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Legal Professionals

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CHAPTER 3

LEGAL PROFESSIONALS
SYNOPSIS
1. Mukhtars and Revenue Agents
2. Pleoders
3. Lawyers, AdvOcates, Vakils, and Attorneys J5265
4. Advocate-on-Record 347.016 RAI(LEG)EA12.C13
S.X.U.K
5. Senior Advocate
6. Barrister
7. Solicitor
8. Counsel
9. Jurist
10. Legal Professionals Appointed by Government
11. Legal Professionals Entrusted with Special Responsibility
12. Professionals in Employment

The term "Legal Professional" has wide connotation. It embraces all


persons who Profess law. Earlier, several categories of persons used to
as
practice in the courts. They were known by different names such
Pleaders, Mukhtars, Revenue Agents, etc. They were merely matriculates
constituted
and lacked knowledge of law. In 1923, the Government of India
Indian Bar Committee, which recommended enrolment of a single grade
Councils Act,
of practitioners called Advocates. Thereafter the Indian Bar
1926 was enacted which sought to unify various grades of legal
deficient. With the intent
practitioners. The Act however was defective and
constituted
to remove the defects and deficiencies, the Government of India
S.R.
an All India Bar Committee in 1951 under Chairmanship of Justice
report in
Das, Judge of the Supreme Court. The Committee submitted its
1953 recommending abolition of different grades of lawyers and retention
of only one class of legal practitioners i.e. Advocates. It further proposed
that a Degree in Law obtained from a University after at least two years
study after graduation may be prescribed as minimum qualification for
enrolment as an Advocate. It suggested that non-graduate persons may
not be appointed in future to act as Pleaders and Mukhtars. This
recommendation proved to be a major step for transformation of Indian
legal practitioners. Subsequently, the 14th Report of Law Commission of
1958 also reiterated the same. The Advocates Act, 1961, which followed,
made provision for only two categories of advocates viz. Senior Advocates
and other Advocates. The Act also prescribed essential minimum
(19 )
suspend
examination
qualifications functioning jurisdiction
Practitioners
siCourt
x
Court theMukhtars, rules
Mukhtars were They
played criminal
no qualification
1,past 20
grounds
1951,
theIn any
a him himself in
paid agent,
on except character;or grades
High legal Mukhtars
the The in however The Mukhtars
had and "The
person made and the
any whose or regard courts.
(viii)remuneration
(vii) or (vi) discharge or(v) (iv)He
is (iiü) (ii) (i) Act knowledge. which
various
or the
Court. ofthe and Mukhtars
ofand role no
agreed legal
as payable He dismiss which LEGAL
who He behalf He He He held rules legal viz. Act, of theconsidered license
any He such some party viz. rest
Revenue Revenue
tenders, is In 1865 to of They were and are
has business of takes takes by for Advocates, 1879. Court. intermediary categories ETHICS,
vernment other accepts ordirectly, convicted any practitioners
exercise inqualifications, a
Mukhtar to authorized
guilty
his he Matriculation the to functional
he was were They Revenue also the legal
beenpromised for him instruction enrolmentsubordinate Agents
gives is instruction
represents; Mukhtar High Agents. At The practice. ACCOUNTABILITY
reasonable obtaining any professional
of later to practiced
or for retained;of acted legal professional
proclaimed of of that conferred
Act be of
employment indirectly by
himself fraudulent
his or Court. power Solicitors Act between today,
of person, any into The repealed inferior legal
to the
consents of admission
time, also as
They Agents
professionals
be services in in on and Courts.
Indiacause. such or or criminal Mukhtars. of solicitors in OF
intervention
so or duty; any any The granted one first authorized 1865' . professionals,are
as servant, any Pleaders.
legal tothe revenue
were must LAWYERS
employment given any or passing system six by
nstituted case oneHigh (Attorneys), discussed
below.
a in processes for to or
case Thethree grades aand
other the grossly offence The clients merely
tout any except by new status for offices who possess.
by processing Courtor The BENCH-BAR &
or under
the
new were enrolment the Act
th e
underlegal him; of withhold from more of and
Mukhtar; rules oflaw High matriculates which
any the improper relative from implying Act brought pleaders used
an has was the 1879 practicing thpractitioners
e Vakils,namely, by the as
business orperson
section any of RELATIONS
All employment th e prescribed two brought Courts The Revenue
been out the empowered the jurisdiction
Act, of pleaders. to existed
employment or of other Mukhtarship them
India conduct
of recognized the, a Mukhtars. also. practice
36; given to following
defect the Pleaders, the Pleaders,
through any all in
to and
whom Agents. in
or party party High High were Legal frame under
Bar fee the They They had
by of in of to of in the
Pleader.
continue.
