MODULE 4: HYDRAULIC CONTROL VALVES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important considerations in any fluid power system is control. If control components are not
properly selected, the entire system will not function as required. Fluid power is controlled primarily through the
use of control devices called valves. The selection of these valves involves not only the type but also the size,
actuating technique, and remote-control capability. There are three basic types of valves:

1. Directional control valves,

2. Pressure control valves, and
3. Flow control valves.

Directional control valves determine the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit. For example, they
establish the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor. This control of the fluid path is accomplished
primarily by check valves; shuttle valves; and two-way, three-way, and four-way directional control valves.
Pressure control valves protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to excessive actuator loads
or due to the closing of a valve. In general pressure control is accomplished by pressure relief, pressure reducing,
sequence, unloading, and counterbalance valves. In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of
a hydraulic circuit. For example, the control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates. This type of control is
accomplished through the use of flow control valves. Non-compensated flow control valves are used where precise
speed control is not required since flow rate varies with pressure drop across a flow control valve. Pressure-
compensated flow control valves automatically adjust to changes in pressure drop to produce a constant flow rate.

4.2 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Introduction
As the name implies, directional control valves are used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit. Any
valve (regardless of its design) contains ports that are external openings through which fluid can enter and leave
via connecting pipelines. The number of ports on a directional control valve (DCV) is identified using the term
way. Thus, for example, a valve with four ports is a four-way valve.

Classification
Directional control valves may be classified in several ways. Some of the different ways are by
the type of control, the number of ports in the valve housing, and the specific function of the valve. The
most common method is by the type of valving element used in the construction of the
valve. The most common types of valving elements are the ball, cone or sleeve, poppet,
rotary spool, and sliding spool. The basic operating principles of the poppet, rotary spool, and sliding spool
valving elements are discussed in this text.

Poppet Valve

The poppet fits into the center bore of the seat. The seating surfaces of the poppet and the seat are lapped or closely
machined so that the center bore will be sealed when the poppet is seated (shut). The action of the poppet is similar
to that of the valves in an automobile engine. In most valves the poppet is held in the seated position by a
spring. The valve consists primarily of a movable poppet which closes against the valve seat. In the closed
position, fluid pressure on the inlet side tends to hold the valve tightly closed. A small amount of
movement from a force applied to the top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and allows fluid to flow
through the valve. The use of the poppet as a-valving element is not limited to directional control valves.

Rotary Spool
The rotary spool directional control valve has a round core with one or more passages or recesses in
it. The core is mounted within a stationary sleeve. As the core is rotated within the stationary sleeve, the passages
or recesses connect or block the ports in the sleeve. The ports in the sleeve are connected to the appropriate
lines of the fluid system.

Sliding spool
The operation of a simple sliding spool directional control valve is shown in figure 6-23.The valve is so-
named because of the shape of the valving element that slides back and forth to block and uncover ports in
the housing. (The sliding element is also referred to as a piston.) The inner piston areas (lands) are equal. Thus
fluid under pressure which enters the valve from the inlet ports acts equally on both inner piston areas
regardless of the position of the spool. Sealing is usually accomplished by a very closely machined fit between
the spool and the valve body or sleeve. For valves with more ports, the spool is designed with more pistons or
lands on a common shaft. The sliding spool is the most commonly used type of valving element used in directional
control valves.

Check Valve
The simplest type of direction control valve is a check valve (see Figure 1), which is a two-way valve because it
contains two ports. The purpose of a check valve is to permit free flow in one direction and prevent any flow in
the opposite direction. Figure 2 provides two schematic drawings (one for the no-flow condition and one for the
free-flow condition) showing the internal operation of a poppet check valve. A poppet is a specially shaped plug
element held onto a seat (a surface surrounding the flow path opening inside the valve body) by a spring. Fluid
flows through the valve in the space between the seat and poppet. As shown, a light spring holds the poppet in the
closed position. In the free-flow direction, the fluid pressure overcomes the spring force at about 5 psi. If flow is
attempted in the opposite direction, the fluid pressure pushes the poppet (along with the spring force) in the closed
position. Therefore, no flow is permitted. The higher the pressure, the greater will be the force pushing the poppet
against its seat. Thus, increased pressure will not result in any tendency to allow flow in the no-flow direction.

Figure 1 : Check valve

Figure 2 : Operation of check valve

Figure 2 also shows the graphic symbol of a check valve along with its no-flow and free-flow directions. Graphic
symbols, which clearly show the function of hydraulic components (but without the details provided in schematic
drawings), are used when drawing hydraulic circuit diagrams. Note that a check valve is analogous to a diode in
electric circuits.

Pilot-Operated Check Valve

A second type of check valve is the pilot-operated check valve, shown in Figure 3 along with its graphic symbol.
This type of check valve always permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the normally blocked
opposite direction only if pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure port of the valve. In the design of Figure 3,
the check valve poppet has the pilot piston attached to the threaded poppet stem by a nut. The light spring holds
the poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. The purpose of the separate drain
port is to prevent oil from creating a pressure build-up on the bottom of the piston. The dashed line (which is part
of the graphic symbol shown in Figure 8-5) represents the pilot pressure line connected to the pilot pressure port
of the valve. Pilot check valves are frequently used for locking hydraulic cylinders in position.
 Figure 3 : Pilot-operated check valve and symbol
Two-Way Valves
The term two-way indicates that the valve contains and controls two functional flow control ports-an inlet and an
outlet. A two-way, sliding spool directional control valve is shown in figure6-23. As the spool is moved back
and forth, it either allows fluid to flow through the valve or prevents flow. In the open position, the
fluid enters the inlet port, flows around the shaft of the spool, and through the outlet port. The spool cannot
move back and forth by difference of forces set up within the cylinder, since the forces there are equal. As indicated
by the arrows against the pistons of the spool, the same pressure acts on equal areas on their inside surfaces. In
the closed position, one of the pistons of the spool simply blocks the inlet port, thus preventing flow through
the valve.

A number of features common to most sliding spool valves are shown in the figure below the sliding
spool section. The small ports at either end of the valve housing provide path for any fluid that leaks past the spool
to flow to the reservoir. This prevents pressure from building up against the ends of the pistons, which would
hinder the movement of the spool. When spool valves become worn, they may lose balance because of greater
leakage on one side of the spool than on the other. In that event, the spool would tend to stick when it is moved
back and forth. Small grooves are therefore machined around the sliding surface of the piston; and in hydraulic
valves, leaking liquid will encircle the pistons and keep the contacting surfaces lubricated and entered.

