How to Play Chopin?

Part 1: An attempt to provide an answer

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

DURING THE HUNDRED AND FIFTY YEARS, which

will soon elapse since Fryderyk Chopin's death (1849) rather
extensive amount of literature on the interpretation of his music
has been produced. Today Chopin's genius is generally admired
Regina Smendzianka
and his music is widely popular; the number of both interpreters
and avid listeners is growing, giving reason to believe that Chopin music-related
problems are thoroughly known. Hence the question arises whether discussing the
interpretation issue can be justified.
And yet …
The last two International F. Chopin Piano Competitions (held in Warsaw in 1990
and 1995) failed to produce first-prize winners, previously unheard-of occurrence in the
entire history of the Competition.
The growing number of pianists participating in the Competition does not ensure a
high standard of performance. Increased interest in the Competition shown by young
pianists all over the world is not a good enough guarantee that they will be searching for
the spirit of Chopin's music or taking the right direction to this end. The passage of time
puts Chopin's epoch further back, making it increasingly difficult for us to learn more
about it and to deepen our understanding of it. New cultural phenomena of the present
day tempt us into "altering" and "improving" Chopin's music, often attributing to its
qualities, which, essentially, it does not have.
It is commonly known that the way Chopin's music is played undergoes constant
change, with each new generation, or even each individual pianist, drawing out the
richness of the music and making a particular choice of those elements of its form and
expression which suit them most and which they like to emphasize in their
interpretations. However, the point is that this choice should be confined exclusively to
the attributes of Chopin's genius and to his totally unique and distinctive personality
which reflected the most characteristic features of the culture and custom of the day.
For a better understanding of the above it might be a good idea to try to think what
the art of interpretation actually is (in the general meaning of the term, not only as
regards Chopin) and what rights and limits govern it.
According to lexical reference sources, the word/term "interpretation" (from Latin
interpretario) means "explanation", "clarification of" or "commentary on" something, and
also "the way of re-creating a text, performing a piece of music, a play." Please note that
from among many equivalent terms the relevant entries in all dictionaries record
"explanation", "clarification" and "commentary" as well as "the way of re-creating", as if
indicating its most crucial sense. For the purpose of our deliberations, "clarification"
requires that interpretation should be clear and distinctive as to its form and content,
while the interpreter is expected to have several qualities which make this "clarification"
possible. "Explanation of" and "commentary on" something require the interpreter to
understand perfectly well and fully realize the form and content of the composer's idiom
(the style of expression of the creator whose work he is going to interpret) in order to be
able to "explain" it to the listener and comment on it. Intellectual power and extensive
knowledge of music are critical here. "The way of re-creating" is an expression that
broadens the term "interpretation" to include a sphere of irrational realities: creative
imagination, artistic intuition, emotional quality and openness to transcendence. It
touches upon both esthetics and psychology, drawing our attention to the re-creator's
(interpreter's) spiritual potential. Although simplified, the above analysis enables us to get
some idea about the structure of the phenomenon called the art of musical interpretation.
This art comprises fine craft, intellectual ability and musical knowledge as well as the
interpreter's creative potential, his performing temperament and spiritual culture, all of
which are the hallmark of a genuine talent.
The complex structure of the art of interpretation, the multitude of its elements and
the possibility of its many configurations, result in a hard-to-predict number of
interpretative "versions" of one composition. Furthermore, it can not be ruled out that
new "mutations" will be produced in consecutive interpretations of the same piece by the
same performer.
While a piece of music, a composer's style, and the characteristic features and
qualities of his work remain unchanged in the historical sense, the way it is performed
does not change with time and that change depends on the interpreter's cultural
background, sensitivity, imagination, knowledge and intelligence. Please note also that
the stylistic convention of the composer's epoch, being an esthetic reality, definite and
constant, is influenced by historical circumstances and contained within esthetic
boundaries. The art of interpretation means using this basic material (the notation of a
piece and its entire background) to the largest possible extent and taking the liberty, as
such is the nature of its role, of transgressing those boundaries. This obviously, is an
intellectually controlled process. The undisputedly invaluable gift of artistic intuition that
interpreters boast, together with their creative inspiration, sometimes genuinely brilliant,
which generally enrich the act of creative interpretation, must nevertheless be subject to
intellectual verification (knowledge of the elements of the epoch's stylistic convention
and of all available sources.)
The artistic-interpreter, having entered the area of free choice, completes in a way the
presentation of the composer's image. He explains, places accents, lays out lights,
arranges shades, and comments on the composer's work. He also presents himself,
showing the color of his epoch. By doing so he becomes the co-creator.
It may, at this point, seem appropriate to note that there is no model interpretation of a
piece of music. How unimaginative would be the belief that a composition, in the years
or centuries of its artistic existence following its creation, should remain a "fossil"
embedding the composer's ideas and passed on as such! An art work (especially one of a
genius) is a living substance whose spirit cannot be destroyed and which acts on people-
in some cases for centuries-with its unceasingly attractive content. The vitality of an art
work can be seen in the fact it is perceived and interpreted anew and in a variety of ways
by people living in different times and cultures.
 Let us, however, firmly emphasize that each entry by the interpreter into that area of
allowable freedom of choice, sometimes even expected by the composer, requires of him
the ability to organize it by means of musical knowledge and performing ethic and
culture. The music as recorded by the composer, the score, cannot serve as a pretext for
the interpreter to produce his own, totally free idiom. It is only when the interpreter
identifies himself with the composer's ideas, when he draws in his mind a clearly defined,
perhaps even verbalized, emotional program of, and psychological motivation for the
piece, where every note is qualitatively specified, fully understood, unique and
indispensable, that the desired and laudable objective can be achieved: the presentation of
a transcendent reality using means which, while limited, are comprehensible, convincing
and aim at transcendence.
The true art of interpretation does not exist without high caliber artists. True art
accepts only those who are great in talent, spirit and mind. It also demands that they have
a great virtue, humility, arising not from the awareness that the role of their art is to serve.
Loyal service to art creators, making absolutely certain that their ideas are presented
faithful, leaving nothing to chance, is the performer's ultimate responsibility.
All known treaties on the art of interpretation written in past centuries and everything
that has been written on the subject in recent times have one thing in common: they
emphasize the importance and responsibility associated with the role of interpreters. The
role rewards performers with an exceptional honor-participation in the process of giving
the ultimate shape to one of the most beautiful domains of human creation, of being its
complement.