Chairmanship
dispensed of similar vested Vakils Barcould entitled
stipulated Pleaders'
Pleaders
practice passedthe could were
qualification Court
prescribe the and atAct was rulesRevenue the Mukhtars. criminal
superiorThereto Pleaders gradually
ended.
2.manner thatthe recommended abolition Committee.
of of
classdifferent
nonlegal
that n-graduate
legal The
Committee, In jurisdiction Pleaders, enacted, of
Thereafter, controlPleaders Mukhtars, Like The
eligible
formulated
not in was
to
withtermns andpractice 1865".
time
The
Non-graduate
practitioners to regard Agents courts. classes
with. yearsbefore were qualifications non-graduates
the Law
AlI that Pleaders,
the practice be of no One
14th and to viz. which existence person
of of of before not enroled Mukhtars, It also
stipulation Commission practitioners
Only JusticeIndia power
t he 1923, subordinate of be Advocates,
ofbrought a tothe Act They of of
a practice secondly,
entitled th e new
report the qualifications,
repealed Court. received legal the
one Mukhtar. however,
provisions before enroled of may
High examination rules also
persons was S.R. Bar recommended to as for High law 1865". Pleaders also of terms
class suspend & all The functioned as should
the practitioners
of the
Court before tothose High according
enrolment be
various
Committee,noDas Revenue
Solicitors "The namely, legal to in i.e. PROFESSIONALS LEGAL
the th e courts
practice
as Courts. six At class appointed of
may more of of High Pleaders. Act their its
Advocates.
legal grades
Pleaders, admission the
status not reference
Law expressed orthe same were
subordinate conducted whoCourt
authorized of 14th grades
not abolition Court. only. Agents
The "The qualification,
same in
necessary dismiss before to(Attorneys),
of non-licensed were be should
practitioners
Commission
Act Advocates
did were revenue legal Report
be Vakils which of by in
1951 Firstly,
Pleaders. High Legal recruited of
appointed the of However, Mukhtars
legal and time, "The future It of
not The the by not in practitioners lawyers
further
1879,
a of courts, onlysubordinate Practitioners the
be
constituted
view Pleader materialize Court enrolment they offices in continued. the
and distinction legal
or
High the law for the practitioners & Pleaders, but
Accordingly, High 1958 to Committee
as
i.e . th e the tw o Vakils recommended and
submitted inhence that Vakils. High want law
after graduates and were they . act thatno
Advocates practitioners Court. was as Mukhtars.
future for High Pleaders kinds Courts also
such graduates wha Revenue Revenue
practitioners of called as to
completing Court. of authorized Courts, in Mukhtars
of
brought were
it under the between for The Act recommended Mukhtars. have The
Court They of functioning High Pleaders. was
toact
in gradation long. additional th e Mukhtars Committee
may reasons but persons of to regarded
should Indian became These under Agents Agents. In onlywhether
1958 was who could High Court 1879" frame under
as be the the had and
a to this one
21
Advocate is examines the 22
oftencourt argues and
inevidence. them
proceedings.
the
client, advocate
argue
onTribunal to He The all law. Advocate (2) law. his whoLawyer profession
(1) Act, or 3. Advocate,
Criminal
any entitled in 1951.
supported
6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
Section
Section Section Section
bringing legal file iscourts
Advocate
Vakil'
Lawyers, law
law.
Rameshwar Section supportive roll An client.Lawyer is 1961, A In
through inmakes the authorized Upon
an of competent legal
is or Advocate or Procedure,to toThe the
29 30 33 2 2 his At the matters case
appearance, including A of a the
questions enrolment, Bar there appear present
(q) (15) the the authorized
He authority." Lawyer professional
Attorney'.
is law,
practice Vakil Code
Prasad of of ofnegotiation, witnesses, assessment is LEGAL
the the the of of documents.court on Council a Advocates,
Code Code litigating appropriate investigates tothe
is to
recommendations
and of
Advocates
Advocates Advocates entrusted whichbehalf person namely is ETHICS,
Goyal, of act only the is
give only in
1973, andcontext,
of of of necessarily Civil
to "To or he of, trained a an
Criminal Civil cross
lawcompetent of and
Supreme
person
However, is plead ACCOUNTABILITY
parties may of any becomes legal who
Advocates. one court.
