elements that immediately precede p[0]. Of course, it is
illegal to refer to objects that are not within the array bound.
146
CSC 322 MODULE 8
i. What is a structure in C programming language?

ii. Declare a structure in C with the flowing members: Employee name,
identification number, salary.
iii. Declare a pointer for each of the following integer, double, float and
character. Use comment to document your declarations.
Solution
1. What is a structure in C programming language?
A structure is a key word that create user defined data type in C. A
structure in C Programming language is a group of variables of
different data types represented by a single name. It Allows us to store
a collection of different data types in one memory location with one
name. Each element of a structure is called a member.
1 Declare a structure in C with the flowing members: Employee name,
identification number, salary.
struct employee Name { char name[50]; int
idNo;
float salary; };
3 Declare a pointer for each of the following integer, double, float and
character. Use comment to document your declarations.
int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */

double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */
4.0 CONCLUSION
Structure is a group of variables of different data types represented by a single

name. A structure is used to represent information about something more
complicated than a single number, character, or boolean can do. It is more
complicated than an array or single data type. A pointer is a variable that
stores the memory address of another variable as its value. A pointer variable
points to a data type (e.g., int) of the same type, and is created with the *
operator.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about structure and pointers. You have been
exposed to how to declare a structure, how to initialize a structure, how to
declare a pointer variable, how to dereference a pointer. You have also learnt
about pointers and addresses, pointers and functions arguments, pointers and
arrays etc.
147
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CSC 322 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 PROGRAMING LANGUAGES

Unit 1 Computer Programming

UNIT 1 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

A program is a finite set of sequenced instructions or commands given to a

machine independent, and which programs are portable to other computers,

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Define programs and classify programming languages

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Classification of Programming Languages

3.2 Low level language

Machine Language: This is the only language computer understands. It is the

Advantages of Machine Language

Disadvantages of Machine Language

Assembly Language: Assembly Language uses MNEMONICS (symbols) to

directly a program written in assembly language; it requires a translator called

Advantages of Assembly Language

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

3.3 High Level Language

A high-level language is a problem-orientated programming language. The

Advantages of High-Level Language

Disadvantages of High-Level Language

3.4 Features of High-Level Language

Examples of High-level Languages are FORTRAN, COBOL, QBASIC,

Classify programming languages and explain the different categories

Machine language: This is the native language of the computer. It consists of

Assembly language: Assembly language uses mnemonics instead of bits.

This unit introduced the students to the basic knowledge of computer

A computer program is a set of instruction given to a computer to carry out a

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Fundamentals of

Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016 Structured

Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012

UNIT 2 PROGRAM DESIGN

There are various phases in the development of computer programs. These

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOS)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State at least six characteristics of a good program

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Characteristics of a Good Program

 Portability/Transferability: Must be able to work on any

3.2 Phases of Program Development (Programming)

The process of producing a computer program (software) may be divided into

1) Problem Definition/Analysis Stage: There is need to understand the

first, then as the source program is entered, a translated equivalent

i. Explain any five characteristics of a good program

Reliability: A good program is reliable. It does what it was designed to do

Maintainability: It is the process of fixing program errors and improving the

Efficiency: A program is efficient if it makes use of less amount of memory

Machine Independent: Program should be machine-independent. Program

Cost Effectiveness: Cost Effectiveness is the key to measure the program

Simplicity/Understandability/Readability: A good program must be simple,

2. Explain the phases or stages of program (or software) development

When designing a program, a conscious effort should be made to build in

The characteristics of a good program are outlined which include:

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Fundamentals of

Structured Programming, Lubia Vinhas, 2016 Structured

Programming with C++ by Kjell Backman, 2012.