Inverse function

In mathematics, the inverse function of a function f (also called the

inverse of f) is a function that undoes the operation of f. The
inverse of f exists if and only if f is bijective, and if it exists, is
denoted by

For a function , its inverse admits an

explicit description: it sends each element to the unique
element such that f(x) = y.

As an example, consider the real-valued function of a real variable

given by f(x) = 5x − 7 . One can think of f as the function which
multiplies its input by 5 then subtracts 7 from the result. To undo
this, one adds 7 to the input, then divides the result by 5. Therefore,
the inverse of f is the function defined by

Definitions A function f and its inverse f −1 .

Because f maps a to 3, the inverse
Let f be a function whose domain is the set X, and whose codomain f −1 maps 3 back to a.
is the set Y . Then f is invertible if there exists a function g from Y
to X such that for all and for
all . [1]

If f is invertible, then there is exactly one function g satisfying

this property. The function g is called the inverse of f, and is
usually denoted as f −1, a notation introduced by John Frederick
William Herschel in 1813.[2][3][4][5][6][nb 1]
If f maps X to Y, then f −1 maps Y back
The function f is invertible if and only if it is bijective. This is to X.
because the condition for all implies that f
is injective, and the condition for all implies
that f is surjective.

The inverse function f −1 to f can be explicitly described as the function

Inverses and composition

Recall that if f is an invertible function with domain X and codomain Y , then

, for every and for every .

Using the composition of functions, this statement can be rewritten to the following equations between
functions:

and

where id X is the identity function on the set X; that is, the function that leaves its argument unchanged. In
category theory, this statement is used as the definition of an inverse morphism.

Considering function composition helps to understand the notation f −1. Repeatedly composing a function
f: X→X with itself is called iteration. If f is applied n times, starting with the value x, then this is written as
f n(x); so f 2(x) = f (f (x)), etc. Since f −1(f (x)) = x, composing f −1 and f n yields f n−1, "undoing" the
effect of one application of f.

Notation
While the notation f −1(x) might be misunderstood,[1] (f(x))−1 certainly denotes the multiplicative inverse
of f(x) and has nothing to do with the inverse function of f.[6] The notation might be used for the
inverse function to avoid ambiguity with the multiplicative inverse. [7]

In keeping with the general notation, some English authors use expressions like sin −1(x) to denote the
inverse of the sine function applied to x (actually a partial inverse; see below).[8][6] Other authors feel that
this may be confused with the notation for the multiplicative inverse of sin (x), which can be denoted as
(sin (x))−1.[6] To avoid any confusion, an inverse trigonometric function is often indicated by the prefix
"arc" (for Latin arcus).[9][10] For instance, the inverse of the sine function is typically called the arcsine
function, written as arcsin (x).[9][10] Similarly, the inverse of a hyperbolic function is indicated by the
prefix "ar" (for Latin ārea).[10] For instance, the inverse of the hyperbolic sine function is typically written
as arsinh(x).[10] The expressions like sin −1(x) can still be useful to distinguish the multivalued inverse
from the partial inverse: . Other inverse special functions
are sometimes prefixed with the prefix "inv", if the ambiguity of the f −1 notation should be avoided.[11][10]

Examples

Squaring and square root functions

The function f: R → [0,∞) given by f(x) = x2 is not injective because for all .
Therefore, f is not invertible.

If the domain of the function is restricted to the nonnegative reals, that is, we take the function
with the same rule as before, then the function is bijective and so,
invertible. [12] The inverse function here is called the (positive) square root function and is denoted by
.