English translation: Jerzy Ossowski

Regina Smendzianka, Past Provost, currently Professor of piano at the Warsaw Academy of
Music. Laureate of 1949 International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw, Poland, Ms.
Smendzianka is recognized in more than 30 countries around the world as concert pianist,
lecturer and piano teacher. She has served as a jury member at many national and international
piano competitions.
 How To Play Chopin?
Part 2: Technical Features
in the Interpretation of Chopin's Music [1]

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

THE RIGHT KIND OF TONE is the basic medium in the process of developing an
interpretive concept for a piece of music by any composer. In the case of Chopin the tone
must be soft and resonant, with a singing quality through its entire dynamic scale (the
piano bel canto), not too "broad" (unlike e. g. Brahms' music), but it must also allow the
interpreter to play the ideal legato. The Chopin tone differs from that of other Romantic
composers (e. g. Schumann or Liszt). As a pianist and a teacher, Chopin placed much
importance on tones (their type, the ways of producing and carving them) when he
performed his own compositions. Also, Chopin allotted a great deal of space to this
problem in the preserved reports on his pupils' progress. The frequently used term, "a
beautiful tone," although far from precise, indicates its noble quality achieved by means
of concrete technical procedures.
Esquisses Pour Une Methode de Piano [2], written by Chopin himself, provides a
reliable source of relevant information. This unfinished essay in French is supplemented
by comments made by Chopin's pupils and their students, which give a vivid description
of the Master. The extensive bibliography at the end of Chopin's book may be of help in a
detailed study of the problems of tones and other secrets in interpretive techniques of
Chopin's music.
Chopin believed that only the correct use of the motor apparatus and its proper forming
may enable the performer to extract the right tones from the instrument in a perfectly
natural manner. "It may appear that a well-formed mechanism means a skillful
modulation of tones which lends them a beautiful quality." [3]
One of the effective ways the pianist can use the motor function is through fingering,
which depends on the natural shape and size of the hand and, consequently, the
characteristics and deftness of each finger.
"...Given the fact that each finger is formed differently, it is better not to destroy the
charm of its unique and particular touch, on the contrary, it should by all means be
constantly refined. There is strength in each finger which depends on its build." [4]
These observations prompted Chopin to introduce new rules of fingering and
positioning the hand on the keyboard.
Chopin's tone, just like the other elements of performance of his music (the uses of
dynamic scale, agogic, tempo rubato, pedal technique, kind and intensity of emotion)
were radically modified as the Polish composer's style became increasingly mature. For
instance, his youthful Polonaises, early Mazurkas or Waltzes, which bear the hallmarks
of the pre-Romantic style (Sentimentalism) and closely - to the point of deception -
resemble the compositions of Maria Szymanowska [5] and Michal Kleofas Oginski [6] (the
precursors of Chopin), are played with comparatively "short", if singing, tones with a
sparing use of the pedals and a limited (p-f) dynamic scale. There are also slight
departures from the prevailing tempo (rall.rit.rubato) and an emotional distance in these
pieces. The drawing-room convention and emotional restraint, as well as the functional
role of this music which cannot be ruled out even in Chopin (early Mazurkas or Waltzes),
should guide interpreters in giving a noble, charming and elegant performance. However,
the music must also be rhythmically disciplined and subordinated to the choreography of
a dance.
The power of Chopin's genius and the rapid development of his composing technique
quickly resulted in his early works exhibiting virtuosity and, a little later, more profound
expression, which require performers to use an increasingly wide range of means. Some
elements of the "brilliant" style, evident in the Concertos and pieces from his early
Parisian period (Polonaise op. 22), quickly gave way to compositions which reveal
individual and very meaningful expression.
The convention of the "brilliant" performing style (with respect to the Polish
composer) does not require a separate comment as it is governed by European standards.
However, typical of this convention are tones of the noblest kind, extremely exquisite and
frequently carrying profound thoughts. Hence, some issues related to articulation and
pulsation require some explanation. The issues in question are those which occur in
Chopin's "brilliant" pieces each time long virtuoso cadences (represented by smaller
symbols in the notation) are interwoven into the melodic narration. In both slower (e.g.
Larghetto in F-minor Concerto op. 21 bar 26) and faster (e. g. Polonaise op. 22 bars 57,
61, 132) tempos the "meeting" of the fixed-pace cantilena with a sudden cascade of an
ornamental, rhythmically irregular cadence, usually consisting of a large number of notes,
if played improperly, may come as an unpleasant surprise to the listener, disturbing his
peace, creating the impression of disagreeable confusion instead of charming
embellishment. The organic link between the cantilena and the virtuoso ornament is
achieved by blurring the differences of articulation through its gradual rather than sudden
change, and, simultaneously, by controlling the pulsation in a way which prevents the
tempo from dashing or slackening abruptly. The above equally applies to the problem of
playing in tempo rubato, a difficult art which requires subtlety and which is one of the
characteristic features of the interpretation of Chopin's music. The art is governed by the
laws of a specific symmetry of movement, i. e. the "entering" and "exiting from" a
momentary imbalance of the principal tempo. Thank to this symmetry the rubato,
modeled in this way, is heard as a naturally pronounced word or even a whole sentence.
Tempo rubato, moderately used in the interpretation of Chopin's early pieces, becomes
extremely important in his mature and late compositions, where it occurs more frequently
and is more distinct. It inseparably accompanies every cantilena, permitting performers
to display vocal "mannerism" (e. g. holding back the higher notes, prolonging them,
emphasizing modulation, etc.). It is also an expression of the close link between the
instrumental and the vocal element, a distinctly typical feature of Chopin's music.
Chopin's melodic structure - mellow, emotional, singing - makes his listeners desire to
know more about the vocal art. Aware of this, Chopin often discussed this subject with
his pupils. The dominance of the melody (the leading part) in the homophonic texture of
Chopin's compositions forces the performer to develop a technique that would enable him
to show its beauty in as "attractive" way as possible. The melody, supported by the bass
part and discreetly stressed ("commented on" harmonically) in the complementary parts
should show, through the dynamics and color, Chopin's very unique and unparalleled
harmonic structure (exquisite modulations, the chromatic scale, deceptive cadences,
enharmonic changes). [7]
 The homophonic quality of Chopin's music should not discourage the performer from
looking in a "linear" way at the score, where he can often see a peculiar polyphony: the
interesting bass line (with a melodic quality) and extremely ingenious harmonic functions
of the inside parts. Highlighting and interpreting this multi-line texture greatly enriches
the overall tonal impression.
Careful attention should be paid to Chopin's polyphony that appears in relatively short
sections of a homophonic composition. These sections show the sophistication of the
composer's counterpoint.
Below are a few examples of Chopin's polyphony:
Polonaise-Fantaisie in A flat major, bars 66-70, four voice part polyphony
Polonaise in C minor op. 40 no.2, bars 97-104, ostinato
Polonaise in C sharp minor op.26 no. 1, bars 104-108, several independent
melodic lines-the right hand
Mazurka in C sharp minor op. 50 no. 3, bars 1-8 and 33-41, with pick-up
note, imitation
Mazurka in C major op. 56 no. 2, bars 53-69, canon
Fugue (1841), a short piece, an experiment in strict counterpoint
Ballade in F minor op. 52, bars 135-144, imitation.
Most of the brilliant examples of a heterogeneous texture can be found in Chopin's
mature, late work. As the composer's harmonic, melodic and rhythmic [8] ingenuity
reached higher levels, the texture reflected the pace of development of his composing
technique, which is very individual and innovative and goes beyond the prevailing
stereotypes. When dealing with Chopin's mature works, it is not enough for the performer
to concentrate on the easily noticeable symptoms, e. g. a rising (pp-ff) dynamic scale and
the sound volume, a richer pedal technique and a much freer use of agogic, refined
harmonics and the individualistic form of each piece. Employing all of these means, the
performer should primarily focus his attention on the expression.
The maturation process of Chopin as composer, from the youthful lyricism of his music
to virtuosity and drawing-room elegance, to humor and folk orientation, and finally, to
the drama and pathos of being a national composer with a prophetic vision takes him to
the level of transcendence (Polonaise-Fantasie, Barcarole and the last Mazurka.)
Those who have studied the evolution of Chopin's style find it surprising that it takes
place regardless of the musical form of his compositions. His evolution can be seen in
the Sonatas, Polonaises or Mazurkas of the same period. From the first look at the score,
the interpreter should try to do his best to render clearly the implied meaning of
expression of each piece. He should be equally careful to strike the classical balance
between the form and content of Chopin's compositions. The reason is Chopin's
aristocratic spirit, a feature so typical of him. An exaggeration, a lack of proportion or
emotional falsity will have disastrous consequences for the performer as he will lay
himself open to ridicule. The amazing popularity of Chopin's music and the pure delight
it evokes in most pianists - that's what induces them to enter this enchanted world and to
experience the magic of his music.
Let's wish them good luck!

