CONTENT AREAS FOR JHS INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Rockson Obeng Boahen

B.Ed (Junior High Education)
Science and Mathematics
Obengboahenrock1@gmail.com
+233548358216
Unit 1
Soil Formation (Weathering)
Soil formation is a process that involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller
particles, which then mix with organic matter to form soil.
Weathering is the primary process that breaks down rocks into smaller particles. There are two
types of weathering: physical and chemical weathering.
• Physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks due to physical forces such as
wind, water, and temperature changes.
• Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks due to chemical reactions such as
oxidation and hydrolysis.
The products of weathering are minerals and organic matter, which mix together to form soil.

Properties of Soil
The properties of soil include texture, structure, color, porosity, permeability, and pH.
• Texture refers to the size of the soil particles, which can be classified as sand, silt, or clay.
• Structure refers to the arrangement of the soil particles, which can be classified as
granular, blocky, or platy.
• Color can indicate the presence of certain minerals or organic matter in the soil.
• Porosity refers to the amount of space between soil particles, which affects the soil’s
ability to hold water.
• Permeability refers to the soil’s ability to allow water to pass through it.
• pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil, which affects the availability of nutrients
to plants.

Soil Profile
A soil profile is a vertical section of soil that shows the different layers or horizons.
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• The top layer is called the O horizon, which consists of organic matter such as leaves and
twigs.
• The A horizon is the topsoil, which is rich in nutrients and organic matter.
• The B horizon is the subsoil, which contains less organic matter but more minerals.
• The C horizon is the parent material, which is the rock or sediment from which the soil
was formed.
• The R horizon is the bedrock, which is the solid rock beneath the soil.

Unit 2
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures:
Elements are pure substances made up of only one type of atom that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical means.
Compounds are pure substances made up of two or more different types of atoms chemically
combined in a fixed ratio.
Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances that are not chemically combined and can
be separated by physical means.

Chemical Symbols of Elements:

Chemical symbols are abbreviations used to represent elements. They are one or two letters long
and are based on the English name or Latin name of the element. Examples: H for hydrogen, O
for oxygen, Na for sodium, Cl for chlorine.

Atomic Structure:
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that retain the properties of an element.
They consist of a positively charged nucleus made up of protons and neutrons, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic
number and identity of the element. The mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in
the nucleus.

Formation of Ions:
Ions are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons and have a net electrical charge.
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Cations are positively charged ions formed when an atom loses one or more electrons. Anions
are negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains one or more electrons. Ionic compounds
are formed when cations and anions attract each other due to their opposite charges.

Electronic Configuration:
The electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom or molecule. Electrons
occupy energy levels or shells around the nucleus. Each energy level can hold a maximum
number of electrons, with the first shell holding up to 2 electrons and subsequent shells holding
up to 8 electrons. The electronic configuration can be represented using electron configuration
notation or orbital notation.

Unit 3
Acids and Bases:
Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
Acids have a pH less than 7, while bases have a pH greater than 7.
Acids taste sour and can corrode metals, while bases taste bitter and feel slippery.

Classification of Acids and Bases:

• Acids can be classified as strong or weak based on their ability to ionize in water.
Strong acids ionize completely in water, while weak acids only partially ionize.
• Bases can be classified as strong or weak based on their ability to dissociate in water.
Strong bases dissociate completely in water, while weak bases only partially dissociate.

Effects of Acids and Bases on the Human Body:

• The human body has a pH range of 7.35-7.45, which is slightly alkaline.
• Acidosis occurs when the blood pH drops below 7.35, while alkalosis occurs when the
blood pH rises above 7.45.
• Acidic substances can irritate or burn the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.
• Basic substances can also irritate the skin and eyes, but they can also cause tissue damage
and chemical burns.
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Preparation of Salts:
Salts are compounds formed from the reaction between an acid and a base.
The general equation for the reaction is acid + base → salt + water. The type of salt formed
depends on the specific acid and base used. Salts can also be prepared by reacting a metal with
an acid to form a salt and hydrogen gas. Salts can be purified by recrystallization, which involves
dissolving the salt in hot water and allowing it to cool and crystallize.

