Unit 3: Industrial Chemistry

3.1. Introduction
Industrial chemistry in a branch of chemistry which applies physical and chemical products towards
the transformation of natural raw materials & their derivatives into products that have benefits to humanity.
It is the basis of the chemical industry.
The chemical industry is an institution involved in producing chemical products such as food,
medicine, building materials, plastics, etc.
Generally, chemical industries:
 Use naturally or artificially available raw materials to produce the desired products
 Involve chemical reactions to transform raw materials into finished & semi–finished products.
 Consume relatively large quantities of energy during the manufacturing process.
 Use safe operation methods in their manufacturing process and
 Test products during and after manufacturing in their quality control laboratories to ensure that the
products meet the required specifications.
3.2. Natural Resources & Industry
Natural resources are the raw materials for the chemical industry which are obtained from the natural
environment.
The raw materials are obtained from the different components of the natural environment. These are:
 From the Atmosphere:
The Earth’s atmosphere has approximately 5x1015 tons of gases. It is composed of N2, O2,
CO2, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe.
 From the Hydrosphere:
Ocean which amounts to about 1.5x1021 litres contains about 3.5% by mass dissolved
materials.
 From the Lithosphere:
Elements are obtained from the Earth's crust in the form of mineral ores, C & hydrocarbons,
coal, natural gas & crude petroleum.
 From the Biosphere:
Vegetation & animals contribute raw materials to the so called agro–based industries.
Oils, fats, waxes, resins, sugar, natural fibres & leather are examples of thousands of natural
products
Classification of Natural Resources
Natural Resources can be classified as:
1. Renewable and
2. Non–renewable resources.
Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are
known as renewable resources.
Ex. Plants and animals, wood & wood products, natural rubber, fibers (cotton, jute, animal wool,
silk & synthetic fibers), pulp products and leather, water, soil, solar energy, etc.

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Non– Renewable Resources: The resources that cannot be replenished (regenerated) through
natural processes are known as non–renewable resources.
Ex. Fossil fuels (petrol, coal, etc.), metals, minerals & salts
Manufacturing Industry is a compartment of industry or economy which is concerned with the
production or making of goods out of raw materials by means of a system of organized labor.
It uses different type of raw materials, skills & technologies. As a result, different types of
products are manufactured.
Chemical Industry is a facility where industrial chemicals are manufactured. The products result
from:
a. Chemical reaction between organic materials or inorganic materials or both
b. Extraction, separation, or purification of natural products, with or without the aid of
chemical reactions.
c. The preparation of specifically valuable materials
Classification of Chemical Industry based on Raw Material used for Production
1. Chemical industries use natural raw materials (resources).
Ex. Sugar industries use sugar cane to manufacture sugar.
2. Chemical industries use products from other industries to manufacture their products
Ex. Detergent & soap manufacturing industries use preprocessed products like Caustic soda, caustic
potash
Classification based on the product type
Ex.
 Food processing industries
 Beverage industries
 Textiles industries
 Wearing apparel industries
 Weather industries
 Paper & chemical industries
3.3. Manufacturing of Valuable products/chemicals
Input (raw material) → Transformation (Process) → Product (output)
3.3.1. Ammonia (NH3)
PROPERTIES

 lighter than air with a density of 0.769 Kg/m3

 Commercially & commonly available as an aqueous solution.
 The most commercial formulation is 28–30% NH3.
 Is partially ionized.
NH3 +H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH—

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 Is a weak base, colorless with sharp & intensely irritating gas
 Its M.pt. is –77.7°C
 Its B.pt. is –33.35°C
 Its solubility at 25c is 34% (w/w)
USES
Ammonia is used as a cleaning agent, antimicrobial agent, a raw material for the production
of N fertilizers, raw materials in the manufacturing of explosives such as nitro cellulose & TNT,
used in the manufacture of soda ash and in the Ostwald Process to get HNO3
PREPARATION
1. 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 + heat → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3 (g)
2. Haber process (Haber – Bosch process)
N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 at 300–500 °C, 15–25MPa and catalyst Fe
3.3.2. Nitric Acid (HNO3)
PROPERTIES
 Pure HNO3 has a density of 1.51 g/cm3
 It is a colorless liquid with a highly pungent odor
 On exposure to light, it turns brown between of slight decomposition into NO2 (brown) and O2
4HNO3 (l) → 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