English Translation: Jerzy Ossowski

[1] This is the second in a series of four articles by Prof. Smendzianka to be printed in four
consecutive issues of our magazine. The first article dealt with the problems relevant to
musical interpretation in the broad meaning of the term, present discusses the workshop
features of Chopin music interpretation, the third deals in greater detail with the
composer's Etudes, the fourth is all about Chopin's Polonaises, while the next will deal
with Waltzes and Ballades.
[2] Chopin, Frederic, Esquisses Pour Une Methode de Piano. Flammarion. France 1993.
Chopin Fryderyk, Szkice do metody gry fortepianowej [An Essay on Piano Methods].
Musica Iagellonica. Cracow 1995. Polish translation: Zbigniew Skowron.
[3] Chopin F., Esquisses...
[4] Chopin F., Esquisses...
[5] Maria Szymanowska nee Wolowska (1789-1831), Polish virtuoso pianist and
composer. She made many tours of Europe during which she gained a reputation as an
excellent pianist. Szymanowska wrote some 100 pieces. Thanks to her piano Etudes, she
came to be regarded as a precursor of F. Chopin.
[6] Michal Kleofas Oginski (1765-1833), Polish composer noted for his many Polonaises
which became extremely popular. Also regarded as a precursor of
F. Chopin. As a young man Oginski was involved in politics. In his declining years he
wrote memoirs in addition to composing.
[7] Bronarski, Ludwik, Harmonika Chopina [Chopin's Harmonic Structure]. Towarzystwo
Wydawnicze Muzyki Polskiej. Warsaw 1935 (in Polih).
[8] Chopin's rhythms will be discussed in the article dealing with the interpretation of his
Polonaises and Walzes.
 How To Play Chopin?
Part 3: Chopin’s Etudes [1]