Standard inverse functions

The following table shows several standard functions and their inverses:
 Inverse arithmetic functions

Function f(x) Inverse f −1 (y) Notes

x+a y−a
a−x a−y
y
mx m m≠0
1 −1 1 −1
x (i.e. x ) y (i.e. y ) x, y ≠ 0

xp (i.e. y1/p ) x, y ≥ 0 if p is even; integer p > 0

ax loga y y > 0 and a > 0

xex W (y) x ≥ −1 and y ≥ −1/e

trigonometric functions inverse trigonometric functions various restrictions (see table below)

hyperbolic functions inverse hyperbolic functions various restrictions

Formula for the inverse

Many functions given by algebraic formulas possess a formula for their inverse. This is because the inverse
of an invertible function has an explicit description as

This allows one to easily determine inverses of many functions that are given by algebraic formulas. For
example, if f is the function

then to determine for a real number y, one must find the unique real number x such that
(2x + 8)3 = y. This equation can be solved:

Thus the inverse function f −1 is given by the formula

Sometimes, the inverse of a function cannot be expressed by a closed-form formula. For example, if f is the
function
then f is a bijection, and therefore possesses an inverse function f −1. The formula for this inverse has an
expression as an infinite sum:

Properties
Since a function is a special type of binary relation, many of the properties of an inverse function
correspond to properties of converse relations.

Uniqueness
If an inverse function exists for a given function f, then it is unique.[13] This follows since the inverse
function must be the converse relation, which is completely determined by f.

Symmetry
There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse. Specifically, if f is an invertible function with
domain X and codomain Y , then its inverse f −1 has domain Y and image X, and the inverse of f −1 is the
original function f. In symbols, for functions f:X → Y and f−1:Y → X,[13]

and

This statement is a consequence of the implication that for f to be invertible it must be bijective. The
involutory nature of the inverse can be concisely expressed by[14]

The inverse of a composition of functions is given by[15]

Notice that the order of g and f have been reversed; to undo f

followed by g , we must first undo g , and then undo f.

For example, let f(x) = 3x and let g(x) = x + 5 . Then the

composition g ∘ f is the function that first multiplies by three The inverse of g ∘ f is f −1 ∘ g −1 .
and then adds five,

To reverse this process, we must first subtract five, and then divide by three,
This is the composition (f −1 ∘ g −1)(x).

Self-inverses
If X is a set, then the identity function on X is its own inverse:

More generally, a function f : X → X is equal to its own inverse, if and only if the composition f ∘ f is
equal to id X. Such a function is called an involution.

Graph of the inverse

If f is invertible, then the graph of the function

is the same as the graph of the equation

This is identical to the equation y = f(x) that defines the graph of f,

except that the roles of x and y have been reversed. Thus the graph
of f −1 can be obtained from the graph of f by switching the
positions of the x and y axes. This is equivalent to reflecting the
The graphs of y = f(x) and
graph across the line y = x.[16][1]
y = f −1 (x). The dotted line is y = x.

Inverses and derivatives

The inverse function theorem states that a continuous function f is invertible on its range (image) if and only
if it is either strictly increasing or decreasing (with no local maxima or minima). For example, the function

is invertible, since the derivative f′(x) = 3x2 + 1 is always positive.

If the function f is differentiable on an interval I and f′(x) ≠ 0 for each x ∈ I, then the inverse f −1 is
differentiable on f(I).[17] If y = f(x), the derivative of the inverse is given by the inverse function theorem,

Using Leibniz's notation the formula above can be written as

This result follows from the chain rule (see the article on inverse functions and differentiation).
The inverse function theorem can be generalized to functions of several variables. Specifically, a
differentiable multivariable function f : Rn → Rn is invertible in a neighborhood of a point p as long as
the Jacobian matrix of f at p is invertible. In this case, the Jacobian of f −1 at f(p) is the matrix inverse of the
Jacobian of f at p .