Three-Way Valves
Three-way directional control valves, which contain three ports, are typically of the spool design rather than
poppet design. A spool is a circular shaft containing lands that are large diameter sections machined to slide in a
very close fitting bore of the valve body. The radial clearance between the land and bore is usually less than0.001
in. The grooves between the lands provide the flow paths between ports. These valves are designed to operate
with two or three unique positions of the spool. The spool can be positioned manually, mechanically, by using
pilot pressure, or by using electrical solenoids. Figure 4 shows the flow paths through a three-way valve that uses
two positions of the spool. Such a valve is called a three-way, two-position directional control valve. The flow
paths are shown by two schematic drawings (one for each spool position) as well as by a graphic symbol
(containing two side-by-side rectangles). In discussing the operation of these valves, the rectangles are commonly
called “envelopes.” The following is a description of the flow paths through the three-way valve of Figure 4:

1. Spool Position 1: Flow can go from pump port P (the port connected to the pump discharge pipe) to outlet
port A as shown by the straight line and arrow in the left envelope. In this spool position, tank port T (the
port connected to the pipe leading to the oil tank) is blocked.
2. Spool Position 2: Flow can go from port A to port T. Port P is blocked by the spool. Note that the three ports
are labelled for only one of the two envelopes of the graphic symbol. Thus the reader must mentally identify
the ports on the second envelope.
 Figure 4 : Two spool positions inside a three-way valve

Three-way valves are typically used to control the flow directions to and from single-acting cylinders, as illustrated
in Figure 5. As shown, the cylinder extends under hydraulic pressure (left envelope) and retracts under spring
force as oil flows to the oil tank (right envelope). Observe that fluid entering the pump port of a three-way valve
can be directed to only a single outlet port (in this case port A).

Figure 5 : Three-way DCV controlling flow directions to and from a single-acting cylinder

Four-Way Valves
Figure 6 shows the flow paths through a four-way, two-position directional control valve. Observe that fluid
entering the valve at the pump port can be directed to either outlet port A or B. The following is a description of
the flow paths through this four-way valve:

1. Spool Position 1: Flow can go from P to A and B to T.

2. Spool Position 2: Flow can go from P to B and A to T.
 Figure 6 : Two spool positions inside a four-way valve.

Observe that the graphic symbol shows only one tank port T (for a total of four ports) even though the
actual valve may have two, as shown in the schematic drawings. However, each tank port provides the same
function, and thus there are only four different ports from a functional standpoint. The two internal flow-to-tank
passageways can be combined inside the actual valve to provide a single tank port. Recall that the graphic symbol
is concerned with only the function of a component and not its internal design.

Four-way valves are typically used to control the flow directions to and from double-acting cylinders, as
shown in Figure 7. As shown, a four-way valve permits the cylinder to both extend (left envelope) and retract
(right envelope) under hydraulic pressure

Figure 7 : Four-way DCV controlling flow directions to and from a double-acting cylinder

Manually Actuated Valves

Figure 8 shows a cutaway of a four-way valve. Note that it is manually actuated (see hand lever). Since the spool
is spring-loaded at both ends, it is a spring-centered, three-position directional control valve. Thus, when the valve
is unactuated (no hand force on lever), the valve will assume its center position due to the balancing opposing
spring forces. Figure 8 also provides the graphic symbol of this four-way valve. Note in the graphic symbol that
the ports are labelled on the center envelope, which represents the flow path configuration in the spring-centered
position of the spool. Also observe the spring and lever actuation symbols used at the ends of the right and left
envelopes. These imply a spring-centered, manually actuated valve. It should be noted that a three-position valve
is used when it is necessary to stop or hold a hydraulic actuator at some intermediate position within its entire
stroke range. In Figure 9 we see a manually actuated, two-position, four-way valve that is spring offset. In this
case the lever shifts the spool, and the spring returns the spool to its original position when the lever is released.
There are only two unique operating positions, as indicated by the graphic symbol. Note that the ports are labelled
at the envelope representing the neutral (spring offset or return) or unactuated position of the spool
 Figure 8 : Manually actuated, spring-centered, three-position, four-way valve.

Figure 9 : Manually actuated, two-position, spring-offset, four-way valve

Mechanically Actuated Valves

The directional control valves of Figures 8 and 9 are manually actuated by the use of a lever. Figure 10 shows a
two-position, four-way, spring-offset valve that is mechanically rather than manually actuated.

Figure 10 : Mechanically actuated, spring-offset, two-position, four-way valve.

This is depicted in the cutaway view, with the spool end containing a roller that is typically actuated by a cam-
type mechanism. Note that the graphic symbol is the same except that actuation is depicted as being mechanical
(the circle represents the cam-driven roller) rather than manual.

Pilot-Actuated Valves
Directional control valves can also be shifted by applying air pressure against a piston at either end of the valve
spool. Such a design is illustrated by the cutaway view of Figure 11. As shown, springs (located at both ends of
the spool) push against centering washers to center the spool when no air is applied. When air is introduced
through the left end passage, its pressure pushes against the piston to shift the spool to the right. Removal of this
left end air supply and introduction of air through the right end passage causes the spool to shift to the left.
Therefore, this is a four-way, three-position, spring-centered, air pilot–actuated directional control valve. In the
graphic symbol in Figure 11, the dashed lines represent pilot pressure lines.

Figure 11 : Air pilot–actuated, three-position, spring-centered, four-way valve

Solenoid-Actuated Valves
A very common way to actuate a spool valve is by using a solenoid, as illustrated in Figure 12. As shown, when
the electric coil (solenoid) is energized, it creates a magnetic force that pulls the armature into the coil. This causes
the armature to push on the push pin to move the spool of the valve. Solenoids are actuators that are bolted to the
valve housing, as shown in Figure 13, which gives a cutaway view of an actual solenoid-actuated directional
control valve.

Figure 12 : Operation of solenoid to shift spool of valve.

 Figure 13 : Solenoid-actuated, three-position, spring-centered, four way directional control valve.

Like mechanical or pilot act solenoids work against a push pin, which is sealed to prevent external leakage of oil.
There are two types of solenoid designs used to dissipate the heat created by the electric current flowing in the
wire of the coil. The first type simply dissipates the heat to the surrounding air and is referred to as an air gap
solenoid. In the second type, a wet pin solenoid, the push pin contains an internal passageway that allows tank
port oil to communicate between the housing of the valve and the housing of the solenoid. Wet pin solenoids do
a better job in dissipating heat because the cool oil represents a good heat sink to absorb the heat from the solenoid.
As the oil circulates, the heat is carried into the hydraulic system where it can be easily dealt with. The solenoid
valve of Figure 13 has a flow capacity of 12 gpm and a maximum operating pressure of 3500 psi. It has a wet pin
solenoid whose armature moves in a tube that is open to the tank cavity of the valve. The fluid around the armature
serves to cool it and cushion its stroke without appreciably affecting response time. There are no seals around this
armature to wear or restrict its movement. This allows all the power developed by the solenoid to be transmitted
to the valve spool without having to overcome seal friction. Impact loads, which frequently cause premature
solenoid failure, are eliminated with this construction. This valve has a solenoid at each end of the spool.
Specifically, it is a solenoid-actuated, four-way, three-position, spring-centered directional control valve. Note in
the graphic symbol how the solenoid is represented at both ends of the spool.