Unit 4
Chemical Compounds:
A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more different elements bonded
together. The properties of a compound are different from the properties of its constituent
elements. Compounds can be classified as organic or inorganic based on the presence of carbon
atoms. Examples of common compounds include water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl), and
glucose (C6H12O6)

Formation of Chemical Compounds:

Chemical compounds can be formed through a variety of chemical reactions, including synthesis,
decomposition, and combustion.
• Synthesis reactions involve the combination of two or more substances to form a new
compound (ex: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O)
• Decomposition reactions involve the breakdown of a compound into its constituent
elements or simpler compounds (ex: 2H2O → 2H2 + O2)
• Combustion reactions involve the reaction of a substance with oxygen to produce heat
and light (ex: C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O)

Balancing Chemical Equations:

Chemical equations represent the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using chemical
formulas and symbols. Balancing chemical equations involves ensuring that the number of atoms
of each element is equal on both sides of the equation. Balancing is achieved by adjusting the
coefficients in front of each compound or element in the equation. The law of conservation of
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mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction, so the total number
of atoms of each element must be conserved in the balanced equation.

Unit 5
Causes and Effects of Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion is the process by which soil is moved or displaced from one location to another by
natural or human activities.
• Natural causes of soil erosion include wind, water, and gravity, while human activities
such as deforestation, overgrazing, and improper land use practices also contribute to soil
erosion.
• The effects of soil erosion include loss of topsoil, decreased soil fertility, reduced crop
yields, and increased sedimentation in water bodies.

Ways of Maintaining Soil Fertility:

Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to support plant growth and productivity. Ways of
maintaining soil fertility include crop rotation, cover cropping, mulching, and adding organic
matter to the soil.
• Crop rotation involves alternating the types of crops grown on a piece of land to prevent
depletion of soil nutrients.
• Cover cropping involves planting crops that cover the soil surface to prevent erosion and
improve soil structure.
• Mulching involves covering the soil with a layer of organic material such as leaves or
straw to retain moisture and improve soil fertility.
• Adding organic matter to the soil can be done through composting or applying animal
manure to the soil.

Types of Fertilizers and Methods of Fertilizer Application:

Fertilizers are substances added to the soil to provide essential nutrients for plant growth. There
are two main types of fertilizers: organic and inorganic.
• Organic fertilizers are derived from natural sources such as animal manure, compost, and
bone meal.
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• Inorganic fertilizers are synthetic products made from chemicals such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium.
Methods of fertilizer application include broadcasting, banding, and foliar spraying.
• Broadcasting involves spreading fertilizer evenly over a large area, while banding
involves placing fertilizer in a narrow band near the plant roots.
• Foliar spraying involves applying fertilizer directly to the leaves of plants.

Effects of Chemical Fertilizer on Plants:

Chemical fertilizers can have both positive and negative effects on plant growth and productivity.
• Positive effects include increased crop yields and improved plant growth.
• Negative effects include soil acidification, nutrient imbalances, and decreased soil
fertility over time.
• Overuse of chemical fertilizers can also lead to environmental problems such as water
pollution and eutrophication.

Unit 6
External Features of a Flowering Plant:
The main external features of a flowering plant include the root system, stem, leaves, flowers,
and fruits.
The root system anchors the plant in the soil and absorbs water and nutrients from the soil.
The stem supports the plant and transports water, nutrients, and sugars between the roots and
leaves.
The leaves are the primary site of photosynthesis, where sunlight is used to convert carbon
dioxide and water into glucose.
Flowers are reproductive structures that produce seeds through pollination by insects, birds, or
wind.
Fruits are mature ovaries that protect and disperse seeds.

Stages in the Life Cycle of Flowering Plants:

The life cycle of a flowering plant begins with seed germination, where the seed absorbs water
and begins to grow.
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The seedling stage follows, where the plant develops roots, stems, and leaves.
The vegetative stage is characterized by rapid growth and development of leaves and stems.
The reproductive stage begins with the formation of flowers and ends with the production of
fruits and seeds.
The plant then enters a dormant stage during which it may shed leaves or become inactive until
conditions are favorable for growth.

Factors that Affect the Life Cycle of Flowering Plants:

Environmental factors such as light, temperature, water availability, and soil nutrients can affect
the life cycle of flowering plants.
• Light is essential for photosynthesis and can trigger flowering in some plants.
• Temperature affects plant growth and development, with different plants having specific
temperature requirements.
• Water availability is crucial for plant survival, with some plants being adapted to dry
conditions while others require high levels of moisture.
• Soil nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are essential for plant growth
and can affect flowering and fruit production.