Real-world examples
Let f be the function that converts a temperature in degrees Celsius to a temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit,

then its inverse function converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius,

[18] since

Suppose f assigns each child in a family its birth year. An inverse function would output
which child was born in a given year. However, if the family has children born in the same
year (for instance, twins or triplets, etc.) then the output cannot be known when the input is
the common birth year. As well, if a year is given in which no child was born then a child
cannot be named. But if each child was born in a separate year, and if we restrict attention to
the three years in which a child was born, then we do have an inverse function. For example,

Let R be the function that leads to an x percentage rise of some quantity, and F be the
function producing an x percentage fall. Applied to $100 with x = 10%, we find that applying
the first function followed by the second does not restore the original value of $100,
demonstrating the fact that, despite appearances, these two functions are not inverses of
each other.
The formula to calculate the pH of a solution is pH = −log 10[H+]. In many cases we need
to find the concentration of acid from a pH measurement. The inverse function [H+] = 10 −pH
is used.

Generalizations

Partial inverses
Even if a function f is not one-to-one, it may be possible to define a partial inverse of f by restricting the
domain. For example, the function
is not one-to-one, since x2 = (−x)2. However, the function
becomes one-to-one if we restrict to the domain x ≥ 0 , in which
case

(If we instead restrict to the domain x ≤ 0 , then the inverse is the

negative of the square root of y.) Alternatively, there is no need to
restrict the domain if we are content with the inverse being a
multivalued function: The square root of x is a partial
inverse to f(x) = x2 .

Sometimes, this multivalued inverse is called the full inverse of f,

and the portions (such as √ x and −√ x ) are called branches. The
most important branch of a multivalued function (e.g. the positive
square root) is called the principal branch, and its value at y is
called the principal value of f −1(y).

For a continuous function on the real line, one branch is required

between each pair of local extrema. For example, the inverse of a
cubic function with a local maximum and a local minimum has
three branches (see the adjacent picture).

These considerations are particularly important for defining the The inverse of this cubic function
inverses of trigonometric functions. For example, the sine function has three branches.
is not one-to-one, since

for every real x (and more generally sin(x + 2πn) = sin(x) for
every integer n ). However, the sine is one-to-one on the interval
π π
[− 2 , 2 ], and the corresponding partial inverse is called the arcsine.
This is considered the principal branch of the inverse sine, so the
π π
principal value of the inverse sine is always between − 2 and 2 . The
following table describes the principal branch of each inverse
trigonometric function:[19]

The arcsine is a partial inverse of the

sine function.
 function Range of usual principal value
π π
arcsin − 2 ≤ sin−1 (x) ≤ 2

arccos 0 ≤ cos−1 (x) ≤ π

π π
arctan − 2 < tan−1 (x) < 2

arccot 0 < cot−1 (x) < π

arcsec 0 ≤ sec−1 (x) ≤ π
π π
arccsc − 2 ≤ csc−1 (x) ≤ 2

Left and right inverses

Function composition on the left and on the right need not coincide. In general, the conditions

1. "There exists g such that g(f(x))=x" and

2. "There exists g such that f(g(x))=x"
imply different properties of f. For example, let f: R → [0, ∞) denote the squaring map, such that
f(x) = x2 for all x in R, and let g: [0, ∞) → R denote the square root map, such that g(x) = √ x for all
x ≥ 0 . Then f(g(x)) = x for all x in [0, ∞); that is, g is a right inverse to f. However, g is not a left inverse
to f, since, e.g., g(f(−1)) = 1 ≠ −1 .

Left inverses
If f: X → Y , a left inverse for f (or retraction of f ) is a function g: Y → X such that composing f with g
from the left gives the identity function[20]

That is, the function g satisfies the rule

If f(x)=y, then g(y)=x.

The function g must equal the inverse of f on the image of f, but may take any values for elements of Y not
in the image.

A function f with nonempty domain is injective if and only if it has a left inverse.[21] An elementary proof
runs as follows:

If g is the left inverse of f, and f(x) = f(y), then g(f(x)) = g(f(y)) = x = y.

If nonempty f: X → Y is injective, construct a left inverse g: Y → X as follows: for all y ∈ Y ,
if y is in the image of f, then there exists x ∈ X such that f(x) = y. Let g(y) = x; this definition
is unique because f is injective. Otherwise, let g(y) be an arbitrary element of X.