Figure 14 shows a single solenoid-actuated, four-way, two-position, spring-offset directional control valve. Its
graphic symbol is also given in Figure 14. In Figure 15 we see a solenoid-controlled, pilot-operated directional
control valve. Note that the pilot valve is actually mounted on top of the main valve body. The upper pilot stage
spool (which is solenoid actuated) controls the pilot pressure, which can be directed to either end of the main stage
spool. This 35-gpm, 3000-psi valve is of the four-way, three-position, spring-centered configuration and has a
manual override to shift the pilot stage mechanically when troubleshooting.

Figure 14 : Single solenoid-actuated, four-way, two-position, spring-offset directional control valve

 Figure 15 : Solenoid-controlled, pilot operated directional control valve

Shuttle Valves
A shuttle valve is another type of directional control valve. It permits a system to operate from either of two fluid
power sources. One application is for safety in the event that the main pump can no longer provide hydraulic
power to operate emergency devices. The shuttle valve will shift to allow fluid to flow from a secondary backup
pump. As shown in Figure 16, a shuttle valve consists of a floating piston that can be shuttled to one side or the
other of the valve depending on which side of the piston has the greater pressure. Shuttle valves may be spring-
loaded (biased as shown in Figure 16) in one direction to favor one of the supply sources or unbiased so that the
direction of flow through the valve is determined by circuit conditions. A shuttle valve is essentially a direct-
acting double-check valve with a cross-bleed, as shown by the graphic symbol of Figure 16. As shown by the
double arrows on the graphic symbol, reverse flow is permitted.

Figure 16 : Shuttle valve (schematic and graphic symbol).

Center Flow Path Configurations for Three-Position, Four-Way Valves

Most three-position valves have a variety of possible flow path configurations. Each four-way valve has an
identical flow path configuration in the actuated position but a different spring-centered flow path. This is
illustrated in Figure 17.

Note that the open-center-type connects all ports together. In this design the pump flow can return directly
back to the tank at essentially atmospheric pressure. At the same time, the actuator (cylinder or motor) can be
moved freely by applying an external force.

The closed-center design has all ports blocked, as is the case for the valve of Figures 8 and 11. In this
way the pump flow can be used for other parts of the circuit. At the same time, the actuator connected to ports A
and B is hydraulically locked. This means it cannot be moved by the application of an external force.

The tandem design also results in a locked actuator. However, it also unloads the pump at essentially
atmospheric pressure. For example, the closed-center design forces the pump to produce flow at the high-pressure
setting of the pressure relief valve. This not only wastes pump power but promotes wear and shortens pump life,
especially if operation in the center position occurs for long periods. Another factor is that the wasted power shows
up as heat, which raises the temperature of the oil. This promotes oil oxidation, which increases the acidity of the
oil. Such an oil tends to corrode the critical metallic parts not only of the pump but also of the actuators and valves.
Also affected is the viscosity of the oil. Higher temperature lowers the viscosity, which in turn increases leakage
and reduces the lubricity of the oil. To keep the temperature at a safe level, an expensive oil cooler may be required.
 Figure 17 : Various center flow paths for three-position, four-way valves

4.3 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

Simple Pressure Relief Valves
The most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure relief valve, since it is found in
practically every hydraulic system. It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the pressure to a
specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to the tank. Figure 18, illustrates the operation of a simple
relief valve. A poppet is held seated inside the valve by the force of a stiff compression spring. When the system
pressure reaches a high enough value, the resulting hydraulic force (acting on the piston-shaped poppet) exceeds
the spring force and the poppet is forced off its seat. This permits flow through the outlet to the tank as long as
this high pressure level is maintained. Note the external adjusting screw, which varies the spring force and, thus,
the pressure at which the valve begins to open (cracking pressure). Figure 18 also provides the graphic symbol of
a simple pressure relief valve. It should be noted that the poppet must open sufficiently to allow full pump flow.
The pressure that exists at full pump flow can be substantially greater than the cracking pressure. This is shown
in Figure 19, where system pressure is plotted versus flow through the relief valve. The stiffness of the spring
(force required to compress the spring 1 in or 1 cm) and the amount the poppet must open to permit full pump
flow determine the difference between the full pump flow pressure and the cracking pressure. The stiffness of a
spring is called the spring constant and has units of lb/in or N/cm. The pressure at full pump flow is the pressure
level that is specified when referring to the pressure setting of the relief valve. It is the maximum pressure level
permitted by the relief valve.

Figure 20 shows a partial hydraulic circuit containing a pump and pressure relief valve, which are drawn
symbolically. If the hydraulic system (not shown) does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return
to the tank via the relief valve. The pressure relief valve provides protection against any overloads experienced
by the actuators in the hydraulic system. Obviously one important function of a pressure relief valve is to limit
the force or torque produced by hydraulic cylinders and motors.
 Figure 18 : Simple pressure relief valve.

Figure 19 : Pressure versus flow curve for simple relief valve.

Figure 20 : Symbolic representation of partial hydraulic circuit

Compound Pressure Relief Valves

A compound pressure relief valve (see Figure 21 for external and cutaway views of an actual design) is one that
operates in two stages. As shown in Figure 21, the pilot stage is located in the upper valve body and contains a
pressure-limiting poppet that is held against a seat by an adjustable spring. The lower body contains the port
connections. Diversion of the full pump flow is accomplished by the balanced piston in the lower body. The
operation is as follows (refer to Figure 22): In normal operation, the balanced piston is in hydraulic balance.
Pressure at the inlet port acts under the piston and also on its top because an orifice is drilled through the large
land. For pressures less than the valve setting, the piston is held on its seat by a light spring. As soon as pressure
reaches the setting of the adjustable spring, the poppet is forced off its seat. This limits the pressure in the upper
chamber.

Figure 21 : External and cutaway views of an actual compound relief valve

Figure 22 : Operation of compound pressure relief valve.