Attorney
Advocate, Act, Act, Act,reconciliation, Thereupon makeplead' a most Pleader Procedure,
Procedure with and stage
strength the his plead State. Vakils Pleader
1961.1961. 1961. examines in is
class
Procedure,
1973. or pleadingentitled
factsappearance advice for
In fact. client. means Court, trained commonly in
the to of may onentitled the
professionally made
Re, jurisdiction Unless of
terms
means another of is
an trial, thereofhe of and OF
1908. work An behalf law and persons a 1908 not
(2014) and to LAWYERS
by
amicable the prepares the not He to or before in Hiagh
Advocate Advocate assists argue anypractice to solaw. and who of
known
Attorneys person defines only the
1 of
compromise. witnesses and case lead before in
SCC
of enroled,
any
Section
entitled
legally alongdemands application his practice is is
qualified
Court.'Court &
entrusted
the He also
recognized BENCH-BAR All
572. settlement tohis
the authorized asauthorized
is leads any aclient.tribunal a India
pleadings institution cause must 29 a
sustainable also of with client law he licensed In
Pleader
and
court profession Lawyer'
to ,
In To cannot of terms AELATIONS
the oral from to
in in as be
to practice
it but Bar
instrumental
addition,outsidedocumentary or practice the
adversary
him with Court. as any act' of
enroled to
to by
includes asalso
evidence, and the authority. plead Advocates
Advocate' of Committee,
by
of also
advice Court,means of practice right practice or a
Wills, client legal in Code pera definod
files his law. under
anthe to An for law, the
in in of an
clerk. 16Advocate-on-Record
ofmore.
trainingbasic 4.
Advocatefor the tribunal He inadvice
'attorney'
wascriminal Attorney (3) the cannot with
2. 1.
in properly, lawyer
The standards
Bar profession confidence
officer accordance to
law.effectively the he beContractsHe
572.
SCC
Rameshwar 37. PD. Courts the instructed
An Anright An is An administration
Attorney lawyers assisting functions
Court
requirements.
Secondly,
kilometers authorized An cannot In
Lawyers
Gupta andsuperior is of
Adyocate-on-Record under advocate
Advocate-on-Record as
Attorney functions Advocate Supreme
to were it to th e and
also represented behave of itself th
present
representing e
Prasad v. appearance act would must assist his act .
Ram he an abolishedandthe means court play theCourt as by
Corporate
of as designated
to courts. requires Even
Advocate-on-Record must can by is Officer an
Goyal, Murti, Firstly, well act a for remember
be of professionwith an court hi s is Court
the law th e the has
Advocate-on-Record.
become person an justice.
destructive important the for
have as on clients.
their client's
AdvOcate, (1997)
Court before to
Theyagent. doubtful court
overriding the in in his Officer of of
right his as Bye-laws
th e
must he (AOR) represent India, LEGAL
passed
Advocate-on-Record who client were that
If and
safeguarding arriving him. client; the
7 House must behalf. Solicitors They in purpose
have
the to Earlier the case
in SCC attorneys ofscruples
dispensing
they to part The Court. of PROFESSIONALS
practices
plead. is
the Supreme before
authorized lawyers
democracy th e duty an t he
anetc.
Re 147 legally drafted in atrole but Advocate
(Suo
and anhaving have another are of
examination of
'Attorneys-at-Law public. of the advocate
Therefore Court.
AIR office He the courts. or of a of is pleading,
Motu he undergone before empowered empowered equal
do a just
a Court.must legal strive administration
justice, high the also
1998 person Supreme to and not lawyer While
must in
Since has
Contempt
standing (AOR) Advocate
SC Delhi Supreme In
perform partners moral and
obligated is
accompany documents, perform
the to while
employ
conducted minimum 1873 th e not an a
283 before thrive the is proper conducting
within if to by
Court. rule standards. to Advocate right
Petition), : of he
further appearing
only
before
JT Court. act law the both used
their
withmembers main the of to
a ten the of on only
1997 fulfills th e to
andexpression gave to law.? Judges justice. decision in expected
uphold
registered a years by one
court civil litigation. court,
jo b
(2014) practice practice function extends the needs to
(6) radiusCourt. Senior He plead. of
year two legal and As plead.
SC has the of the The case,
1 or or in an th e
a to to 23
24 FGAL ETHICS, ACCOUNTABILITY OF LAWYERS &
BENCH-BAR RELATIONS
The Apex Court has observed' that the
Advocate-on-Record is to facilitate the working of the court as institution of
in Order 4 Rule 6. It entitles an AOR to act, plead, conduct
before this court in respect of all matters filed by him. To and
act
contained
prosecute
file an appearance or any pleading or any in the means to
application
such a task has been entrusted solely upon an AOR
can file an appearance or act for the party without and no other advocat
CCourt and
court conducts an examination before his. authorization, The
the basic purpose to have such an enroling isperson
a as an AOR and
person is well versed with the rules,examination to verify whether the
and to test his legal acumen and practice and procedure of the court
with the drafting of proceedings as ethics. He must be fully acquainted
well as its manner of filing
Registry. An AOR is not beneficial only to the court in the
the working of the Registry. He, in but also assists in
filing appearance and assisting the Court, addition to doing the work of drafting,
ethics and proper standards so that the must maintain professional
any reservation. An AOR is the court may rely upon him without
the litigant is represented and source of lawful recognition through whom
therefore,
prescribed under the Rules. The Rules have been he cannot deviate from the norms
legally trained person with prescribed framed to authorize a
act on behalf of a
litigant. Thus, not
qualification
only is
to appear, plead and
effective assistance in the court is als0 his physical presence but
nor is his job of a service required. He is not a guest artist
nor can he claim to be a law provider nor is he in a professional
of the court premises. An tourist agent for taking litigants forbusiness a tour
AOR is a seeker of
the country.