For all x ∈ X, f(x) is in the image of f. By construction, g(f(x)) = x, the condition for a left
inverse.
In classical mathematics, every injective function f with a nonempty domain necessarily has a left inverse;
however, this may fail in constructive mathematics. For instance, a left inverse of the inclusion
{0,1} → R of the two-element set in the reals violates indecomposability by giving a retraction of the real
line to the set {0,1}.[22]

Right inverses
A right inverse for f (or section of f ) is a function h: Y → X such
that

That is, the function h satisfies the rule

If , then

Thus, h(y) may be any of the elements of X that map to y under f.

A function f has a right inverse if and only if it is surjective (though Example of right inverse with non-
constructing such an inverse in general requires the axiom of injective, surjective function
choice).

If h is the right inverse of f, then f is surjective. For all , there is such that
.
If f is surjective, f has a right inverse h , which can be constructed as follows: for all ,
there is at least one such that (because f is surjective), so we choose one
to be the value of h(y).

Two-sided inverses
An inverse that is both a left and right inverse (a two-sided inverse), if it exists, must be unique. In fact, if a
function has a left inverse and a right inverse, they are both the same two-sided inverse, so it can be called
the inverse.

If is a left inverse and a right inverse of , for all , .

A function has a two-sided inverse if and only if it is bijective.

A bijective function f is injective, so it has a left inverse (if f is the empty function,
is its own left inverse). f is surjective, so it has a right inverse. By the above, the left and
right inverse are the same.
If f has a two-sided inverse g , then g is a left inverse and right inverse of f, so f is injective
and surjective.

Preimages
If f: X → Y is any function (not necessarily invertible), the preimage (or inverse image) of an element
y ∈ Y is defined to be the set of all elements of X that map to y:
The preimage of y can be thought of as the image of y under the (multivalued) full inverse of the function f.

Similarly, if S is any subset of Y , the preimage of S , denoted , is the set of all elements of X that
map to S :

For example, take the function f: R → R; x ↦ x2. This function is not invertible as it is not bijective, but
preimages may be defined for subsets of the codomain, e.g.

The preimage of a single element y ∈ Y – a singleton set {y} – is sometimes called the fiber of y. When Y
is the set of real numbers, it is common to refer to f −1({y}) as a level set.

See also
Lagrange inversion theorem, gives the Taylor series expansion of the inverse function of an
analytic function
Integral of inverse functions
Inverse Fourier transform
Reversible computing

Notes
1. Not to be confused with numerical exponentiation such as taking the multiplicative inverse of
a nonzero real number.