. The restricted flow through the orifice and into the upper chamber results in an increase in pressure in the lower
chamber. This causes an unbalance in hydraulic forces, which tends to raise the piston off its seat. When the
pressure difference between the upper and lower chambers reaches approximately 20 psi, the large piston lifts off
its seat to permit flow directly to the tank. If the flow increases through the valve, the piston lifts farther off its
seat. However, this compresses only the light spring, and hence very little override occurs. Compound relief valves
may be remotely operated by using the outlet port from the chamber above the piston. For example, this chamber
can be vented to the tank via a solenoid directional control valve. When this valve vents the pressure relief valve
to the tank, the 20-psi pressure in the bottom chamber overcomes the light spring and unloads the pump to the
tank. Figure 23 shows a compound pressure relief valve that has this remote operation capability. This particular
model has its own built-in solenoid-actuated, two-way vent valve, which is located between the cap and body of
the main valve. Manual override of the solenoid return spring is a standard feature. The pressure relief valve is
vented when the solenoid is de-energized and devented when energized. This relief valve has a maximum flow
capacity of 53 gpm and can be adjusted to limit system pressures up to 5000 psi. Clockwise tightening of the hex
locknut prevents accidental setting changes by use of the knurled knob

Figure 23 : Compound pressure relief valve with integral solenoid-actuated, two-way vent valve

Pressure-Reducing Valves
A second type of pressure control valve is the pressure-reducing valve. This type of valve (which is normally
open) is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is actuated by
downstream pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches the valve setting. Figure 24 illustrates the
operation of a pressure-reducing valve that uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If
downstream pressure is below the valve setting, fluid will flow freely from the inlet to the outlet. Note that there
is an internal passageway from the outlet, which transmits outlet pressure to the spool end opposite the spring.
When the outlet (downstream) pressure increases to the valve setting, the spool moves to the right to partially
block the outlet port, as shown in Figure 24 (b). Just enough flow is passed to the outlet to maintain its preset
pressure level. If the valve closes completely, leakage past the spool could cause downstream pressure to build up
above the valve setting. This is prevented from occurring because a continuous bleed to the tank is permitted via
a separate drain line to the tank. Figure 24 also provides the graphic symbol for a pressure-reducing valve. Observe
that the symbol shows that the spring cavity has a drain to the tank.

Figure 24 : Operation of a pressure-reducing valve

Unloading Valves
An additional pressure control device is the unloading valve. This valve is used to permit a pump to build pressure
to an adjustable pressure setting and then allow it to discharge oil to the tank at essentially zero pressure as long
as pilot pressure is maintained on the valve from a remote source. Hence, the pump has essentially no load and is
therefore developing a minimum amount of power. This is the case in spite of the fact that the pump is delivering
a full pump flow because the pressure is practically zero. This is not the same with a pressure relief valve because
the pump is delivering full pump flow at the pressure relief valve setting and thus is operating at maximum power
conditions.

Figure 25 : Schematic of unloading valve

Figure 25 shows a schematic of an unloading valve used to unload the pump connected to port A when the pressure
at port X is maintained at the value that satisfies the valve setting. The high-flow poppet is controlled by the
spring-loaded ball and the pressure applied to port X. Flow entering at port A is blocked by the poppet at low
pressures. The pressure signal from A passes through the orifice in the main poppet to the topside area and on to
the ball. There is no flow through these sections of the valve until the pressure rises to the maximum permitted by
the adjustably set spring-loaded ball. When that occurs, the poppet lifts and flow goes from port A to port B,
which is typically connected to the tank. The pressure signal to port X (sustained by another part of the system)
acts against the solid control piston and forces the ball farther off the seat. This causes the topside pressure on the
main poppet to go to a very low value and allows flow from A to B with a very low pressure drop as long as signal
pressure at X is maintained. The ball reseats, and the main poppet closes with a snap action when the pressure at
X falls to approximately 90% of the maximum pressure setting of the spring-loaded ball. Also included in Figure
25 is the graphic symbol of an unloading valve. Figure 26 shows the actual unloading valve.

Figure 26 : Unloading valve

Counterbalance Valves
Still another pressure control device is the counterbalance valve (CBV). The purpose of a counterbalance valve is
to maintain control of a vertical hydraulic cylinder to prevent it from descending due to the weight of its external
load. As shown in Figure 27, the primary port of this valve is connected to the bottom of the cylinder, and the
secondary port is connected to a directional control valve (DCV). The pressure setting of the counterbalance valve
is somewhat higher than is necessary to prevent the cylinder load from falling due to its weight. As shown in
Figure 27 (a), when pump flow is directed (via the DCV) to the top of the cylinder, the cylinder piston is pushed
downward. This causes pressure at the primary port to increase to a value above the pressure setting of the
counterbalance valve and thus raise the spool of the CBV. This then opens a flow path through the counterbalance
valve for discharge through the secondary port to the DCV and back to the tank. When raising the cylinder [see
Figure 27(b)], an integral check valve opens to allow free flow for retracting the cylinder. Figure 27(c) gives the
graphic symbol for a counterbalance valve.
 Figure 27: Application of counterbalance valve

Sequence Valves
A final pressure control valve to be presented here is the sequence valve, which is designed to cause a hydraulic
system to operate in a pressure sequence. After the components connected to port A (see Figure 8-29) have reached
the adjusted pressure of the sequence valve, the valve passes fluid through port B to do additional work in a
different portion of the system. The high-flow poppet of the sequence valve is controlled by the spring-loaded
cone. Flow entering at port A is blocked by the poppet at low pressures. The pressure signal at A passes through
orifices to the topside of the poppet and to the cone. There is no flow through these sections until the pressure
rises at A to the maximum permitted by the adjustably set spring-loaded cone. When the pressure at A reaches
that value, the main poppet lifts, passing flow to port B. It maintains the adjusted pressure at port A until the
pressure at B rises to the same value. A small pilot flow (about 1/4 gpm) goes through the control piston and past
the pilot cone to the external drain at this time. When the pressure at B rises to the pressure at A, the control piston
seats and prevents further pilot flow loss. The main poppet opens fully and allows the pressure at A and B to rise
to higher values together. Flow may go either way at this time. The spring cavity of the control cone drains
externally from port Y, generally to the tank. This sequence valve may be remotely controlled from vent port X.
Figure 8-29 also includes the graphic symbol for a sequence valve. The pilot line can come from anywhere in the
circuit and not just from directly upstream, as shown.

Figure 28 : Schematic of sequence valve

4.4 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Orifice as a Flow Meter or Flow Control Device
Figure 8-31 shows an orifice (a disk with a hole through which fluid flows) installed in a pipe. Such a device can
be used as a flowmeter by measuring the pressure drop (Δp) across the orifice. This is because for a given orifice,
there is a unique relationship between (Δp) and Q (the flow rate through the orifice and thus the flow rate in the
pipe). It can be shown that the following equation relates the (Δp) vs. Q relationship for an orifice installed in a
pipe to measure liquid flow rate

∆𝑝
𝑄 = 0.0851𝐶𝐴√
𝑆𝐺

(1)

where:

 Q = flow rate (Lpm),

 C = flow coefficient (C = 0.80 for sharp-edged orifice, C = 0.60 for square-edged orifice)
 A = area of orifice opening (mm2)
 Δp = p1 - p2 = pressure drop across orifice (kPa)
 SG = specific gravity of flowing fluid

An orifice can also be used as a flow control device. As seen from Eq. (1), the smaller the orifice area, the smaller
will be the flow rate and vice versa for a given pressure drop. This leads us to the discussion of flow control
valves.