Germination of Plants:
Germination is the process by which a seed begins to grow and develop into a seedling. The
process begins with the absorption of water by the seed, which activates enzymes that break
down stored food reserves. The embryo within the seed then begins to grow and develop into a
seedling, with the first structure to emerge being the root. The shoot then emerges from the seed
and develops into the stem and leaves. During germination, the seedling relies on stored food
reserves until it is able to produce its own through photosynthesis.

Unit 7
Climatic Factors that Enhance Vegetable Crop Production:
• Temperature: Most vegetable crops require a temperature range of 15-30°C for optimal
growth. Some crops like tomatoes and peppers require higher temperatures, while others
like lettuce and spinach prefer cooler temperatures.
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• Light: Most vegetables require full sunlight for at least 6 hours a day to produce healthy
crops. However, some crops like lettuce and spinach can tolerate partial shade.
• Water: Adequate water supply is essential for vegetable production. The amount of water
required depends on the crop, soil type, and weather conditions.
• Humidity: High humidity levels can lead to fungal diseases in vegetable crops, while low
humidity can cause water stress.
• Wind: Strong winds can damage vegetable crops, especially young plants. Windbreaks
can be used to protect crops from wind damage.

Cultural Practices in Vegetable Production:

• Soil preparation: The soil should be well-drained and fertile. Organic matter like compost
or manure can be added to improve soil fertility.
• Planting: Vegetable seeds should be planted at the appropriate depth and spacing.
Seedlings should be transplanted at the right time to avoid stress and ensure healthy
growth.
• Irrigation: Adequate irrigation is essential for vegetable production. Drip irrigation is a
popular method as it reduces water loss through evaporation and minimizes the risk of
fungal diseases.
• Fertilization: Vegetables require nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for
healthy growth. Fertilizers should be applied at the appropriate time and rate to avoid
over-fertilization.
• Weed control: Weeds compete with vegetable crops for nutrients and water. Mechanical
or chemical methods can be used to control weeds.
• Pest and disease control: Pests and diseases can cause significant damage to vegetable
crops. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies involving cultural, biological, and
chemical methods can be used to control pests and diseases.
Unit 8
Weather, Season, and Climate:
Weather refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific area, such as temperature,
precipitation, wind, and humidity.
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Seasons are defined by changes in weather patterns and the position of the Earth in relation to the
sun. For example, summer is characterized by warmer temperatures and longer days, while
winter is characterized by colder temperatures and shorter days.
Climate refers to the long-term patterns of weather in a particular area, including average
temperature, rainfall, and other factors.

Weather Conditions and Their Effects on Living Organisms:

• Temperature: Extreme temperatures can be harmful to living organisms. High
temperatures can cause heat stress or even death, while low temperatures can cause
frostbite or hypothermia.
• Precipitation: Adequate rainfall is essential for plant growth and survival. Heavy rainfall
or flooding can damage crops and cause soil erosion. Droughts can also be harmful to
plants and animals.
• Wind: Strong winds can cause physical damage to plants and animals. Wind can also
spread pollen, seeds, and disease.
• Humidity: High humidity levels can increase the risk of fungal diseases in plants and
animals. Low humidity can cause dehydration and other health problems.
• Light: Plants require light for photosynthesis and growth. Animals also rely on light for
various physiological processes.

Human Activities that Contribute to Climate Change and Ways of Reducing Them:
• Burning fossil fuels: The burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas releases greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. To reduce this impact,
individuals and governments can invest in renewable energy sources like solar or wind
power.
• Deforestation: Cutting down trees reduces the amount of carbon dioxide that can be
absorbed by plants, contributing to climate change. Reforestation efforts can help to
mitigate this impact.
• Transportation: Cars, trucks, and airplanes emit greenhouse gases that contribute to
climate change. Using public transportation, carpooling, or walking or biking instead of
driving can help to reduce this impact.
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• Agriculture: Livestock farming and the use of synthetic fertilizers in agriculture can
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable farming practices like crop rotation,
organic farming, and reducing food waste can help to reduce this impact.
• Waste management: Landfills and waste incineration also release greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere. Recycling, composting, and reducing waste can help to reduce this
impact.