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

THE REASON I took up the subject of Chopin's Etudes was a strong desire to challenge the
rather common phenomenon existing in the interpretation practice (i.e. the perception and
interpretation of the Etudes) in, it would seem, isolation from the great Polish composer’s entire
piano work. Emphasis laid on those qualities of the Etudes which can be used for improving the
performer's manual abilities (clearly evident in the teaching practice in music schools), treating
them as the so-called technical test at piano competitions, or the common practice of assessing a
concert performance in terms of a sporting achievement rather than an artistic, creative effort, are
the reasons why pianists, especially young virtuosos, have formed in their minds a much
simplified picture of this musical form in relation to Chopin's work. Examples of this can be seen
in the use of an absurdly fast tempo in the virtuoso Etudes or exaggerated bravura and dynamics
(the latter going beyond Chopin’s stylistic convention), or in the demonstration of a dexterity
verging on sheer acrobatics while totally ignoring the expressive content or appropriate
emotional program. Sometimes it is seen in the performers’ failure to deal with the fundamental
technical problem in a given Etude by simply ignoring it. These are but a few examples. The
basic technical problem (fingering, passages, double tones, cantillena, highlighting the multi-part
texture, varied articulation)[2] gave Chopin a pretext to create the musical poems which his
Etudes undoubtedly are. I would even venture the opinion that for Chopin the Etude, just like the
Scherzo, was a title that should be treated figuratively rather than literally: in both cases
conveying expression with profound content. The complexity and extreme difficulty of the
means should not lead performers to make them an end in itself. Taking this invaluable tonal
substance - Chopin’s Etudes - performers should discard the mental associations with the etude
concept, formed in their minds over the years of difficult daily contact with Czerny. They have to
get rid of these associations in order to make a musical masterpiece out of the Etude with the
help of their imagination, intelligence and talent. In his book, Chopin - zycie i droga tworcza,
contemporary Polish musicologist Tadeusz A. Zielinski wrote, among other things, about the
Etudes Opus 10 that "…not only did they become an orderly demonstration of a new piano style
and the formulas peculiar to it, but also an artistic ennoblement of this style." [3] How very true,
because when wishing to make an in-depth analysis (e.g. when we try to play Chopin’s virtuoso
Etudes in slower tempi) we are instantly amazed by the beauty of his melodic ideas (easily
noticeable in the "slow" Etudes), subtle and refined harmonic turns and all the means of
expression, which fascinate us in the composer’s other pieces. Listening to his Etudes, we should
notice the wealth of the shades of moods and emotional states or the possibility they offer us to
form poetic associations, ranging from pathetic heroism and vital energy, passion and drama, to
longing and regret, mysteriousness and fantasy, to simple joy and playfulness, humor, charm and
elegance. They all determine the "subject" of his creative expression, the "program" and the
motivation for the creation of these pieces. In addition, in Chopin’s Etudes we find all the
technical problems which are present in his other works. The sound of the piano in Chopin’s
Etudes, compared with that of his predecessors (Czerny, Cramer, Clementi), seems to be new,
more complete and more magnificent. The whole keyboard is used ingeniously, while the Polish
composer’s characteristic harmonic structure produces a whole spectrum of tonal colors. Let us
quote again Tadeusz A. Zielinski who said that "…the difference between Chopin’s Etudes and
those of his predecessors is immense." [4] The previously mentioned artistic ennoblement of the
etude which was realized in Chopin’s music is not confined to the fact that under his hands, and
as a result of the means used by him, the etude form ceased to be merely "training literature", i.e.
material designed to help pianists improve their finger work. Instead, it became an art work and a
creative accomplishment, and because of this, the etude is also, just like his other works, another
proof of his vision of transcendence, a fact that has to be strongly emphasized. Performing his
Etudes, Chopin as pianist gave them the form of artistic creation, just as he did with his other
compositions which he performed. Of Chopin’s playing at a concert in which he performed his
Etudes Opus 25, Robert Schuman said, "A la Chopin." Having mastered the whole range of
performing means, Chopin developed a piano technique which never captured the listeners’
attention for its own sake. The genuinely great interpretations of Chopin’s Etudes have been, and
still are, based on the creation of a musical impression by means of the attributes of the Chopin
style which was deeply rooted in 19th century culture, customs and mentality. The clarity,
definiteness and suggestiveness of this impression should fascinate the listener no less than is the
case with the Ballade, the Fantasia or the Sonata. Thanks to the excellence of Chopin’s technique
of composing, his etudes opened a new chapter in the history of development of this musical
form, which, liberated from their previous "utility" function, entered the realm of great art.

English Translation: Jerzy Ossowski

[1]This is the third in a series of articles by Prof. Smendzianka to be printed in a few consecutive
issues of our magazine. The first article dealt with the problems relevant to musical interpretation
in the broad meaning of the term; the second discussed the workshop features of Chopin music
interpretation, present deals in greater detail with the composer's Etudes, the fourth article is all
about Chopin's Polonaises, while the next will deal with Waltzes and Ballades. [2] I assumed that
the reader would easily connect these problems with individual Etudes (author’s note) [3]
Zielinski A. Tadeusz, Chopin – zycie i droga tworcza (Chopin - His Life and Artistic Path), p.
238. Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne (Polish Music Publishers), Cracow 1993. [4] Ibid., pp.
237-238
 How To Play Chopin?
Part 4: Chopin’s Polonaises

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

THE PIANO POLONAISE is a musical form represented, in the case of Chopin, by a comparatively
large number of pieces (17). Chopin composed polonaises nearly all his life, beginning in 1817 when he
wrote Polonaise in G minor (the first piece ever by the then seven-year-old composer) and ending in
1846 with Polonaise-Fantasie in A flat major Op. 61. Following the evolution of the Chopin Polonaise
we can also watch the maturing of the composer’s technique in perspective and greater detail.

Within the A B A three-part form, which in the polonaise is sometimes preceded by an Introduction and
finished with a more or less developed Coda, Chopin applied over the years many interesting and
astonishing transformations. While some of them were of a formal nature (development of the themes
and bridges, tendency to transform the middle part), others affected the texture (polyphony). There was
also the growing harmonic richness (colors) and the increasingly profound personal expression. Chopin’s
mature work and his youthful compositions are planets apart, separated by his steady artistic and
spiritual refinement. The sentimentality of his first Polonaises, their stereotyped melancholy and
drawing-room balance gradually turned into a profoundly meaningful truth of lyrical expression, into a
drama that deeply moves the listener, or even a touching tragedy. The conventional form and content of
Chopin’s youthful Polonaises (modeled on the popular polonaises by Michal Kleofas Oginski) [1]
gradually evolved, first aiming at the brillante style virtuosity. Soon, however, by means of formal and
textural transformations, enriching the expressive quality of these pieces, Chopin achieved a shockingly
moving expression, contained within the structure of a “hidden” Sonata – the Polonaise-Fantaisie. [2]

The first two Polonaises, G minor and B flat major (which are identical in form), already have in the
Introductions a rhythmic formula characteristic of the polonaise (the beginning bar – the so called
polonaise rhythm, an eighth and two sixteenths). This formula allows the listener to unmistakably tell the
polonaise from other dance compositions in three-four time. The commonly used and, in principle,
desirable interpretive “mannerism,” which means extending (with a slight emphasis) the first eighth and
accelerating the two sixteenths, originated in the choreography of this dance – the first (in the bar) step
of the polonaise is slightly longer. Similarly, in the accompaniment of the eighths, which are equal in
length within the bar, the first may be extended. However, this rhythmic “deformity” should be used
sparingly.