Therefore, he cannot avoid court orjustice be
for the citizens of
and his presence in the court is casual in operating
and records have to be necessary. There are times when pleadings
serious job and cannot claim explained and thus, he has to do a far more
that his role is merely a formal
responsibilities simply
for whatever is written optional. An AOR is accountable and one or his
and responsible
solemnity of records of the pleadedcourt.
by putting his
appearance to maintain
In a case of
conduct of an contemptuous, contumacious, unbecoming or
Advocate-on-Record,
jurisdiction to withdraw his privilege to practice the Supreme Courtblameworthy
because that privilege is conferred by as an possesses
grant the privilege includes the Advocate-on-Record
Supreme Court and the power to
power
Supreme Court is competent to proceed to revoke or suspend it. The
any complaint from any person if against an AOR suo motu, without
AOR is guilty of prima facie it is of the opinion that an
misconduct or of conduct
Supreme Court has framed the Rules in unbecoming of an AOR. The
smoothly. Under these Rules, order to carry out its work
Order 4 enables the Court to the institution of AsOR is created. Rule 8-A,
deal with a situation
misconduct or he conducts where an AOR commits
AOR. In fact, the Supreme himself/herself in a
to carry out certain Court has conferred manner a privilegeunbecoming of an
responsibilities and failure to carry upon out
the AOR
1, the same
Rameshwar Prasad Goyal, Advocate, In Re, (2014) 1 SCC
572.
LEGAL PROFESSIONALS 25

AOR, if not
would definitely tantamount to conduct unbecoming of an
misconduct.!
5. Senior Advocate
division
The Law Commission in 14th Report of 1958 recommended
Such division was
of Bar into two; viz. Senior Advocates and Advocates.
the seniors and
desirable in view of uneven distribution of work between
a few senior
juniors. Maximum work was concentrated in the hands of juniors
lawyers whereas the juniors were struggling for their survival. The
were thus deprived of earning as also learning.
The Advocates Act, 1961 specifically providedandfor classification of
Advocates into two categories viz. Senior Advocates other Advocates.
Supreme Court
An Advocate may be designated as Senior Advocate, if the
standing at
or a High Court is of opinion that by virtue of his ability,deserves
the Bar, or special knowledge, or experience in law, he such
distinction. Before conferment of such distinction, the consent of the
concerned is essentially taken. A Senior Advocate has right to pre-audience
over all other Advocates.4
Restrictions on Senior Advocates
A Senior Advocate is subject to certain restrictions in regard to his
practice of profession of law. The Advocates Act, 1961 authorizes the Bar
Council of India to prescribe such restrictions. Accordingly, the Bar
Council of India has prescribed following restrictions on the practice of
Senior Advocate
(i) Senior Advocate can only plead. He cannot act. To plead'
means to advance arguments in a Court or Tribunal, which a Senior
Advocate is competent to do. "To act' means to file an appearance or
any pleading or application in any Court or Tribunal, or to do any
act other than pleading. A Senior Advocate is expressly barred from
filing a Vakalatnama or from acting in any other Court or Tribunal
or authority. No advocate or attorney or recognized agent can act on
his behalf. Prior to enactment of Advocates Act, 1961, the 'act' was
performed by Solicitors and plead' was performed by Barristers.
(ü) Senior Advocate cannot appear in Supreme Court without
Advocate-on-Record. In other courts or tribunals in India or before
any other person or authority, he cannot appear in without a junior.
(iii) Senior Advocate cannot accept instructions and cannot do
drafting or conveyancing work. He cannot advice on evidence. He
cannot do any drafting work. He cannot undertake conveyancing work
of any kind.
(iv) Senior Advocate cannot accept directly from a
client any
1. Supreme Court Bar Assn. v. Union of India, (1998) 4 SCC
409 : AIR 1998 SC 1895.
2. Section 16 (1) of Advocates Act, 1961.
3. Section 16 (2) of Advocates Act, 1961.
4. Section 23 (5) of Advocates Act
1961.
5. Section 16 (3) of Advocates Act,
1961.