Unit 9
Traditional farming systems in Ghana:
Farmers rely on traditional methods of farming and use simple tools like hoes and machetes.
Grow a variety of crops, including maize, cassava, yams, and vegetables. Livestock farming is
also common, with farmers raising cattle, goats, and sheep

Modern farming systems in Ghana:

Farmers use modern technologies and techniques to increase productivity and efficiency. Often
specialize in the production of a single crop, such as cocoa, cashew, or pineapple. Modern
farming techniques include the use of irrigation systems, mechanized equipment, and chemical
fertilizers and pesticides

Sustainable farming practices in Ghana:

Aim to reduce the environmental impact of farming while increasing productivity and
profitability for farmers.
• Agroforestry: planting trees alongside crops to improve soil quality and prevent erosion
• Crop rotation: alternating the type of crops grown in a field to prevent soil depletion and
pest infestations
• Organic farming: avoiding the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, relying instead
on natural methods like composting and crop rotation
• Natural pest control methods: using natural predators or repellents to control pests instead
of chemical pesticides
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Benefits of traditional farming systems:

• Low cost: farmers do not need to invest in expensive equipment or technology
• Diversified crops: growing a variety of crops helps ensure food security and provides a
source of income from different markets
• Sustainable: traditional methods are often more environmentally friendly and can help
preserve soil quality

Benefits of modern farming systems:

• Increased productivity: modern technologies and techniques can help farmers produce
more crops with less labor
• Specialization: focusing on a single crop can help farmers become experts in that crop
and increase profitability
• Access to markets: larger-scale commercial farming can provide access to larger markets
and higher prices for crops

Benefits of sustainable farming practices:

• Environmentally friendly: sustainable practices help reduce the environmental impact of
farming
• Long-term profitability: sustainable practices can help preserve soil quality and ensure
long-term productivity
• Healthier food: organic farming and natural pest control methods can produce healthier,
pesticide-free crops

Challenges facing the farming sector in Ghana:

• Limited access to financing and markets
• Land degradation due to overuse and deforestation
• Climate change, including unpredictable weather patterns and increased pest infestations

Unit 10
Heredity and the concept of inheritance:
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Heredity refers to the passing on of traits from parents to offspring through genetic material.
Genetic material is composed of DNA, which contains the instructions for the development and
functioning of living organisms. Inheritance is the process by which these genetic instructions
are passed down from one generation to the next. The study of heredity and inheritance is known
as genetics.

Inheritable characteristics:
Inheritable characteristics are traits that are passed down from parents to offspring through
genetic material. These traits can be physical, such as eye color or height, or behavioral, such as
temperament or intelligence. Inheritable characteristics are determined by genes, which are
specific segments of DNA that code for particular traits. Some traits are controlled by a single
gene, while others are controlled by multiple genes. Inheritable characteristics can also be
influenced by environmental factors, such as diet or exposure to toxins.

Unit 11
Parts of the human reproductive system:
Male reproductive system: includes the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, urethra, and penis.
Female reproductive system: includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and
vulva.

Functions of the human reproductive system:

• Male reproductive system: produces and delivers sperm for fertilization of the female
egg.
• Female reproductive system: produces and releases eggs for fertilization by sperm,
provides a suitable environment for fertilization and development of the fetus, and gives
birth to the baby.

Human reproductive stages:

• Puberty: the onset of sexual maturity, characterized by the development of secondary
sexual characteristics and the ability to reproduce.
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• Menstrual cycle: the monthly cycle of hormonal changes in females that prepares the
body for pregnancy and leads to menstruation if pregnancy does not occur.
• Fertilization: the process by which a sperm cell joins with an egg cell to form a zygote,
which develops into a fetus.
• Pregnancy: the period of gestation during which a fertilized egg develops into a fetus
inside the uterus.
• Labor and delivery: the process by which the fetus is expelled from the uterus through the
vagina during childbirth.

Unit 12
Parts of the human digestive system:
• Mouth: where food enters the digestive system and is mechanically broken down by teeth
and saliva.
• Esophagus: a muscular tube that transports food from the mouth to the stomach.
• Stomach: a muscular sac that mixes and grinds food with digestive juices to create a
semi-liquid mixture called chyme.
• Small intestine: a long, narrow tube where most of the digestion and absorption of
nutrients occurs.
• Large intestine: a wider tube that absorbs water and electrolytes from undigested food,
forming feces.
• Rectum: the lower part of the large intestine where feces are stored before elimination.
• Anus: the opening through which feces are eliminated from the body.