 It is a strong acid & dissociates completely to give H3O+ & NO3—

 It forms salts called nitrates.
 It is a highly corrosive mineral acid
 HNO3 & its salts are strong Oxidizing agents.
USES

 It is an important component of fertilizers

 It is used for soil acidification in horticulture
 It is used to make explosives such as TNT & nitroglycerine
 Production of Organic dyes
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Production of fungicides
 Cleaning & etching of metal surfaces
 Refining of precious metals for the jewelry industry (in the preparation of aqua Regia)
 Production of house–hold cleaning products
 Detection of traces of metals in laboratory test substances
PREPARATION
1. NO2 + H2O → HNO3
2. 2KNO3 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 +2HNO3
3. Ostwald Process
i. 4NH3 (g) + SO2 → 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g) at 850°C, 5 atm, and catalyst Pt

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 ii. 2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
iii. 3NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HNO3 (aq.) + NO(g)

3.3.3. Nitrogen – Based Fertilizers

include anhydrous Ammonia, Urea, Urea–Ammonium nitrate (UAN) solutions and
Diammonium monohydrogen phosphate ( DAP or (NH4)2HPO4 ).
Anhydrous Ammonia is the most basic form of nitrogen fertilizer.

APPLICATION
is applied by injection 6 to 8 inches below the soil surface to minimize escape of gaseous
NH3 into the air.
NH3 is very Hygroscopic.
NH4+ → NO2— by the action of Nitrosomonas bacteria
NO2— → NO3— by the action of Nitrobacteria & Nitrosolobus bacteria
The process is called Nitrification.
Urea
Is a solid fertilizer with high N content (46%).
PRODUCTION
2NH3 + CO2 → NH2COONH4 (Ammonium carbamate)
NH2COONH4 → (NH2)2CO + H2O (urea + water) at high temperature and high pressure
Soil reaction: (NH2)2CO + H2O → CO2 + 2NH3
Urea Ammonium Nitrate (UAN) solutions are mixtures of urea, ammonium nitrate and
water in proportion of 35%, 45% and 20%, respectively.
PRODUCTION
Dissolved urea is mixed with a heated solution of NH4NO3 to make a clear liquid fertilizer
Diammonium Monohydrogen phosphate ( DAP or (NH4)2HPO4 ), which is a white
crystalline compound.
3NH3 (g) + 2H3PO4 (l) → NH4H2PO4 (s) + (NH4)2HPO4 (s)
NH4H2PO4 (s) + NH3 (g) → (NH4)2HPO4 (s)
 DAP is as a fertilizer. It increases soil acidity
 DAP has the advantage of having both N and P which are essential for plant growth.
 It is used as fire retardant
 It is used as a yeast nutrient in wine–making and beer–brewing
3.3.4. H2SO4
PROPERTIES
 Anhydrous, 100% H2SO4 is a colourless, odourless, heavy, oily liquid.