6. Bar Council of India Rules 1975,
"Restrictions on Senior Advocates". Part VI-Rules Governing Advocates, Chapter
by
Advocate-General, as 26
Attorney-General
Heby of Professionals (1) Universities. at partner
Legal10. worksJurist legal case. Counsel
9. referlicensed 8.
by solicitor
arguingAfterSolicitor
Most
distinguished competent
7. appears from doesnotHe Barrister
his enjoys
the High 6.
performs
the thGovt. e a
The The Jurist The A client.
matter Barrister Appellate
restriction,
Ahowever,
Attorney-General matters. an party
He of solicitor. Court Advocate
any brief
President. preparingSolicitor
Barrister
esident. Attorney of noran also and work and
legal Attorney to is term person
(v)
India. is to He or
all practice
essentially represents to before
a contestingcarried barristers appear
argues He does accept and Senior
instructions LEGAL
associate. assist
He"Counsel" prior Court
other, He professionals person the gives rightof is or
Government
He
General who is undertakes exclusive the argue. ETHICS,
He a not engaged other
duties gives also law.
an in on toAdvocate
who
draft, advice as in brief
court. or
charges is
officer anthe the it advocate
are even his
represents for Hiscommonly by the He Supreme
applies ACCOUNTABILITY
is associated Attorney in designation authorities to
ofadvice the Government preparation client the the designated to
Appointed
appointed bystudies,
Pleader job the
to higher appear no see presents He in appear
legal India, of cannot
Chief solicitor
solicitor th e work advocacy. in
court. is in before the does
the on court audience in Court,a
character, the organizes, to orrefers court clients courts.
the
Legal by with except client.
for
and offer a King's not the as
case advise in in OF
unctions Govt.Solicitor-General The and of is the
legal the Lawyer to forwards a He except
India. anyLAWYERS
Public a but law the and come case a in
Advisor management
law term his an High through Inclient. He Senior
which of Government
designatedare and office (Queen's) is which on Court
India
matters attorney in on prepares fact
superior &
onferred Prosecutor. firm, advice or Court.
does into entitled in grounds BENCH-BAR
teaches is lower it He with
are and an behalf work court. Advocate. he or
in sometimes to only a direct
receives not
and solicitor. had an
assigned
Supreme referred
primary butAdvocate.
courts drafts counsel. Most courts. Tribunal
engaged ofwho is relating a advise to RELATIONe
for
law. is of a In acted of
on guidance a Barrister Advocate
client. Barrister contact appear appeal
him He neither particular only. for seniornstruction He England, He
to Lawyer
Court. to used a as
India, He to or
him him often them. mostly argues before i before
by to The law. and
client. with
min
a in is for
is a
are Constitution
Houses
practice proceedings a Attorney
Government
the andinterested. in onHe assisted
President. appointmentof on as personCourt.'
provided
8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1, member.
Article
Article Attorney which behalf has the him Attorney years; or or The
Article
Section
ArticleArticle Article
Article the party; The The only The The jurist.3The
and the President by by must
Constitution
8876(3) (ii)
GovernmentAttorney-General Attorney General
after Attorney-General of post same (iv ) (iii) (ii) (i) President
that
23764) 76(1) 12476(1)76(2) (i) - He the His the
of(1) he
However, in of
General of General
is he possess or
of of
(3))
of of
he the Government may
therightSolicitor a
he he he he
stitution of of anyeither India made of
Constitution.qualifications must under
Constitution
Constitution
Constitution Constitution of
Constitution cannot cannot Governmentremuneration has has
Advocates
1961.Act Constitution GeneralMinistry isappear of and Attorney is, ismay
committee consulted fo r f
prescribesor
of heHouse are is
pre-audience by in been been be qualified any
General hence,
of India;
accept give is concerned President India. the citizen
being appoint
not made has law LEGAL
India. of of of of of faces has of in of
General anJudge
of
India.India.India. India.India. advice of Thus, shall
India. entitled anyIndia of and is
holds opinionadvocate appointed to
a Parliament of the Law only
by India right of certain any for
PROFESSIONALS
case following Parliament overdetermined
of
right th e has as
High Additional the of apply India;
be the
against in a person
in party is in of office India is of High appointed time
to Law beenlegal Court all Attorney essential as
to aaudience
all a to the of
which restrictions vote. or constitutional
during in a aCourt Judge as
Government participateofMinistry. matters orpartycasesother High being
consulted.
in Solicitor byexercise person President, Attorney
which otherwise in
his any e of as
anyadvocates.
or in in thGeneral Court foqualifications
r
advice all the for Supreme a in
joint of case isthe of at Judge force.
in he and AIl concerned Generals.
courts President. General
of may real
interested. Supreme pleasure power is post his a for least
is India
respect sittingspeak references in an distinguished
He appointment at Court. of
sought be importance which five
in appointee conferred on least Supreme for
appears which
to tonamed of in Court
or India." He of which years; India,
any the the The th e the ten
They
by his to is is 27
a
practice ofrepresents
Constitution Solicitors
of
to assigned
such Supreme Solicitor
appointedSolicitor-General
General
primary (2) 28
1,2. constitutional
Section As pre-audience the India
Department this
Department orwhich
Commissioners,ownedCollege, for criminal India; of is or The The The
laid other
Supreme
Theprosecutions
without
Corporation, likely
India Public
23 regard (vi) (v) Government (iv) (iii) (ii) Solicitor
(i) CourtuponSolicitor toGeneral,
General of
being
down by post Solicitor (iv) (ii)
the or Government
functions him India.