Functions of the human digestive system:

• Ingestion: the process of taking in food.
• Mechanical digestion: the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
• Chemical digestion: the breakdown of food molecules into their component parts by
enzymes and other digestive juices.
• Absorption: the process by which nutrients are taken up into the bloodstream and
transported to cells throughout the body.
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• Elimination: the removal of undigested waste products from the body.

Processes of digestion of food substances:

Carbohydrates: broken down into simple sugars by enzymes in the mouth and small
intestine.Proteins: broken down into amino acids by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine.
Fats: broken down into fatty acids and glycerol by bile and enzymes in the small intestine.

Causes and effects of ingestion in humans:

• Hunger: the physiological need for food caused by low blood sugar levels and an empty
stomach.
• Appetite: the psychological desire for food based on sensory cues, such as smell or taste.
• Overeating: consuming more calories than the body needs, leading to weight gain and
other health problems.
• Malnutrition: a lack of essential nutrients in the diet, leading to poor health and grow

Unit 13
• Sources of light: Light can come from natural sources such as the sun, stars, and fire, or
from artificial sources such as light bulbs, lamps, and electronic devices.
• Rectilinear propagation of light: Light travels in straight lines in a vacuum or a uniform
medium. This is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
• Formation of shadows: Shadows are formed when an opaque object blocks the path of
light. The area behind the object where light cannot reach is called the shadow.
• Eclipse: An eclipse occurs when one celestial body passes in front of another, blocking its
light. There are two types of eclipses: solar eclipses, where the moon passes in front of
the sun, and lunar eclipses, where the Earth passes between the sun and the moon.
• Reflection and refraction of light: Reflection occurs when light bounces off a surface,
while refraction occurs when light changes direction as it passes through a medium with a
different density. These phenomena are important in optics and have many practical
applications, such as in mirrors, lenses, and prisms.
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Unit 14
Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources of Energy:
Renewable sources of energy are those that can be replenished naturally, such as solar, wind,
hydro, geothermal, and biomass energy. Non-renewable sources of energy are those that cannot
be replenished naturally, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and nuclear energy.

Forms and Transformations of Energy:

• Energy can exist in different forms, such as kinetic energy (energy of motion), potential
energy (energy of position), thermal energy (energy of heat), chemical energy (energy
stored in chemical bonds), electrical energy (energy of electric charges), and nuclear
energy (energy stored in atomic nuclei).
• Energy can be transformed from one form to another, such as when potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy, or when chemical energy is converted to thermal energy.

Energy Conservation Practices in Our Homes:

• Turning off lights and electronics when not in use.
• Using energy-efficient appliances and light bulbs.
• Properly insulating homes to reduce heating and cooling needs.
• Using natural light and ventilation instead of artificial sources.
• Conserving water to reduce energy needed for pumping and heating.
• Recycling and reducing waste to conserve resources and energy.

Unit 15
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight,
carbon dioxide, and water into glucose (sugar) and oxygen. The word "photosynthesis"
comes from the Greek words "photo" meaning light and "synthesis" meaning putting
together. The symbol equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6 H2O + sunlight →
C6H12O6 + 6 O2
• Photosynthesis requires three main factors: sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water.
Chlorophyll, a pigment found in the chloroplasts of plant cells, absorbs light energy and
converts it into chemical energy. Carbon dioxide is taken in through small openings in the
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leaves called stomata, and water is absorbed by the roots and transported up to the leaves
through the xylem.
• Photosynthesis is essential to both plants and animals. Plants use the glucose produced
during photosynthesis as a source of energy for growth and reproduction. They also
release oxygen as a byproduct, which animals need for respiration. Without
photosynthesis, there would be no oxygen in the atmosphere and life on Earth would not
exist as we know it. Additionally, photosynthesis helps regulate the levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, which is important for maintaining a stable climate.