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 It is heavier than water.
 It melts at 10.5°C & boils at 338°C.
 Soluble in all ratios with water.
 Is highly corrosive, reactive & soluble in water
 Acts as a strong oxidizing & dehydrating agent it can oxidize both metals and non– metals (
reduces itself to SO2)
Ex.
Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + H2O
2H2SO4+ C → 2SO2 + CO2 + 2H2O
 35% H2SO4 is commonly called battery acid while 62.18% H2SO4 is known as Chamber Acid,
used for the production of fertilizers.
PREPARATION
i. S + O2 → SO2
ii. 2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 at 400°C and catalyst V2O5
iii. SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (fuming H2SO4 or oleum)
iv. H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
3.3.5. Some Common Pesticides Herbicides
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds & other plant
pathogens.
General characteristics for some Pesticides
Pesticides Characteristics Main Composition
Organo chlorines  soluble in lipids composed of C, H, Cl & O
 they accumulate in the atoms. They are non–polar &
fatty tissue of animals & lipophilic
transferred through the
food chain
Organo phosphates  soluble in organic solvents possess central P atom in the
& in water molecule. In relation with
 infiltrate reaching ground organochlorines, these
water, less persistent than compounds are more stable
chlorinated hydrocarbons and less toxic in the
 some affect the central environment. The
nervous system. Organophosphate pesticides
 are absorbed by plants & can be aliphatic, cyclic and
then transferred to leaves heterocyclic.
& stems which are the
supply of leaf–eating
insects or feed on wise.

Carbamates  carbamate acid derivatives chemical structure based on a

 kill a limited spectrum of plant alkaloid Physostigma
insects. Venenosum.
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  highly toxic to vertebrates
 relatively low persistence
Pyrethroids  affect the nervous system compounds similar to the
but less than compared to synthetic Pyrethrins (alkaloids
the other pesticides obtained from petals of
 the safest in terms of their Chysan themun Ciner
use Ariefolium)
 some are used as
household insecticides
Biological  only the Bacillus Virus microorganisms or their
thuringiensis (Bt) & its metabolic product
sub–species are used
with some frequency
 are applied against
forest pests & crops
 particularly against
butterflies & affect
other caterpillars

Pesticides from botanical origins & then apply it to fruits, vegetables, and other crops. These
pesticides are called botanical pesticides.
Botanical pesticides are extracted from various plant parts (stems, seeds, roots, leaves &
flower heads) of different plant species.
Ex. Common natural pesticides like Neem leaf, salt of spray, onion & garlic spray
Herbicides (Chemical Weed Killers)
Are substances used to control unwanted plants are called herbicides.
Common Groups of Herbicides
Type of herbicide group Example of herbicides
1. Chlorophenoxyl acids 2,4–D & 2,4,5–T
2. Triazines Atrazine, hexazinone, & simazine
3. Organic phosphorus chemicals Glyphosate
4. Amides Alachlor & metolachlor
5. Thiocarbamates Butylate
6. Dinitro anilines Trifluralin
7. Chloroaliphatics Dalapon & trichloro acetate
8. Inorganic chemicals Various arsenicals, cyanates and chlorates

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3.3.6. Na2CO3
PROPERTIES
 Sodium Carbonate (washing soda) is a white crystalline solid powder. It exists as a decahydrate
(Na2CO3 . 10H2O) compound.
 It has a density of 2.54 g/cm3, a purity of >98%
 It has a high M.pt. 851°C & high B.pt. of 1,600°C.
 It has hygroscopic properties in nature.
 Two forms of Na2CO3 are: light soda & dense soda.
 Light soda and dense soda are both chemically identical comps. with the only difference being
their densities & size.
 Light soda has a lower density of 0.7g/mL, while dense soda has about 0.9 g/mL.
USES OF Na2CO3

 For manufacturing of glass

 in the production of detergents and soaps
 in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, tissue digestion dissolving amphoteric metals
and comps, food preparation, and cleaning agent
 It is also used in the brick industry
Production Method (Solvay Process) or Ammonia–soda process
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
2NaCl + 2CO2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O → 2NaHCO3 + 2NH4Cl
2 NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl → CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
The over–all reaction.: CaCO3 + 2NaCl → Na2C03 + CaCl2
3.3.7. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
PROPERTIES
 is a white, translucent crystalline solid with a M.pt. of 591K.
 it is a stable comp
 it is often referred to as caustic soda.
 it decomposes proteins & burns through human bodies.
 it has bitter & a soapy feeling
 it is strongly alkaline
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
NaOH doesn't occur in nature.
NaCl + H2O → NaOH + HCl