(2) or
He Localprosecution,
Hecontrolled He He or to He he the post LEGAL
of in Govt. Sector any Court legal the he he
of is of cannot Public be cannot over and by of
dvocates Law is cannot is Govt. He
Legal Authority, is General General ofthe Solicitor as cannot isETHICS,
received
restrained
Govt. except called
barred other General
Attorney
Oficers has Govt. ofprecluded Undertaking; all under matters
asGovernmentHigh India. barred
give that assists
accept by India, hold Sector other are of Government of
Act Affairs. of a upon takeACCOUNTABILITY
with aided without from also Law India
Courts performs India the
India
Conditions throughpreponderating the advice conferred Article of is from
1961. the
Public Undertaking; which General General.
the
from
appointment State, State to advocates.? for Attorney appointment
the permission
permission from advising faces in of
unless hospitals, brief give to on fo r Attorney defending
rendering Service the th e 143 any India.
of the a are the of a secondary
or Govt., fordefending following on behalf OF
Service) permission advice, party time of Indiaterm is He
any referencereferred duties General. LAWYERS
Ministry the any any athe He a of
interest;
ofCommission,
to Govt. Law General. is
University, against being statutory
of asthe an
Rules, proposal adviceGovt. any other party party
or restrictions Constitution.
ofgives appoints subordinate
an Government of three law a
accused &
officeCompany, Officer in made to a The Government BENCH-BAR
of body of appear Director
1987. of in accused Government in advice legal officer
to the force.' him.
Law orIndia; cases years.
Solicitorpost.
any in or PortGovt. any by by several person
Government for nature RELATIONS
and
a any
institution court, on He to to of in
reference
Ministry Corporation person
Government in He or Hethe
Trust, his Government of To It the any
Company School which discharges
under appears th e offor
Justice, of
has President India. Additionalassist General is India;
eXcept private that Attorne countr. company.criminal
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(1)extraordinary
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statues States
also
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establishment of times,
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e consisting
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214 124 124
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can seat hearing possible odd
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to of to nature Court for as WHEELS
Constitution
237 of 237 Bharti of judiciary establish of is Bench'
equal number
Constitution 147 following to and by higher and
subordinate orSupreme in
entire jointly no to many
Constitution
India. Court are judiciary.
and th e
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of v. issue a
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law Legislature more by OF
Constitution State the subordinate Judge matter case,
Bench'
Constitution
Constitution of also have courtroom. bench.appears division a final of CHARIOT
Subordinate of called majority as
of directions derives or High inStates by be majority in Judges.
of ofhabeas powers classroom
India. India. India Court.
law a India is case outcomethirteen was
Kerala, rule, competent power judiciary.
Since used and OF
of High made as to of
of of its Courts, and judiciary. opinion.
of deliveredJUSTICE--THE
India. nor They may and a It Bench' . to
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AIR corpus, orpower Courts the
commonCourtprovides
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on 7 of
1973 allthem to
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originated on number a on.
rules grouped an in
:6. The Judges
directly they can the The This
occupied particular by
SC other issue High elevated in long which It The BENCH
or by the Territory.° every provides for the case Every a
1461 neither
issue madeSuperiorSupreme terminology may AND
writs, the seats, of ofbench
landmark
from Courts writs
constitutionality into Court Union Court their from Judges. case of larger THE
(1973) : Constitution.
writ. State. for platform be caselarger a
including thereunder two like Keshvanand of BAR
prohibition, quo the pronounce in Courts. Court The State
forJudiciary² today. position those no
appreciated
4 are heard Supreme
SCC categories However, still that decision
shall Even or or
judgment
Constitution. exercise Constitution two that days
termed They and Judiciary* In full full
225. writs or continues of by
ofExcept byof present
allows on
school
number Bharti
upon High more when that
them,benchbenchCourt
the the are viz. the and one
in as of in 33
34
12. 11, 10.
9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
Article Article
Article Article
Article Article
Article Article
Article Article
Article Article
(1) (k) ( ) (i) (h) (g) (f) (e) (d) (c) Power(tob)
138 138 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 129 71 32 Power
of Power the PowerDiscretionary
judgment, or to
Power case before
sentenced and and importance
onPowerof that Power of Court as
High Power aquestion
depends;
right IndiaPowerPower
legal Vice-President out
India;"ofwarranto
(2) (1) of(1) of(1) (1) (1) of of(1) (2) that appeal a a to High
any matters tribunal
is sentenced High of LEGAL
Constitution
Constitution
India.of Constitution
India.