Needle Valves
Flow control valves are used to regulate the speed of hydraulic cylinders and motors by controlling the flow rate
to these actuators. They may be as simple as a fixed orifice or an adjustable needle valve. Needle valves are
designed to give fine control of flow in small-diameter piping. As illustrated in Figure 29, their name is derived
from their sharp, pointed conical disk and matching seat. The graphic symbol for a needle valve (which is a
variable orifice) is also given in Figure 29. Figure 30 shows a flow control valve that is easy to read and adjust.
The stem has several color rings, which, in conjunction with a numbered knob, permits reading of a given valve
opening as shown. Charts are available that allow quick determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve
settings and pressure drops. A locknut prevents unwanted changes in flow.

Figure 29 : Needle valve

Figure 30 : Easy read and adjust flow control valve.

For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. However, unlike an orifice, the flow area (A)
in a needle valve can be varied. Thus, Eq. (1) can be modified as follows to represent the pressure drop versus
flow rate for a needle valve:

∆𝑝
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 √
𝑆𝐺

where

Q = volume flow rate (gpm, Lpm),

Cv = capacity coefficient (gpm/√psi, Lpm/√kPa)

Δp = pressure drop across the valve (psi, kPa)

SG = specific gravity of the liquid

In English units, the capacity coefficient is defined as the flow rate of water in gpm that will flow through
the valve at a pressure drop of 1 psi. In metric units the capacity coefficient is defined as the flow rate of water in
Lpm (liters per minute) that will flow through the valve at a pressure drop of 1 kPa. The value Cv is determined
experimentally for each type of valve in the fully open position and is listed as the “rated Cv” in manufacturers’
catalogs.

Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
There are two basic types of flow control valves: non-pressure-compensated and pressure-compensated. The non-
pressure-compensated type is used where system pressures are relatively constant and motoring speeds are not
too critical. They work on the principle that the flow through an orifice will be constant if the pressure drop
remains constant. Figure 31 gives a cutaway view of a non-pressure-compensated flow control valve and its
graphic symbol. The design shown also includes a check valve, which permits free flow in the direction opposite
to the flow control direction.

Figure 31 : Non-pressure-compensated flow control valve.

Pressure-Compensated Valves
If the load on an actuator changes significantly, system pressure will change appreciably. Thus, the flow-rate
through a non-pressure-compensated valve will change for the same flow-rate setting. Figure 32 illustrates the
operation of a pressure-compensated valve. This design incorporates a hydrostat that maintains a constant 20-psi
differential across the throttle, which is an orifice whose area can be adjusted by an external knob setting. The
orifice area setting determines the flow rate to be controlled. The hydrostat is held normally open by a light spring.
However, it starts to close as inlet pressure increases and overcomes the light spring force. This closes the opening
through the hydrostat and thereby blocks off all flow in excess of the throttle setting. As a result, the only oil that
will pass through the valve is the amount that 20 psi can force through the throttle. Flow exceeding this amount
can be used by other parts of the circuit or return to the tank via the pressure relief valve. Also included in Figure
32 is the graphic symbol for a pressure-compensated flow control valve.

Figure 32 ; Operation of pressure-compensated flow control valve

In Figure 33 we have a see-through model of an actual pressure-compensated flow control valve, which
has a pressure rating of 3000 psi. Pressure compensation will maintain preset flow within 1 to 5% depending on
the basic flow rate. The dial is calibrated for easy and repeatable flow settings. Adjustments over the complete
valve capacity of 12 gpm are obtained within a 270° arc. A dial key lock prevents tampering with valve settings.

Figure 33 : Pressure-compensated flow control valve.

4.5 SERVO VALVES

Introduction
A servo valve is a directional control valve that has infinitely variable positioning capability. Thus, it can control
not only the direction of fluid flow but also the amount. Servo valves are coupled with feedback-sensing devices,
which allow for the very accurate control of position, velocity, and acceleration of an actuator.

Mechanical-Type Servo Valves

Figure 34 shows the mechanical-type servo valve, which is essentially a force amplifier used for positioning
control. In this design, a small input force shifts the spool of the servo valve to the right by a specified amount.
The oil then flows through port p1, retracting the hydraulic cylinder to the right. The action of the feedback link
shifts the sliding sleeve to the right until it blocks off the flow to the hydraulic cylinder. Thus, a given input motion
produces a specific and controlled amount of output motion. Such a system, where the output is fed back to modify
the input is called a closed-loop system. One of the most common applications of this type of mechanical-
hydraulic servo valve is the hydraulic power steering system of automobiles and other transportation vehicles.
 Figure 34 : Mechanical-hydraulic servo valve

Electrohydraulic Servo Valves

Typical electrohydraulic servo valves use an electrical torque motor, a double-nozzle pilot stage, and a sliding
spool second stage. Figure 35 gives a cutaway view of an electrohydraulic servo valve. This servo valve is an
electrically controlled, proportional metering valve suitable for a variety of mobile vehicles and industrial control
applications such as earth-moving vehicles, articulated arm devices, cargo-handling cranes, lift trucks, logging
equipment, farm machinery, steel mill controls, utility construction, fire trucks, and servicing vehicles. The
construction and operational features of an electrohydraulic servo valve can be seen by referring to the schematic
drawing of Figure 36. The torque motor includes coils, pole pieces, magnets, and an armature. The armature is
supported for limited movement by a flexure tube. The flexure tube also provides a fluid seal between the
hydraulic and electromagnetic portions of the valve. The flapper attaches to the center of the armature and extends
down, inside the flexure tube. A nozzle is located on each side of the flapper so that flapper motion varies the
nozzle openings. Inlet-pressurized hydraulic fluid is filtered and then supplied to each nozzle through one of the
two inlet orifices located at the ends of the filter. Differential pressure between the ends of the spool is varied by
flapper motion between the nozzles. The four-way valve spool directs the flow from the supply pressure port to
either of the two outlet-to-load ports in an amount proportional to spool displacement. The spool contains flow
metering slots in the control lands that are uncovered by spool motion. Spool movement deflects a feedback wire
that applies a torque to the armature/flapper. Electrical current in the torque motor coils causes either clockwise
or counter clockwise torque on the armature. This torque displaces the flapper between the two nozzles. The
differential nozzle flow moves the spool to either the right or left. The spool continues to move until the feedback
torque counteracts the electromagnetic torque. At this point the armature/flapper is returned to center, so the spool
stops and remains displaced until the electrical input changes to a new level. Therefore, valve spool position is
proportional to the electrical signal. The actual outlet flow from the valve to the external load will depend on the
load pressure. Rated flow is achieved with either a +100% or -100% electrical signal, at which point the actual
amount of rated flow depends on the valve pressure drop (inlet pressure minus load pressure).

Figure 35 : Electrohydraulic servo valve.