In most of Chopin’s Polonaises, at the end of their individual parts, there is a repeat mark recommending
to play the same text once again. Performing both themes and parts in the Trio requires interpretive
ingenuity (dynamics, color, the use of agogic means, even changes in articulation). The Pre-Romantic
style which Chopin chose for his Polonaises confines the contemporary piano to rather short if singsong
tones and recommends a careful use of the pedals. The next Polonaises chronologically (which still have
no opus numbers) are the A flat major and G sharp minor pieces, with their numerous ornaments
(especially the G sharp Polonaise which delights listeners with its spectacular figuration, trills and the
technique of crossing the lines of the right and left hand), are examples of the brillante style in Chopin’s
work, which reaches its peak in the E flat major Polonaise Op. 22. They also mark the composer’s
gradual departure from the conventional form of the polonaise. The unlimited formal development of the
individual parts of the polonaise (its both themes and the middle part, Trio), the independent bridges, the
much-widened dynamic scale of the already fuller tones, a freer use of agogics, spontaneous
emotionality, even some manifestations of the increasingly profound expression (cf the reflexive farewell
Polonaise “Adieu” in B flat minor – 1826) or some themes from the Opus 22 Trio) all point to the
shaping of the composer’s individual style.
Chronologically, in the next [3] cycle of Opus 71 Polonaises (D minor – 1827, B flat major – 1828, F
minor – 1829) Chopin did not give up the effects produced by the virtuoso elements (trills, runs,
harmonically refined figurations). Instead he developed the form of these pieces, and enriched their
texture. The rewritten theme repetitions were only partly identical. Well-developed and largely
independent bridges require the performer to emphasize the importance of the theme. The middle part
(Trio) with its reprise-based structure, extensively rich in Polonaise in B flat major Op. 71, may even
have been intended to be regarded as the development of the sonata. The symphonic quality of these
pieces is striking, as are their rich tone colors, which are identified with the sound of the specified
instruments in the orchestra.

We also have (especially in the D minor and B flat major Polonaises) many examples of polyphony, and
also a dialogue and multipart kind of playing on the basis of a homophonic texture. [4]

The profound expression of the Opus 71 pieces (the dramatic quality of the Introductions in the
Polonaises D minor and B flat major, not only with a Sarmatian readiness to fight or argue as well as
sincere lyricism, but also a mysterious murkiness of some fragments) allows us to perceive them as the
first sign of the later, heroic Polonaises. First were two Opuses, 26 and 40, with the former (Polonaises C
sharp minor no. 1 and E flat minor no. 2) revealing the discontinuation of the process of form
development in order to make the expressive elements more distinct. [5] In neither of these Opuses does
Chopin actually depart too far from the conventional form, but uses a means of expression which
gradually lends these pieces some characteristics of individual declaration. For instance, the
Introductions and opening themes are in sharp contrast to the middle parts (the Trios). In the Trio of the
chivalrous C sharp minor Polonaise we can hear a beautiful, canzona-style cantilena; in the elegiac and
tragic Polonaise E flat minor, in the middle part, a kind of whispering (sotto voce) dialogue takes place,
as between conspirators. In addition, both Trios are distinguished by refined harmonic structures (the
chromatic character in Polonaise no. 1, modulations in Polonaise no. 2). What we have in the second part
of the Polonaise no. 1 Trio is a fine example of Chopin’s “polymelodics” (independent melodic lines).

In Opus 40, while continuing the chivalrous tone of expression, Chopin also emphasizes the elements of
piano virtuosity. They include spectacular repetitions of the chords, the lustrous and powerful tones of
both themes, the fanfare-like Trio and – imitating the faint roll of the orchestra’s drum – the trills in the
tie (bars 41-49) in the A major Polonaise no. 1, as opposed to the peculiar “contrapuntal virtuosity” (bars
71-81) and the fascinating dialogue and multi-part playing in the second theme (bars 19-40) and in the
Trio of the elegiac Polonaise in C minor no. 2. [6]

It is obvious from the above statements that the features of Chopin’s virtuosity undergo change in the
Opus 40 Polonaises, as some elements of a profoundly artistic expression are added to their
ornamentation.

The evolution of Chopin’s Polonaises undoubtedly reaches its zenith in the series referred to as “heroic,”
in the true meaning of the term. The series includes Polonaises in F sharp minor Op. 44 (1840-41), A flat
major Op. 53 (1842) and the Polonaise-Fantaisie in A flat major Op. 61 (1845-46). The free and
uniquely individual form of each of the above pieces does not allow me to make any far-reaching
generalization on their characteristic features, nor to discuss them in detail (the latter would in fact
require a separate article). For this very reason I will have to select the problems which, in my opinion,
are the most essential.

The question of the tempo of Chopin’s Polonaises, not discussed before, calls for a clear statement: the
polonaise is a stately dance. The direction, maestoso, in the score of Polonaise A flat major Op. 53
refers, in principle, to all of Chopin’s Polonaises. The virtuoso fragments of his great (heroic) Polonaises
should not prompt performers to show off, as their playing should not interrupt the continuity of the
narration but form an integral whole with it. Sudden changes of the tempo (e.g., the octave ostinato in
the Trio of Polonaise in A flat major Op. 53 or the figurative fragments of the bridges in the Polonaise-
Fantaisie (bars 127-144) and the polyphonic fragment of a bridge (bars 66-88 in the same polonaise)
have no logical justification. The majestic quality of the polonaise is determined not only by the rules of
choreography of this dance, but also the weight of its expressive essence for which Chopin chose this
musical form. Historical and patriotic references as well as personal and transcendent allusions, in which
Chopin’s last Polonaises abound, lend them a special status. In the history of Polish culture, Chopin’s
Polonaises, due to the significance of the message they convey, rank with the finest paintings by Jan
Matejko [7] and the greatest poems by Adam Mickiewicz, [8] earning their Creator the reputation as a
national visionary composer.