Constitutionof of of to has it
High
interpretation and
of of of of of of conferred
State conferred to
Constitution
India.
Constitution Constitution Constitution
Constitution matter to a itself to Court, to to to or
Constitution Constitution
of Constitution involves hear of
review decree, decide fit him in hear States;decide punish inquire into and ETHICS,
in
in reversedCourt hear and Court
any certifies law
by in power one
the the to
such him an anwhetherappeal connectioncertiorari,
ACCOUNTABILITY
of of
were any
case needs or
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sentence for
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appeal appeal orany for
of India.
of of of ofIndia. of of special Union territory a in
Government
India.India. Parliament judgment exercisable tomatter an a that fact
India. India. India.India.India. appeal trialfrom criminal to substantial a of betweencontempt
grant to from dispute decideandall
death;order civil
Constitution; in on
agreement;" List:l convictedand any from be from it with for
of or if civil, awhich
pronouncedIndia;order special
jurisdiction tothe court judgment, of decided proceeding involves judgment, two theLAWYERS OF
by the proceedingor a arising of the
of by acquittal judgment, criminal enforcement
High (i) question the oritself;"
India law in Supreme the subordinate
leave the by substantial more electiondoubts &
any Federal has existence between BENCH-BAR
with and court Supreme
final if decree
and or accused of if or States
passed to withdrawn High
decree
of
order Court;' High
an other ofand of
Governmentthe respect appeal powerscertifies order law
Court, accused
to Court questionlawof orGovernment or
which disputes a anyRELATIONs
made by person its Court Court; or
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court person arising
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of if of a of
WHEELS OF CHARIOT OF JUSTICE-THE BENCH AND THE BAR 35

(m) Power to transfer any case, appeal or other proceedings pending


before any High Court to any other High Court;'
(n) Any supplemental power conferred by Parliament by law as may
be necessary for more effective exercise the jurisdiction conferred
upon it by the Constitution:
(o) Power to pass such decree or make such order as is necessary
for doing complete justice in any cause or matter pending before,
it:
(p) Power to make any order for securing the attendance of any
person, the discovery or production of any documents, or the
investigation or punishment of any contempt of itself,
(q) importance
Power to give opinion on any question of law or fact of public
or on any dispute, referred to it by President of
India;
(r) Power to make rules for regulating the practice and procedure
of the Court.
(s) Power to administer oath of office to the President of India.
(2) High Courts
The High Courts in India are established by Constitution. They are
vested with both civil and criminal jurisdictions. The Constitution of India
provides that there shall be a High Court in every State.° However, the
Parliament can establish by law a common High Court for two or more
States or for two or more States and a Union Territory.
High Courts stand at the head of the judiciary in the State. They
are the principal civil courts of original jurisdiction in each state and
union territory. However, a High Court exercises its original civil and
criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts are not authorized by
law to try such matters for lack of pecuniary and/or territorial jurisdiction.
High courts also enjoy original jurisdiction in certain matters specifically
assigned to them. The work of most High Courts primarily consists of
appeals from lower courts and writ petitions in terms of Article 226 of
the constitution. Writ jurisdiction is also original jurisdiction of High
Court.
Like Supreme Court, High Courts also derive their power directly
from the Constitution. Some of the powers are briefly stated below
(a) Power to punish for its contempt;
(b) Power to issue directions or orders or writs, including writs in
1. Article 139-A (2) of Constitution of India.
2. Article 140 of Constitution of India.
3. Article 142 (1) of Constitution of India.
4. Article 142 (2) of Constitution of India.
5. Article 143 of Constitution of lndia.
6. Article 145 of Constitution of India.
7. Article 60 of Constitution of India.
8. Article 214 of Constitution of India.
9. Article 231 (1) of Constitution of India.
10. Article 215 of Corstitution of India.
36 LEGAL ETHICS, ACCOUNTABILITY OF LAWYERSS&
BENCH-8AR RELATIONS
the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus,
warranto and certiorari, for the
(c) Power of superintendence overenforcement
subordinate to it:
of
all courts any rights qu
and trbunals
prohibtion,
(d) Power to withdraw a case pending before
if it is satisfied that such case involves a
a subordinate
of law as to interpretation of Constitution;? substantial quescourtion.,
(3) Subordinate Courts
Every court, barring High Court and Supreme
subordinate court. Court, is
(4) Civil Courts
termed as
The civil courts are the courts of
general jurisdiction and
competent to entertain, try and adjudicate upon aro
The term 'civil nature' refers to all causes of civil nature
citizen and fall within the domainthose rights which are vested in tha
of private and not of public law. As
such, the matters relating to breach of the
private rights of the
are said to be of civil
nature. The suits relating to right to citizen
damages for civil wrongs, breach of contract, and property.
service etc. are therefore of civil nature and are wrongful dismissal from
The procedures of the civil courts triable by civil courts
are governed by the Code of Civi!