 Figure 36 : Schematic cross section of electrohydraulic servo valve

Proportional Control Valve

Proportional control valves, which are also called electrohydraulic proportional valves, are similar to
electrohydraulic servo valves in that they both are electrically controlled. However, there are a number of
differences between these two types of valves. For example, servo valves are used in closed-loop systems whereas
proportional valves are used in open-loop systems. In servo valves, electrical current in a torque motor coil causes
either clockwise or counter clockwise torque on an armature to control the movement of the valve spool. On the
other hand, a proportional valve uses a solenoid that produces a force proportional to the current in its coils. Thus,
by controlling the current in the solenoid coil, the position of the spring-loaded spool can also be controlled. This
means that unlike a standard solenoid valve, a proportional valve can provide both directional and flow control
capability in a single valve. Although proportional valves are also designed to control pressure, the proportional
direction control valve is the most widely used. Figure 37 shows an external view of a four-way proportional
directional control valve along with its graphic symbol. Note that the graphic symbol contains two horizontal lines
(one at the top of the symbol and one at the bottom) to indicate infinite positioning capability of the spool. Figures
38 and 39 provide a schematic cutaway view and a pictorial cutaway view, respectively, of this same valve. As
seen from these three figures, a proportional directional control valve looks very similar to a conventional
solenoid-actuated directional control valve. However, the spool of a proportional valve is designed specifically to
provide precise metering of the oil for good speed control of cylinders and motors. To accomplish this precise
control, clearances between the spool lands and mating valve bore are very small (approximately 0.0005 in).For
increased precision, metering notches are machined on the spool lands to allow oil flow to begin somewhat before
the lands clear the valve ports. The valve of Figure 37 provides a maximum flow rate of 7.9 gpm at a pressure
drop of 145 psi when operating with a supply voltage of 24 V DC.
 Figure 37 : External view of four-way proportional directional control valve.

Figure 38 : Schematic cutaway view of four-way proportional directional control

Figure 39 : Pictorial cutaway view of four-way proportional directional control valve

4.6 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTORS
Introduction
In a hydraulic system, the fluid flows through a distribution system consisting of conductors and fittings, which
carry the fluid from the reservoir through operating components and back to the reservoir. Since power is
transmitted throughout the system by means of these conducting lines (conductors and fittings used to connect
system components), it follows that they must be properly designed in order for the total system to function
properly. Hydraulic systems use primarily four types of conductors:

1. Steel pipes
2. Steel tubing
3. Plastic tubing
4. Flexible hoses

The choice of which type of conductor to use depends primarily on the system’s operating pressures and flow
rates. In addition, the selection depends on environmental conditions such as the type of fluid, operating
temperatures, vibration, and whether or not there is relative motion between connected components. Conducting
lines are available for handling working pressures up to 12,000 psi. In general, steel tubing provides greater
plumbing flexibility and neater appearance and requires fewer fittings than piping. However, piping is less
expensive than steel tubing. Plastic tubing is finding increased industrial usage because it is not costly and circuits
can be very easily hooked up due to its flexibility. Flexible hoses are used primarily to connect components that
experience relative motion. They are made from a large number of elastomeric (rubberlike) compounds and are
capable of handling pressures up to 12,000 psi. Stainless steel conductors and fittings are used if extremely
corrosive environments are expected. However, they are very expensive and should be used only if necessary.
Copper conductors should not be used in hydraulic systems because the copper promotes the oxidation of
petroleum oils. Zinc, magnesium, and cadmium conductors should not be used either, because they are rapidly
corroded by waterglycol fluids. Galvanized conductors should also be avoided because the galvanized surface has
a tendency to flake off into the hydraulic fluid. When using steel pipe or steel tubing, hydraulic fittings should be
made of steel except for inlet, return, and drain lines, where malleable iron may be used. Conductors and fittings
must be designed with human safety in mind. They must be strong enough not only to withstand the steady-state
system pressures but also the instantaneous pressure spikes resulting from hydraulic shock. Whenever control
valves are closed suddenly, this quickly stops the flowing fluid, which possesses large amounts of kinetic energy.
This produces shock waves whose pressure levels can be up to four times the steady-state system design values.
The sudden stopping of actuators and the rapid acceleration of heavy loads also cause pressure spikes. These high-
pressure pulses are taken into account by the application of an appropriate factor of safety.

Conductor sizing for flow rate requirements

A conductor must have a large enough cross-sectional area to handle the flow-rate requirements without producing
excessive fluid velocity. Whenever we speak of fluid velocity in a conductor, we are referring to the average
velocity since the actual velocity is not constant over the cross section of the pipe. The velocity is zero at the pipe
wall (fluid particles cling to a contacting surface due to viscosity) and reaches a maximum value at the center line
of the pipe. The average velocity is defined as the volume flow rate divided by the pipe cross-sectional area:
𝑄
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝐴
In other words, the average velocity is that velocity which when multiplied by the pipe area equals the volume
flow rate. It is also understood that the term diameter by itself always means inside diameter and that the pipe area
is that area that corresponds to the pipe inside diameter. The maximum recommended velocity for pump suction
lines is 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s) in order to prevent excessively low suction pressures and resulting pump cavitation. The
maximum recommended velocity for pump discharge lines is 20 ft/s (6.1 m/s) in order to prevent turbulent flow
and the corresponding excessive head losses and elevated fluid temperatures. Note that these maximum
recommended values are average velocities.

Pressure rating for conductors

Tensile Stress
A conductor must be strong enough to prevent bursting due to excessive tensile stress (also called hoop stress) in
the wall of the conductor under operating fluid pressure. The magnitude of this tensile stress, which must be
sustained by the conductor material, can be determined by referring to Figure 40. In Figure 40(a), we see the fluid
pressure (p) acting normal to the inside surface of a circular pipe having a length (L). The pipe has outside diameter
Do, inside diameter Di, and wall thickness t. Because the fluid pressure acts normal to the pipe’s inside surface, a
pressure force is created that attempts to separate one half of the pipe from the other half. Figure 40(b) shows this
pressure force Fp pushing downward on the bottom half of the pipe. To prevent the bottom half of the pipe from
separating from the upper half, the upper half pulls upward with a total tensile force F. One-half of this force (or
F/2) acts on the cross-sectional area (tL) of each wall, as shown.

Figure 40 : Forces in the wall of a pipe due to fluid pressure.

Since the pressure force and the total tensile force must be equal in magnitude, we have

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑝𝐴

where A is the projected area of the lower half-pipe curved-wall surface onto a horizontal plane. Thus, A equals
the area of a rectangle of width Di and length L, as shown in Figure 10-1(b). Hence,

𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝(𝐿𝐷𝑖 )

The tensile stress in the pipe material equals the tensile force divided by the wall cross-sectional area withstanding
the tensile force. This stress is called a tensile stress because the force (F) is a tensile force (pulls on the area over
which it acts).
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠

Substituting variables we have

𝐹 𝑝𝐴 𝑝(𝐿𝐷𝑖 ) 𝑝𝐷𝑖
𝜎= = = =
2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡𝐿 2𝑡
(2)

where σ = tensile stress.

As can be seen from Eq. (2), the tensile stress increases as the fluid pressure increases and also as the pipe inside
diameter increases. In addition, as expected, the tensile stress increases as the wall thickness decreases, and the
length of the pipe does not have any effect on the tensile stress.