Unit 16
Food items:
• Carbohydrates: provide energy and are found in foods such as bread, pasta, and rice.
• Proteins: essential for growth and repair of tissues and can be found in foods such as
meat, fish, and beans.
• Fats: also provide energy and help absorb vitamins, found in foods such as butter, oils,
and nuts.
• Vitamins: essential for various bodily functions, found in fruits, vegetables, and fortified
cereals.
• Minerals: important for bone health and other bodily functions, found in foods such as
dairy products, leafy greens, and nuts.

Effects of malnutrition:
• Undernutrition: can lead to stunted growth, weakened immune system, and increased risk
of infections.
• Over-nutrition: can lead to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

Balanced diet:
A balanced diet includes a variety of foods from all food groups in appropriate portions. It is
important for maintaining overall health and preventing chronic diseases. Examples of a
balanced diet include the Mediterranean diet and the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop
Hypertension) diet.
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Unit 17
Effects of heat on substances:
• Heat can cause substances to change state, such as melting or boiling.
• Heat can cause chemical reactions, such as combustion or decomposition.
• Heat can cause physical changes, such as expansion or contraction.

Modes of heat transfer:

• Conduction: heat transfer through direct contact between two objects.
• Convection: heat transfer through the movement of fluids, such as air or water.
• Radiation: heat transfer through electromagnetic waves, such as from the sun or a fire.
• Heat can also be transferred through a combination of these modes, such as in a pot of
boiling water where conduction is occurring between the pot and the water, convection is
occurring within the water, and radiation is occurring from the stove to the pot.

Unit 18
Physical Changes:
Physical changes refer to changes in the physical properties of a substance, such as its shape,
size, color, or state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas). These changes do not alter the chemical
composition of the substance. Examples of physical changes include melting ice, boiling water,
crushing a can, or cutting paper. Physical changes:
• Do not alter the chemical composition of a substance.
• Involve changes in the physical properties of a substance.
• Can be reversible or irreversible.
• Do not involve the formation of new substances.
Examples of physical changes: Melting ice, Boiling water, Cutting paper, Crushing a can,
Dissolving salt in water.

Chemical Changes
Chemical changes refer to changes in the chemical composition of a substance, resulting in the
formation of new substances with different properties. Examples of chemical changes include
burning wood, rusting iron, digesting food, or baking a cake. Chemical changes:
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• Alter the chemical composition of a substance.

• Involve the formation of new substances with different properties.
• Are irreversible.
• May involve the release or absorption of energy.
Examples of chemical changes: Burning wood, Rusting iron, Digesting food, Baking a cake,
Photosynthesis.

Unit 19
Food Chain and Food Web:
• A food chain is a sequence of organisms in which each organism feeds on the one below
it and is itself preyed upon by the one above it. The first organism in a food chain is
always a producer, which makes its own food through photosynthesis. The next
organisms are consumers, which eat the producers or other consumers. There are three
types of consumers: herbivores (eat only plants), carnivores (eat only animals), and
omnivores (eat both plants and animals). At the top of the food chain are the apex
predators, which have no natural predators.
• A food web is a more complex model of the feeding relationships in an ecosystem. It
consists of many interconnected food chains, showing how energy and nutrients flow
through the ecosystem. In a food web, each organism can be both a predator and prey,
and there are many different pathways for energy transfer.

Transfer of Energy in the Ecosystem:

• Energy flows through the ecosystem in a one-way direction, from the sun to the
producers to the consumers and eventually to decomposers. Producers convert sunlight
into chemical energy through photosynthesis, which is then passed on to consumers when
they eat the producers. Each level of the food chain represents a trophic level, with
energy decreasing as it moves up the chain due to heat loss and inefficiencies in energy
transfer.
• The transfer of energy in the ecosystem is also affected by ecological pyramids, which
show the relative amounts of energy, biomass, or numbers of organisms at each trophic
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level. There are three types of ecological pyramids: pyramid of energy, pyramid of
biomass, and pyramid of numbers.
• Human activities can also affect the transfer of energy in the ecosystem, through factors
such as habitat destruction, pollution, overfishing, and climate change. These activities
can disrupt food webs and cause imbalances in the ecosystem, leading to declines in
biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Unit 20
Frictional Force:
Frictional force is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are in contact with
each other. It is caused by the microscopic irregularities on the surfaces of objects that come into
contact with each other. Frictional force can be classified into two types: static friction and
kinetic friction.
• Static friction is the force that prevents two stationary objects from moving relative to
each other when a force is applied. It is proportional to the force applied and the
coefficient of static friction between the two surfaces.
• Kinetic friction is the force that opposes the motion of two objects that are sliding against
each other. It is proportional to the normal force between the two surfaces and the
coefficient of kinetic friction.
• The coefficient of friction is a measure of the frictional force between two surfaces. It
depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact and their roughness.