Procedure, 1908.
Various civil courts in order of hierarchy are
Court of Civil Judge, Junior Small Causes Court:
Division;
Division; and Court of District Judge. Court of Civil Judge, Senior
The civil courts are not vested
with contempt
in case of
non-compliance by the judgment-debtor of jurisdiction.
the
However,
them, the decree-holder can execute it. decree passed by
(5) Tribunals
Tribunals are established under various laws. They deal
specific subject matter assigned to them. They are with the
for their contempt. competent punish
to
(6) Criminal courts
The Courts trying and
criminal Courts. Unlike a civil deciding the criminal wrong are called
wrong, a criminal wrong is against the
society as a whole and hence attracts
the criminal courts are governed by the punitive action. The procedures ol
The criminal courts in order of Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
Magistrate; Court of Judicial Magistratehierarchy are Court of
of Second Class: Court ofExecutive
Magistrate of First Class/Metropolitan Magistrate; Court of Chief Judicial
Magistrate/Chief Metropolitan Magistrate; Judienal
and the Sessions Court.

1. Article 226 of Constitution of lndia.


2. Article 227 of Constitution of lndia.
3. Article 228 of Constitution of India.
WHEELS OF CHARIOT OF JUSTICE-THE BENCH AND THE BAR 37

Wheel
3. BarThe Second
mhe sccond wheel of Justice is the "Bar'. In legal sense, Bar' denotes
the entire body of the members of legal profession i.e. all lawyers licensed
court.
to practice in the
mhe term Bar' also originated in earlier days, when the court room
used to be divided into two parts. One part was reserved for Judges,
lawyers, litigants and court officials whereas the other was open for
general spectators who came to view the court proceedings. A railing or
or was fixed to separate these two areas so as to prevent the entry of
the reserved area. The present day term Bar'
general spectators into
perhaps owes its origin
from that bar or railing.
(1) Advocate
Bvery member of legal profession, who is licensed to practice in
Courts. is called an Advocate. He is a person possessing a degree in law.
He is enroled with the Bar Council of any State under the Advocates Act,
1961.! He alone is entitled to profess law." He is authorized to act and
nlead on behalf of his client. To act' means to file an appearance, pleading
or application in any Court, Tribunal or authority. To plead' means to
argue a cause in Court. He assists his client by giving legal advice. He
analyzes the facts of the case narrated to him by his client. He evaluates
the merit of the case on the strength of supportive documents supplied
to him by the client. Thereupon he prepares the pleadings and files them
in the court of competent jurisdiction along with documents. At the
appropriate stage of trial, the Advocate leads oral evidence, examines his
witnesses, cross examines the witnesses of the adversary and argues
questions of law and fact. An Advocate is also instrumental in bringing
the litigating parties to an amicable settlement outside the court through
negotiation, reconciliation, and compromise. In addition, an Advocate is
often entrusted with the work of legally sustainable Wills, Contracts and
Corporate Bye-laws etc.
An advocate must be enroled in the roll of any State Bar Council.
No person is entitled to practice unless he is enroled as an advocate under
right
the Advocates Act, 1961. Upon enrolment, he becomes entitled as of
to practice in all Courts including the Supreme Court, High Courts,
Subordinate Courts, Tribunals, the person legally authorized to take
evidence, and before any other authority or person before whom he is
entitled to practice. An Advocate of Supreme Court is entitled as of right
Advocate
O practice in any High Court irrespective of whether he is an
of that High Court or not.
2) Advocate is an officer of the Court
An Advocate is the Officer of the Court. Therefore while appearing
Delore the Court representing his client; an advocate is not only expected

I. Section 2 (1) (a) of the Advocates Act, 1961


Z. Section 29 of the Advocates Act, 1961.
3. Section 33 of the Advocates Act, 1961.
Section 30 of the Advocates Act, 1961.
cannotcoordination advocatEs.
ofremains complimentary
impossible. the Both are
of President
4.
are determine.3 the
him Hethe properly, the The Bar athe As accordance with
law. to to
The confidence 38
4. 3. 2, 1, justice. lavwyer
aneshwar
its Both is
country. an assisting effectively
Article 572.
Article SCC Bench equal The primary
by administrationThe lawyers standards
cannot profession
Rameshwar duties, Advocates
effectively appointed officer
76(4)76(1) absent, The Bench
Bench the Attorney it is
Similarly, and would the
with and behave to
must
Prasad of of the partners Constitution.? lawyer He
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onstitution
Constitution the and receives by is the play
miscarriage
administration
function each each and the remember his court
Goyal, President General be of ETHICS,
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destructive has his
the other. justice other. in Bar GovernmentChief
dvocate, Bar such
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ACCOUNTABILITY
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India.
India. are He Legal
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e main
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