References
1. Weisstein, Eric W. "Inverse Function" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/InverseFunction.html).
mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
2. Herschel, John Frederick William (1813) [1812-11-12]. "On a Remarkable Application of
Cotes's Theorem" (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1813.0005). Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. 103 (Part 1). London: Royal Society of London, printed by W.
Bulmer and Co., Cleveland-Row, St. James's, sold by G. and W. Nicol, Pall-Mall: 8–26 [10].
doi:10.1098/rstl.1813.0005 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1813.0005). JSTOR 107384 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/107384). S2CID 118124706 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:118124706).
3. Herschel, John Frederick William (1820). "Part III. Section I. Examples of the Direct Method
of Differences" (https://books.google.com/books?id=PWcSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5). A
Collection of Examples of the Applications of the Calculus of Finite Differences. Cambridge,
UK: Printed by J. Smith, sold by J. Deighton & sons. pp. 1–13 [5–6]. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20200804031020/https://books.google.de/books?hl=de&id=PWcSAAAAIAAJ&
jtp=5) from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-04. [1] (https://archive.org/details/a
collectionexam00lacrgoog) (NB. Inhere, Herschel refers to his 1813 work and mentions
Hans Heinrich Bürmann's older work.)
4. Peirce, Benjamin (1852). Curves, Functions and Forces. Vol. I (new ed.). Boston, USA.
p. 203.
 5. Peano, Giuseppe (1903). Formulaire mathématique (in French). Vol. IV. p. 229.
6. Cajori, Florian (1952) [March 1929]. "§472. The power of a logarithm / §473. Iterated
logarithms / §533. John Herschel's notation for inverse functions / §535. Persistence of rival
notations for inverse functions / §537. Powers of trigonometric functions". A History of
Mathematical Notations (https://books.google.com/books?id=bT5suOONXlgC). Vol. 2 (3rd
corrected printing of 1929 issue, 2nd ed.). Chicago, USA: Open court publishing company.
pp. 108, 176–179, 336, 346. ISBN 978-1-60206-714-1. Retrieved 2016-01-18. "[...] §473.
Iterated logarithms [...] We note here the symbolism used by Pringsheim and Molk in their
joint Encyclopédie article: "2logb a = logb (logb a), ..., k+1logb a = logb (klogb a)." [...] §533.
John Herschel's notation for inverse functions, sin−1 x, tan−1 x, etc., was published by him in
the Philosophical Transactions of London, for the year 1813. He says (p. 10): "This notation
cos.−1 e must not be understood to signify 1/cos. e, but what is usually written thus, arc
(cos.=e)." He admits that some authors use cos.m A for (cos. A)m, but he justifies his own
notation by pointing out that since d2 x, Δ3 x, Σ2 x mean dd x, ΔΔΔ x, ΣΣ x, we ought to write
sin.2 x for sin. sin. x, log.3 x for log. log. log. x. Just as we write d−n V=∫n V, we may write
similarly sin.−1 x=arc (sin.=x), log.−1 x.=cx. Some years later Herschel explained that in
1813 he used fn(x), f−n(x), sin.−1 x, etc., "as he then supposed for the first time. The work of a
German Analyst, Burmann, has, however, within these few months come to his knowledge,
in which the same is explained at a considerably earlier date. He[Burmann], however, does
not seem to have noticed the convenience of applying this idea to the inverse functions
tan−1, etc., nor does he appear at all aware of the inverse calculus of functions to which it
gives rise." Herschel adds, "The symmetry of this notation and above all the new and most
extensive views it opens of the nature of analytical operations seem to authorize its universal
adoption."[a] [...] §535. Persistence of rival notations for inverse function.— [...] The use of
Herschel's notation underwent a slight change in Benjamin Peirce's books, to remove the
chief objection to them; Peirce wrote: "cos[−1] x," "log[−1] x."[b] [...] §537. Powers of
trigonometric functions.—Three principal notations have been used to denote, say, the
square of sin x, namely, (sin x)2, sin x2, sin2 x. The prevailing notation at present is sin2 x,
though the first is least likely to be misinterpreted. In the case of sin2 x two interpretations
suggest themselves; first, sin x · sin x; second,[c] sin (sin x). As functions of the last type do
not ordinarily present themselves, the danger of misinterpretation is very much less than in
case of log2 x, where log x · log x and log (log x) are of frequent occurrence in analysis. [...]
The notation sinn x for (sin x)n has been widely used and is now the prevailing one. [...]"
(xviii+367+1 pages including 1 addenda page) (NB. ISBN and link for reprint of 2nd edition
by Cosimo, Inc., New York, USA, 2013.)
7. Helmut Sieber und Leopold Huber: Mathematische Begriffe und Formeln für Sekundarstufe I
und II der Gymnasien. Ernst Klett Verlag.
8. Thomas 1972, pp. 304–309
9. Korn, Grandino Arthur; Korn, Theresa M. (2000) [1961]. "21.2.-4. Inverse Trigonometric
Functions". Mathematical handbook for scientists and engineers: Definitions, theorems, and
formulars for reference and review (https://archive.org/details/mathematicalhand00korn_849)
(3 ed.). Mineola, New York, USA: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 811 (https://archive.org/details/
mathematicalhand00korn_849/page/n828). ISBN 978-0-486-41147-7.
10. Oldham, Keith B.; Myland, Jan C.; Spanier, Jerome (2009) [1987]. An Atlas of Functions: with
Equator, the Atlas Function Calculator (2 ed.). Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
doi:10.1007/978-0-387-48807-3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-48807-3). ISBN 978-
0-387-48806-6. LCCN 2008937525 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2008937525).
11. Hall, Arthur Graham; Frink, Fred Goodrich (1909). "Article 14: Inverse trigonometric
functions" (https://archive.org/stream/planetrigonometr00hallrich#page/n30/mode/1up).
Written at Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. Plane Trigonometry. New York: Henry Holt &
Company. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 2017-08-12. "α = arcsin m This notation is universally used
in Europe and is fast gaining ground in this country. A less desirable symbol, α = sin-1 m, is
still found in English and American texts. The notation α = inv sin m is perhaps better still on
account of its general applicability. [...] A similar symbolic relation holds for the other
trigonometric functions. It is frequently read 'arc-sine m' or 'anti-sine m', since two mutually
inverse functions are said each to be the anti-function of the other."
12. Lay 2006, p. 69, Example 7.24
13. Wolf 1998, p. 208, Theorem 7.2
14. Smith, Eggen & St. Andre 2006, pg. 141 Theorem 3.3(a)
15. Lay 2006, p. 71, Theorem 7.26
16. Briggs & Cochran 2011, pp. 28–29
17. Lay 2006, p. 246, Theorem 26.10
18. "Inverse Functions" (https://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/function-inverse.html).
www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
19. Briggs & Cochran 2011, pp. 39–42
20. Dummit; Foote. Abstract Algebra.
21. Mac Lane, Saunders. Categories for the Working Mathematician.
22. Fraenkel (1954). "Abstract Set Theory" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F173967a0). Nature. 173
(4412): 967. Bibcode:1954Natur.173..967C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954Natur.17
3..967C). doi:10.1038/173967a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F173967a0). S2CID 7735523 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7735523).