Chopin developed every element constituting his heroic Polonaises. These elements include the
Introduction, dual themes, the bridges, and the Coda. The Introduction, especially in Polonaise A flat
major Op. 53 and Polonaise-Fantaisie A flat major Op. 61, is quite long and has a refined construction
(the chromatic progression of the successive fourths in the Opus 53 Polonaise, the emergence of the first
theme in Polonaise Op. 61, as if appearing from a mysterious mist of the impressionist passages). [9]
The emotional element of these Introductions should also be noted. Its intensity is the same as in the
thematic parts. [10]

In all three Polonaises the exposition (part A) is very extensive, a result of the first theme being repeated
(twice in Opus 53, three times in Opus 44 and four times in Opus 61). Each repetition has a different
texture (the main melody is played with either octaves or chords, an additional melodic line is introduced
and the variation technique is used). In performance all this is reflected in the gradation of dynamics or
the use of other means of expression (e.g., agitato, bar 108, Polonaise-Fantaisie). The extensive nature of
the Polonaise exposition is also a consequence of the development of the second theme (along similar
lines as the first theme) and the bridges which, especially in Polonaise-Fantaisie, assume the form of a
“quasi-theme”. This quasi theme is melodically, harmonically and texture-wise very attractive (e.g. bars
66-92; 116-144; 182-214). Performers who are unaware of this phenomenon and believe that the above
bridges are “autonomous” may find that their interpretive concept is ill-devised.

A separate and complex issue, relevant to the form of Chopin’s great Polonaises, is their middle part, i.e.,
the Trio, which has a different, individual construction: sequential (Opus 53) or a compound, consisting
of an ostinato reprise and a long Mazurka (Opus 44). [11] In the case of Polonaise-Fantaisie, given its
very free and asymmetric structure of the sonata allegro, [12] instead of the Trio we can talk only about a
very short development, noting that the B major fragment (bars 148-180), frequently regarded as the so-
called middle part, is nothing but the second theme of the Polonaise (sonata). This delightful theme, with
a polyphonic texture, represents one of the most captivating examples of Chopin’s poetry.
The Coda, which very distinctly “prepares” the conclusion of the piece, often surprises us, in all heroic
Polonaises, with an exquisite example of his composing mastery (e.g., Opus 44 bars 314 – the soprano
part cites the Mazurka theme; Opus 61 bars 282, 286 – the notation offers a range of options concerning
the right hand playing of the part).

Chopin’s Polonaises, just like his Mazurkas, inspire special respect in performers. The reason is that the
interpretation of these two national dances, despite the performer’s excellent piano technique and
knowledge of the epoch, may end in artistic failure. This failure may be a consequence of the
performer’s inadequate knowledge of the Polish national spirit, which in these very pieces is particularly
evident. Intuition is required to penetrate this mystery, and this rarely happens. What is left for most
performers to do is to empirically learn the culture, customs, history, and psychology of the nation of
which Chopin was a famous son.

English Translation: Jerzy Ossowski

[1] Count Michal Kleofas Oginski (1765-1833), Polish composer of extremely popular polonaises and
other pieces.
[2] Lev Mazel, About Some Composing Features in Chopin’s Free Forms (in): Frédéric Chopin, a
collective work edited by Georgiy Edielman. Moscow 1960. Polish translation: Jerzy Popiel, Studia
chopinowskie [Chopin Studies]. Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne. Cracow 1965.
[3] "Next" refers to the cycle following the Polonaises: A flat major of 1821, G sharp minor of 1822, B
flat minor of 1826. The E flat major Polonaise was written in 1830-31.
[4] Polonaise in D minor Op. 71 no. 1: bars 13-17: dialogue playing; bars 18-22, 28, 29, 56-68: two
independent melodic lines – the right hand; bars 42, with a pick-up note, to 44 – "polymelodics"; bars
48-58: polyphonic texture with an interesting left hand ostinato.
Polonaise in B flat major Op. 71 no. 2: the middle part (Trio), basically homophonic, is interspersed with
polyphonic fragments: bars 73, 74 & 77, 78; bars 83-89; bars 59, 60; bars 95, 96: imitation.
The homophonic first theme of the Polonaise should be played in three color-dynamic parts (soprano,
bass, tenor) and the dialogue fragments (bar 28, with a pick-up note, to 37) should be "instrumented" in a
contrasting manner: orchestral "tutti" and a solo part.
[5] Opus 26 marks the beginning of the series of Chopin’s heroic Polonaises (A flat major Op. 53, F
sharp minor Op. 44, Polonaise-Fantaisie Op. 61).
[6] Chopin’s contrapuntal virtuosity (bars 95-105 – ostinato) was already discussed in part 2, "The
features of the technique of Chopin’s music interpretation."
[7] Jan Matejko (1838-1893), the greatest Polish painter of patriotic historical scenes which he produced
on vast canvases.
[8] Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), the greatest Romantic poet of Poland, his works contain national and
patriotic themes.
[9] Polonaise-Fantaisie, a piece of exceptional beauty and transcendent contents, deserves attention also
because of Chopin’s innovatory (heralding Impressionism) approach to tone colors (e.g. bars 1-9).
[10] The tempo of the Introduction, with the exception of Opuses 22 & 61, should be exactly the same as
the pace of the first theme of the Polonaise.
[11] Combining a Polonaise and a Mazurka within one musical composition is the uppermost expression
of Chopin’s national sentiment.
[12] Lew Mazel, About Some Composing Features in Chopin’s Free Forms…
 How to Play Chopin?
Part 5: Chopin’s BALLADES