Surface Tension:
Surface tension is the property of liquids that allows them to resist external forces that try to
break their surface. It is caused by the cohesive forces between molecules at the surface of a
liquid, which are stronger than the adhesive forces between the liquid and its container.
• Surface tension can be observed in many phenomena, such as the formation of droplets,
capillary action, and the floating of some insects on water.
• The surface tension of a liquid depends on several factors, including its composition,
temperature, and pressure. It can be measured using various methods, such as the drop
weight method and the capillary rise method.
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• Surface tension has many practical applications, such as in detergents, emulsions, and
coatings. It also plays an important role in biological systems, such as in the functioning
of cell membranes and the movement of fluids in plants and animals.

Unit 21
Infectious Disease:
An infectious disease is a disease caused by a pathogen, such as a virus, bacteria, or parasite.
These pathogens can be transmitted from person to person through direct or indirect contact, or
through contaminated food, water, or air. The symptoms of infectious diseases can vary
depending on the pathogen and the affected organ system. Common symptoms include fever,
fatigue, coughing, diarrhea, and skin rashes. Infectious diseases can be prevented through various
measures such as vaccination, hand hygiene, safe sex practices, and avoiding contact with
infected individuals or contaminated objects.

Prevention of Infectious Disease:

• Vaccination: Vaccines are a safe and effective way to prevent infectious diseases. They
work by stimulating the body's immune system to produce antibodies that can recognize
and fight off specific pathogens.
• Hand hygiene: Regular hand washing with soap and water or using hand sanitizers can
prevent the spread of many infectious diseases.
• Safe sex practices: Using condoms during sexual activity can prevent the transmission of
sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
• Avoiding contact with infected individuals or contaminated objects: This includes
avoiding close contact with sick people, covering your mouth when coughing or
sneezing, and avoiding sharing personal items such as towels or utensils.

Factors that Promote Good Health:

• Healthy diet: A balanced diet that includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
lean proteins, and healthy fats can provide essential nutrients for good health.
• Regular exercise: Physical activity can improve cardiovascular health, strengthen bones
and muscles, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and obesity.
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• Adequate sleep: Getting enough sleep is important for physical and mental health. It can
improve memory and concentration, boost the immune system, and reduce the risk of
chronic diseases.
• Stress management: Chronic stress can have negative effects on physical and mental
health. Practicing relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing can
help reduce stress levels.
• Avoiding harmful substances: This includes avoiding tobacco products, excessive alcohol
consumption, and illegal drugs, which can have negative effects on health.

Unit 22
Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Substances:
Magnetic substances are materials that can be attracted by a magnet and can be magnetized.
Examples of magnetic substances include iron, nickel, cobalt, and some alloys.

Non-magnetic substances are materials that are not attracted by a magnet and cannot be
magnetized. Examples of non-magnetic substances include wood, plastic, glass, and rubber.

Electromagnetism:
Electromagnetism is the interaction between electric currents and magnetic fields. When an
electric current flows through a wire, it creates a magnetic field around the wire. This magnetic
field can be used to attract or repel other magnets or magnetic materials. Electromagnets are
devices that use electricity to create a magnetic field. They are used in many applications, such
as electric motors, generators, and MRI machines.

Application and Uses of Magnets:

Magnets have many practical applications in everyday life. Some examples include:
• Magnetic storage: Magnetic materials are used in hard drives, floppy disks, and cassette
tapes to store data.
• Magnetic separation: Magnetic materials can be used to separate magnetic substances
from non-magnetic substances in industries such as mining and recycling.
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• Magnetic levitation: Magnets can be used to levitate objects such as trains and maglev
vehicles.
• Medical applications: Magnetic materials are used in medical imaging technologies such
as MRI machines.
• Household appliances: Magnets are used in many household appliances such as
refrigerators, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners.
• Education: Magnets are often used in science experiments to teach students about
magnetism and electromagnetism.