Bibliography
Briggs, William; Cochran, Lyle (2011). Calculus / Early Transcendentals Single Variable (http
s://archive.org/details/calculusearlytra0000brig). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-66414-3.
Devlin, Keith J. (2004). Sets, Functions, and Logic / An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics
(3 ed.). Chapman & Hall / CRC Mathematics. ISBN 978-1-58488-449-1.
Fletcher, Peter; Patty, C. Wayne (1988). Foundations of Higher Mathematics. PWS-Kent.
ISBN 0-87150-164-3.
Lay, Steven R. (2006). Analysis / With an Introduction to Proof (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=k4k_AQAAIAAJ) (4 ed.). Pearson / Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-148101-5.
Smith, Douglas; Eggen, Maurice; St. Andre, Richard (2006). A Transition to Advanced
Mathematics (6 ed.). Thompson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-39900-9.
Thomas Jr., George Brinton (1972). Calculus and Analytic Geometry Part 1: Functions of
One Variable and Analytic Geometry (Alternate ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Wolf, Robert S. (1998). Proof, Logic, and Conjecture / The Mathematician's Toolbox. W. H.
Freeman and Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-3050-7.

Further reading
Amazigo, John C.; Rubenfeld, Lester A. (1980). "Implicit Functions; Jacobians; Inverse
Functions". Advanced Calculus and its Applications to the Engineering and Physical
Sciences (https://archive.org/details/advancedcalculus0000amaz). New York: Wiley. pp. 103
(https://archive.org/details/advancedcalculus0000amaz/page/n114)–120. ISBN 0-471-
04934-4.
 Binmore, Ken G. (1983). "Inverse Functions". Calculus. New York: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 161–197. ISBN 0-521-28952-1.
Spivak, Michael (1994). Calculus (3 ed.). Publish or Perish. ISBN 0-914098-89-6.
Stewart, James (2002). Calculus (https://archive.org/details/calculus0000stew) (5 ed.).
Brooks Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-39339-7.

External links
"Inverse function" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Inverse_function),
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inverse_function&oldid=1208485585"