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

Chopin’s Ballade refers to a very fashionable 19th century literary genre of the same name. The
literary ballad was a dramatic narrative with an unusual theme – legendary, historical or
imaginary. In the music of Chopin’s Ballades we can find all the features of their literary
original. However, we should not expect to find a program or concrete story in them.
These epic works of music delight listeners with a wealth of moods (pastoral-lyrical, mysterious,
dramatic, heroic, tragic) and a perfect compositional technique. They contain an ingenious form
and profound expression, an exquisite texture and unsurpassed beauty of melodic ideas.
Chopin’s Ballades reflect his mature period (1835-1842) when his unique composing style was
fully developed. It is generally known that his Ballades, as his Scherzos, Fantasias or later
Polonaises, did not confine him to a fixed formal pattern.
Maintaining in principle the traditional three-part division (the A B A pattern sometimes
precedes by an Introduction and finishes with a Coda), he gave each piece an individual and
unique shape. What all his ballades have in common is the same 6/8 time [1], which lends the
narration a charming flow, and two themes (modeled on the sonata allegro).
In all the Ballades, Chopin’s composing mastery can also be seen in the exquisitely intricate
bridges which are well developed and often largely thematically (melodically) independent (e.g.
Ballade G minor – bars 83 /with a pickup note/ to 94; Ballade F major – bars 63 to 83; Ballade
A- flat major – bar 88 /second half/ to 103, Ballade F minor – bars 38 to 46). The handling of the
themes in individual Ballades, each with a broadly expressed idea, their repetition and free
treatment of part B (the middle one which to an extent refers to the classical development
formula), are specifically unique in a way which escapes any comparison. An example of this
formal individualism can be found in the F-minor Ballade Op. 52, where the composer combined
the sonata and the variation forms. The extent of formal and textural problems, the strict
technical requirements and, most importantly, the wealth of expressive means make the Ballades
good material for endless studies for every interpreter.
It takes a high caliber artist to interpret Chopin’s Ballades. Neither careful phrasing, nor a careful
showing of the regular structures, usually comprised of four and eight bars, of textural details,
nor the allure of the episodes relieve the interpreter from taking in the entire piece. Logical
planning is needed, the climaxes should be hierarchically structured and the musical “story” has
to be related as a continuous line, leading to the final conclusion. One can compare listening to
the Ballades to the esthetic experience of looking at 19th century masterpieces which convey the
large canvas concept, where a multitude of carefully finished details does not obstruct the
reception of the overall message.
The complexity of the technical problems posed by the Ballades cannot be denied. The fine
style of the Chopin cantilena, which in that period of his work required fuller tones, is one of
them. Others include the discreet stressing of the pulse of the ballade narration, being aware of
time and its “strong” and “weak” beats, without forgetting the necessary commas (like in a
written text) or the differentiation between the colors of the rhythmically long and short tones.
Chopin considered the latter skill to be extremely important. There is also the question of
imaginative interpretation of the repeated fragments and, finally, the pedaling technique, whose
importance in the ballade cantilena (its dynamics, colors, articulation) cannot be overrated. These
are but some of the problems the pianist has to grapple with. We should not forget, either, that
Chopin required a singsong quality of the tones in the entire (pp – ff) dynamic scale and, if
possible, in swift figurations[2]. Also, pianists are advised against playing the virtuoso fragments
of the Ballades in a manner which is nothing but brilliante, without paying attention to their
expressive essence. These mistakes may often be avoided if interpreters carefully study the
score, especially the details of the harmony and texture, and are aware of the importance of the
often independent left hand.
Below are some examples:
Ballade in G minor Op. 23:
st
1 theme: multi-part playing despite the homophonic texture
bars 138-145: short curves – left hand
bars 148-150: right and left hand progressions
bars 150-154: “polymelodics”– right hand; phrasing – left hand

Ballade in F major Op. 38:

2nd theme (Presto con fuoco): lack of dynamic equality between both hands
bars 96-106; 123-133: short lies and phrasing of the imitated part
bars 185-189: progression of its phrasing

Ballade in A flat major Op. 47:

bars 88-95: pauses and commas, harmonic changes
bars 157-165: left hand counterpoint is important
bars 175, 177: stressing the harmony (bass) will enhance the expression in climax FF

Ballade in F minor Op. 52:

bars 51, 52: imitations
bars 58-71: right hand careful playing of two parts will facilitate the achievement of “expressivo”
bars 152-164: polyrhythmical variation will acquire more profound expression if the right hand
declamatory technique is used
bars 175, 176: polyrhythms
bars 212, 214: (interval of) the fourth in the upper soprano part forms the beginning fragment of
the first theme in the F-minor Ballade

The significance of “tempo rubato” in Chopin’s music mature period has already been discussed
in an earlier part of this series. This problem should be mentioned here only in the context of the
frequent and, in the case of the Ballades, desirable agogic changes, accell.rall. often occurring
parallel to crescendo; and diminuendo. The interpreter may curb the temptation to use this means
of expression too often by firmly sticking to the basic tempo of the piece. Departures from this
tempo are allowed within the limits of Chopin’s esthetics which, as stated, is guided by the
principle of noble moderation and equilibrium.
The four Ballade series is yet another example of Chopin’s superfine imagination and
inexhaustible ingenuity. It is a collection of musical pieces of different expressive complexions.
The lack of continuity in the cycle puts the performer in a difficult position as he has to present a
sequence of “stories”, each forming a totally separate world. Also, each “story” contains a
different part of the world of the great composer’s imagination.
________________________________
[1]
The exception is Ballade G minor Op. 23 (Introduction C and Coda C), where 6/4 time adds a flowing quality to
the narration.
[2]
In 1948, Raoul Koczalski, a pupil of Karol Mikuli, made a memorable remark to me that there is a cantilena
way of playing the bridge after the 2nd theme in the first movement of Chopin’s F-minor Concerto Op. 21.

English translation: Jerzy Ossowski

 How to Play Chopin?
Part 6: Chopin's waltzes1

By Prof. Regina Smendzianka

F. CHOPIN WROTE some2 20 Waltzes in the period from 1825 to 1847. The Polish edition of
"The Complete Works of F. Chopin"3, edited by I. J. Paderewski, contains only 17 Waltzes. This
collection is supplemented by the 1965 publication of two "forgotten" Waltzes, E flat major
(1840) and A minor (1847/8) .4

The gradual development of the Chopin Waltz form, spread over more than two decades, can be
divided into three periods:
1. The "Warsaw" Waltzes, which Chopin wrote between 1827 and 1830, before leaving
Poland for good:
Two Waltzes without opus numbers: A flat major and E flat major, written into Emilia
Elsner's album;
D flat major Op. 70 no. 3; E major, without opus number,
B minor Op. 69 no. 2; E minor, without opus number;5
2. The Waltzes from the early Parisian period written between 1831-1835 (finally edited in
1838):
E flat major Op. 18; A minor Op. 34 no. 2; A flat major Op. 34 no. 1;
A flat major Op. 69 no. 1; G flat major Op. 70 no. 1.
3. The Waltzes written in the mature period, 1838 to 1847/8:
F major Op. 34 no. 3; A flat major Op. 42; E flat major "Forgotten", without opus
number; F minor Op. 70 no. 2; D flat major Op. 64 no. 1; C sharp minor Op. 64 no. 2;
A flat major Op. 64 no, 3; A minor " Forgotten", without opus number.