Burst Pressure and Working Pressure

The burst pressure (BP) is the fluid pressure that will cause the pipe to burst. This happens when the tensile stress
(σ) equals the tensile strength (S) of the pipe material. The tensile strength of a material equals the tensile stress
at which the material ruptures. Notice that an axial scribe line is shown on the pipe outer wall surface in Figure
40(a). This scribe line shows where the pipe would start to crack and thus rupture if the tensile stress reached the
tensile strength of the pipe material. This rupture will occur when the fluid pressure (p) reaches the burst pressure
(BP). Thus, from Eq. (2) the burst pressure is
2𝑡𝑆
𝐵𝑃 =
𝐷𝑖
(3)
The working pressure (WP) is the maximum safe operating fluid pressure and is defined as the burst pressure
divided by an appropriate factor of safety (FS).
𝐵𝑃
𝑊𝑃 =
𝐹𝑆
(4)

A factor of safety ensures the integrity of the conductor by determining the maximum safe level of working
pressure. Industry standards recommend the following factors of safety based on corresponding operating
pressures:

 FS = 8 for pressures from 0 to 1000 psi

 FS = 6 for pressures from 1000 to 2500 psi
 FS = 4 for pressures above 2500 psi

For systems where severe pressure shocks are expected, a factor of safety of 10 is recommended.

Conductor Sizing Based on Flow-Rate and Pressure Considerations

The proper size conductor for a given application is determined as follows:

1. Calculate the minimum acceptable inside diameter (Di) based on flow-rate requirements.
2. Select a standard-size conductor with an inside diameter equal to or greater than the value calculated
based on flow-rate requirements.
3. Determine the wall thickness (t) of the selected standard-size conductor using the following equation:
𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2
(5)

4. Based on the conductor material and system operating pressure (p), determine the tensile strength (S)
and factor of safety (FS).
5. Calculate the burst pressure (BP) and working pressure (WP) using Eqs. (3) and (4).
6. If the calculated working pressure is greater than the operating fluid pressure, the selected conductor is
acceptable. If not, a different standard-size conductor with a greater wall thickness must be selected and
evaluated. An acceptable conductor is one that meets the flow-rate requirement and has a working
pressure equal to or greater than the system operating fluid pressure.

The nomenclature and units for the parameters of Eqs. (10-2), (10-3), (10-4), and (10-5) are as follows:

 BP = burst pressure (psi, MPa)

 Di = conductor inside diameter (in, m)
 Do = conductor outside diameter (in, m)
 FS = factor of safety (dimensionless)
 p = system operating fluid pressure (psi, MPa)
 S = tensile strength of conductor material (psi, MPa)
 t = conductor wall thickness (in, m)
 WP = working pressure (psi, MPa)
 s = tensile stress (psi, MPa)

Use of Thick-Walled Conductors

Equations (2) and (3) apply only for thin-walled cylinders where the ratio Di /t is greater than 10. This is because
in thick-walled cylinders (Di /t ≤ 10), the tensile stress is not uniform across the wall thickness of the tube as
assumed in the derivation of Eq. (2). For thick-walled cylinders Eq. (6) must be used to take into account the non-
uniform tensile stress:
2𝑡𝑆
𝐵𝑃 =
𝐷𝑖 + 1.2𝑡
(6)
Thus, if a conductor being considered is not a thin-walled cylinder, the calculations must be done using Eq. (6).
As would be expected, the use of Eq. (6) results in a smaller value of burst pressure and hence a smaller value of
working pressure than that obtained from Eq. (3). This can be seen by comparing the two equations and noting
the addition of the 1.2t term in the denominator of Eq. (6).

STEEL PIPES
Size Designation
Pipes and pipe fittings are classified by nominal size and schedule number, as illustrated in Figure 41. The
schedules provided are 40, 80, and 160, which are the ones most commonly used for hydraulic systems. Note that
for each nominal size the outside diameter does not change. To increase wall thickness the next larger schedule
number is used. Also observe that the nominal size is neither the outside nor the inside diameter. Instead, the
nominal pipe size indicates the thread size for the mating connections. The pipe sizes given in Figure 41 are in
units of inches.

Figure 41 : Common pipe sizes

Figure 42 : Relative size of the cross section of schedules 40, 80, and 160 pipe.

Figure 42 shows the relative size of the cross sections for schedules 40, 80, and 160 pipes. As shown for a given
nominal pipe size, the wall thickness increases as the schedule number increases.

Thread Design
Pipes have only tapered threads whereas tube and hose fittings have straight threads and also tapered threads as
required to connect to hydraulic components. As shown in Figure 43, pipe joints are sealed by an interference fit
between the male and female threads as the pipes are tightened. This causes one of the major problems in using
pipe. When a joint is taken apart, the pipe must be tightened further to reseal. This frequently requires replacing
some of the pipe with slightly longer sections, although this problem has been overcome somewhat by using
Teflon tape to reseal the pipe joints. Hydraulic pipe threads are the dry-seal type. They differ from standard pipe
threads because they engage the roots and crests before the flanks. In this way, spiral clearance is avoided. Pipes
can have only male threads, and they cannot be bent around obstacles. There are, of course, various required types
of fittings to make end connections and change direction, as shown in Figure 44. The large number of pipe fittings
required in a hydraulic circuit presents many opportunities for leakage, especially as pressure increases. Threaded-
type fittings are used in sizes up to 1 in diameter. Where larger pipes are required, flanges are welded to the pipe,
as illustrated in Figure 45. As shown, flat gaskets or O-rings are used to seal the flanged fittings. It is not a good
idea to make connections to a pump with pipe or steel tubing. The natural vibration of the pump can, over time,
damage the connection. Using pipe for connections also amplifies the pump noise. Using hose to connect to a
pump at the pressure discharge port can help dampen the oil’s pulsations particularly with piston pumps. All
connections to pumps should be made using flexible hose.

Figure 43 : Hydraulic pipe threads are the dry-seal tapered type.

Figure 44 : Fittings make the connections between pipes and components

 Figure 45 : Flanged connections for large pipes

STEEL TUBING
Size Designation
Seamless steel tubing is the most widely used type of conductor for hydraulic systems as it provides significant
advantages over pipes. The tubing can be bent into almost any shape, thereby reducing the number of required
fittings. Tubing is easier to handle and can be reused without any sealing problems. For low-volume systems,
tubing can handle the pressure and flow requirements with less bulk and weight. However, tubing and its fittings
are more expensive. A tubing size designation always refers to the outside diameter. Available sizes include 1/16-
in increments from 1/8-in outside diameter up to 3/8-in outside diameter. For sizes from 3/8 in to 1 in the
increments are 1/8 in. For sizes beyond 1 in, the increments are 1/4 in. Figure 46 shows some of the more common
tube sizes (in units of inches) used in fluid power systems. SAE 1010 dead soft cold-drawn steel is the most widely
used material for tubing. This material is easy to work with and has a tensile strength of 55,000 psi. If greater
strength is required, the tube can be made of AISI 4130 steel, which has a tensile strength of 75,000 psi.