In Chopin's early Waltzes, especially in his strict use of the time/ rhythm patterns, we can see a
close resemblance to the authentic Viennese waltz model. These youthful Waltzes were also
inspired by the work of earlier Polish composers (Maria Szymanowska, Michal Kleofas Oginski,
Karol Kurpinski, Franciszek Lessel, Antoni Radziwill and others), as Chopin stylized the
Viennese waltz and the Polish city waltz in the same manner.
It has to be noted that mazurka elements are evident in Polish waltzes of the pre-Romantic
period. The similarities between the rhythmic, melodic and movement patterns of the two dances
make it hard to tell them apart.6 Chopin, too, employed mazurka patterns in his Waltzes:
Rhythmic patterns:
Waltzes:
E flat major Op. 18 - bars 3, 4, 22 and following; bars 47, 48
A flat major Op. 34 no. I - bars 1, 5, 33 and following
A flat major Op. 64 no. 3 - bars 74, 80, 84
Melodic/movement patterns:
Swinging (like a pendulum) movement:
Waltz A flat major Op. 69 no. I - bars 33, 34
Anchor-like movement:
Waltz E flat major Op. 18 - bar 5 and following
Revolving (like windmill blades)
Waltz F major Op. 34 no. 3 - bar 17 and following
D flat major Op. 64 no. I - bar I and following

The Chopin Waltz form, just like that of the earlier composers, is confined within the reprise
pattern.7 However, Chopin's talent is by far greater than that of his Polish predecessors, and so is
his creative imagination and sophisticated technique. Thanks to these qualities he gave the Waltz
an artistic status; his Waltz is a dance poem freed from its former utility function. Chopin also
had the edge over his contemporaries. Writing his Waltzes, he took advantage of the greater
possibilities offered by the then-modern instrument to add a virtuoso element to this dance form,
including octaves leaps, glissandos, passages and figurations based on the wide range of piano
registers. In this way he gave this dance the qualities typical of the brillante style. Furthermore,
Chopin used a whole range of emotions reflecting his personal feelings thanks to which his
Waltzes have their own unique character. The richness of expression and the variety of moods
reflect the vividness of the composer's imagination. At the same time, the lyrical quality of the
Waltz, along with a strong emphasis of the cantilena element, offers an insight into his
intellectual abilities.

As regards the texture of Chopin's Waltes, in these generally homophonic pieces we can find
examples of polyphony: (A flat major Op. 42; D flat major Op. 70 no. 3 (bars 1- 16);
A flat major Op. 64 no. 3 - Trio). However, typical of this polyphony is that it smoothly changes
to the homophonic-type texture (a characteristic trait of Chopin's polyphony.
Chopin's Waltzes provide interesting instances of polymetrics: F major Op. 34 no. 3 (bars 17-
48); D flat major Op. 64 no. I - bars 52, 53; C sharp minor Op. 64 no. 2 - bars 92, 93; A flat
major Op. 42 (bars 9-40).
The Chopin Waltz harmonics' richness comes from changes in the keys used in individual
periods (themes), the deceptive cadences, chromatic scale and exquisite modulations. This
develops together with Chopin's composing technique used for writing other pieces. Special
notice should be given to the remarkable "mobility" of the modulation in the last Waltz (A flat
major Op. 64 no. 3). The harmony of this Waltz displays some qualities of the "last" Chopin.
This "bird's eye view" of Chopin's entire Waltz cycle, while far from presenting a complete
picture of the form and content of these pieces, can give us some idea about the range of the
interpretive means which are required for playing these miniature pieces. It is important that the
interpreter of Chopin's Waltzes not only clearly presents the character and mood of each piece,
but also employs distinctly different means of expression, depending on when (in which period)
they were written. The means used for bringing out the sentimental style of the youthful Waltzes
cannot be employed for playing the mature Waltzes. Similarly, the tools of interpreting Chopin's
late and last Waltzes, when used to perform the simple and straightforward pieces from his early
period, may dangerously distort them into musical caricatures.
It might also seem that a practical knowledge of the waltz and the ability to "perform" it in the
ballroom is the simplest way to understand and feel its unique atmosphere, charm, elegance, and
conventional distance. A word of caution, however: the above qualities of the waltz are, in the
case of Chopin, interspersed with fragments of sincere lyrical expression, sometimes with bitter
reflection, while at other points, with unrestrained joy and gaiety. The kaleidoscopic pattern of
moods occurring in individual periods (themes) of Chopin's Waltzes and the contrasting climate
and nature of the interwoven fragments require that the interpreter has enough ability, mental
flexibility and iron intellectual discipline to cope with these problems and still to create the
impression of light social entertainment.
English translation: Jerzy Ossowski

________________________________
1
The waltz (Walzer), initially a folk dance originated in southern Germany (1750), was danced
in slow 3/4 and 3/8 time by couples in clogs or hobnailed boots on the lawn in front of the village
inn or in the town square. In the early 1911 century the waltz moved to cities and became
popular among Vienna's bourgeoisie. The ballroom waltz was faster with long, smooth steps and
more flexible figures. This was possible thanks to the light shoes and dress worn by dancers, as
well as to the waxed floor. The waltz has only one accent, on "one," the remaining beats in the
bar are light and equal in length.
2
The term "some" results from the fact that Chopin's first Waltzes, composed in 1825 and 1828,
have been lost.
3
Dziela wszystkie F Chopina [The Complete Works of F. Chopin]. Instytut F. Chopina, Polskie
Wydawnictwo Muzyczne. Cracow 1949.
4
Dwa zopomnione utwory Chopina [Two Forgotten Pieces by Chopin], edited by Antoni
Koszewski. Polskie Wyclawnictwo Muzyczne. Cracow 1965.,
5
in publications the Waltzes without opus numbers are marked " op. post."
6
Koszewski, A., Melodyka Walcow Chopina, (w): Studio Muzykologiczne (in Polish) [The
Melodic Structure in Chopin Waltzes (in): Musicological Studies]. Cracow 1953, volume 2.
7
In Chopin, the A-B-A reprise form is often preceded by an Introduction and finished, especially
in his later Waltzes, with spectacular Coda. The clearly separated middle part (Trio) is in contrast
to the outer parts as regards mood and texture.

This is the last article in a series of six highly acclaimed works in which the author deals
with the difficult matter of interpretation of Chopin music. All of them are published on
the Chopin Foundation's web site at www.chopin.org