Figure 46 : Common tube sizes

Tube Fittings
Tubing is not sealed by threads but by special kinds of fittings, as illustrated in Figure 47. Some of these fittings
are known as compression fittings. They seal by metal-to-metal contact and may be either the flared or flareless
type. Other fittings may use O-rings for sealing purposes. The 37° flare fitting is the most widely used fitting for
tubing that can be flared. The fittings shown in Figure 47(a) and (b) seal by squeezing the flared end of the tube
against a seal as the compression nut is tightened. A sleeve inside the nut supports the tube to dampen vibrations.
The standard 45° flare fitting is used for very high pressures. It is also made in an inverted design with male
threads on the compression nut. When the hydraulic component has straight thread ports, straight thread O-ring
fittings can be used, as shown in Figure 47(c).This type is ideal for high pressures since the seal gets tighter as
pressure increases. Two assembly precautions when using flared fittings are:

1. The compression nut needs to be placed on the tubing before flaring the tube.
2. These fittings should not be overtightened. Too great a torque damages the sealing surface and thus may
cause leaks

For tubing that can’t be flared, or if flaring is to be avoided, ferrule, O-ring, or sleeve compression fittings can be
used [see Figure 47(d), (e), (f)]. The O-ring fitting permits considerable variations in the length and squareness of
the tube cut.

Figure 47 : Threaded fittings and connectors used with tubing.

Figure 48 shows a Swagelok tube fitting, which can contain any pressure up to the bursting strength of
the tubing without leakage. This type of fitting can be repeatedly taken apart and reassembled and remain perfectly
sealed against leakage. Assembly and disassembly can be done easily and quickly using standard tools. In the
illustration, note that the tubing is supported ahead of the ferrules by the fitting body. Two ferrules grasp tightly
around the tube with no damage to the tube wall. There is virtually no constriction of the inner wall, ensuring
minimum flow restriction. Exhaustive tests have proven that the tubing will yield before a Swagelok tube fitting
will leak. The secret of the Swagelok fitting is that all the action in the fitting moves along the tube axially instead
of with a rotary motion. Since no torque is transmitted from the fitting to the tubing, there is no initial strain that
might weaken the tubing. The double ferrule interaction overcomes variation in tube materials, wall thickness,
and hardness.

In Figure 49 we see the 45° flare fitting. The flared-type fitting was developed before the compression
type and for some time was the only type that could successfully seal against high pressures.
 Four additional types of tube fittings are depicted in Figure 50: (a) union elbow, (b) union tee, (c) union,
and (d) 45° male elbow. With fittings such as these, it is easy to install steel tubing as well as remove it for
maintenance purposes.

Figure 48 : Swagelok tube fitting

Figure 49 : The 45° flare fitting.

Figure 50 : Various steel tube fittings. (a) Union elbow, (b) union tee, (c) union, (d) 45° male elbow.

PLASTIC TUBING
Plastic tubing has gained rapid acceptance in the fluid power industry because it is relatively inexpensive. Also,
it can be readily bent to fit around obstacles, it is easy to handle, and it can be stored on reels. Another advantage
is that it can be color-coded to represent different parts of the circuit because it is available in many colors. Since
plastic tubing is flexible, it is less susceptible to vibration damage than steel tubing. Fittings for plastic tubing are
almost identical to those designed for steel tubing. In fact many steel tube fittings can be used on plastic tubing,
as is the case for the Swagelok fitting of Figure 48. In another design, a sleeve is placed inside the tubing to give
it resistance to crushing at the area of compression, as illustrated in Figure 51. In this particular design (called the
Poly-Flo Flareless Tube Fitting), the sleeve is fabricated onto the fitting so it cannot be accidentally left off. Plastic
tubing is used universally in pneumatic systems because air pressures are low, normally less than 100 psi. Of
course, plastic tubing is compatible with most hydraulic fluids and hence is used in low-pressure hydraulic
applications. Materials for plastic tubing include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, and nylon.
Each material has special properties that are desirable for specific applications. Manufacturers’ catalogs should
be consulted to determine which material should be used for a particular application.

Figure 51 : Poly-Flo Flareless Plastic Tube Fitting.

FLEXIBLE HOSES
Design and Size Designation
The fourth major type of hydraulic conductor is the flexible hose, which is used when hydraulic components such
as actuators are subjected to movement. Examples of this are found in portable power units, mobile equipment,
and hydraulically powered machine tools. Hose is fabricated in layers of elastomer (synthetic rubber) and braided
fabric or braided wire, which permits operation at higher pressures.

Figure 52 : Flexible hose is constructed in layers.

As illustrated in Figure 52, the outer layer is normally synthetic rubber and serves to protect the braid
layer. The hose can have as few as three layers (one being braid) or can have multiple layers to handle elevated
pressures. When multiple wire layers are used, they may alternate with synthetic rubber layers, or the wire layers
may be placed directly over one another.

Figure 53 : Typical hose sizes

 Figure 53, gives some typical hose sizes and dimensions for single-wire braid and double-wire braid
designs. Size specifications for a single-wire braid hose represent the outside diameter in sixteenths of an inch of
standard tubing, and the hose will have about the same inside diameter as the tubing. For example, a size 8 single-
wire braid hose will have an inside diameter very close to an 8/16- or 1/2-in standard tubing. For double-braided
hose, the size specification equals the actual inside diameter in sixteenths of an inch. For example, a size 8 double-
wire braid hose will have a 1/2-in inside diameter. The minimum bend radii values provide the smallest values
for various hose sizes to prevent undue strain or flow interference.

Figure 54 : Various flexible hose designs. (a) FC 194: single-wire braid; (b) FC 195: double wire braid; (c) FC 300: single-
wire braid, polyester inner braid; (d) 1525: single-textile braid; (e) 2791: four heavy spiral wires, partial textile braid.

Figure 54 illustrates five different flexible hose designs whose constructions are described as follows:

a) FC 194: Elastomer inner tube, single-wire braid reinforcement, and elastomer cover. Working pressures vary
from 375 to 2750 psi depending on the size.
b) FC 195: Elastomer inner tube, double-wire braid reinforcement, and elastomer cover. Working pressures vary
from 1125 to 5000 psi depending on the size.
c) FC 300: Elastomer inner tube, polyester inner braid, single-wire braid reinforcement, and polyester braid
cover. Working pressures vary from 350 to 3000 psi depending on the size.
d) 1525: Elastomer inner tube, textile braid reinforcement, oil and mildew resistant, and textile braid cover.
Working pressure is 250 psi for all sizes.
e) 2791: Elastomer inner tube, partial textile braid, four heavy spiral wire reinforcements, and elastomer cover.
Working pressure is 2500 psi for all sizes.

Pressure losses in hydraulic conduits