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Castner–Kellner Process
Electrolysis of brine solution in performed to obtain NaOH
2NaCl → 2Na+ + Cl–
Rn. at the anode (Ti): 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
Rn. at the cathode (Hg): 2Na+ +2e– → 2 Na
The Amalgam formed is transferred to another chamber called denuder.
Na + H2O → NaOH
USES OF NaOH

 It is used in pulp and paper manufacturing, Alumina, in textile industry & drinking water
production.
 It is used in the manufacturing of soaps & detergents
3.4. Some Manufacturing Industries in Ethiopia
3.4.1. Glass Manufacturing
Glass is an amorphous or non–crystalline solid material.
The main component of glass is silica.
Quartz glass is made by melting Silica, SiO2, at a temp. of about 2300°C & pouring the molten
viscous liquid into moulds. It is of high strength, low thermal expansion and highly transparent.
Soda–lime glass is ordinary glass.
It is a mixture of Na2SiO3 & CaSiO3
It is made by heating a mixture of Silica, sand, Na2CO3 or Na2SO4 and lime stone.
Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO2
CaCO3 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + CO2
Soda lime glass accounts for about 90% of manufactured glass. This type of glass is widely
used for window panes, bottles, dishes etc.
Borosilicate glass is commonly known as Pyrex.
It is manufactured using Boron (III) oxide B2O3 instead of limestone or CaO.
This glass has high resistance to chemical corrosion.
It is widely used to make ovenware, & laboratory equipment such as flasks, beakers & test
tubes.
STEPS IN GLASS PRODUCTION
i. Batch preparation: refers to preparation of the raw materials
ii. Glass melting
iii. Glass forming: melted glass is made into required shape.
iv. Annealing: is a process that involves the removal of internal stresses by reheating the glass
followed by a controlled slow–cooling cycle during which the stresses are relieved.
v. Inspection: testing of the glass product
vi. Packing & dispatching
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3.4.2. Manufacturing of Ceramics
Ceramics is an inorganic non–metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Traditional ceramics such as porcelain, tiles & pottery are formed from minerals such as
clay, talc & feldspar.
Most industrial ceramics are formed from pure powders of chemicals such as SiC, Alumina,
Barium titanate & titanium carbide
THE STEPS OF MANUFACTURING CERAMICS
A. Moulding
B. Densification: uses intense heat to condense a ceramic object into a strong, dense product
Ceramic object is heated between 1000°C & 1700°C.
In general, most ceramics are hard & wear–resistant, brittle, refractory, thermal & electrical
insulators, non–magnetic, oxidation–resistant, and chemically stable.
Well–Known uses of Ceramics: commonly found in art sculptures dishes platters, and other kitchen
tiles & bathroom structures.
Lesser–Known uses of ceramics: used as electrical insulators, computer parts, tools, dental
replacements, engine parts & tiles on space shuttles, and to replace bones such as the bones in hips,
knees and shoulders.
Future uses of ceramics: might be used to remove impurities from drinking water & to replace
diseased heart valves.
3.4.3. Cement
The raw materials are lime stone clay, silica sand, gypsum, CaSiO3, Calcium aluminate, Fe2O3,
MgO and pumice.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Cement is made by heating lime stone (chalk), alumina (Al2O3) & silica bearing materials
such as clay to 1450°C in a Kiln. This Process is known as Calcination.
Calcination results in a hard substance called clinker.
The resulting cement is known as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
When gypsum is included in the process, cement known as Portland cement is produced.
The Approximate Composition of Cement
Component % Percentage
CaO 50-60
Silica, SiO2 20-25
Alumina, Al2O3 5-10
MgO 2-3
Fe2O3 1-2
1-2
SO3
In the hardening process of cement, the transition from Plastic to solid state is called Setting.
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3.4.4. Sugar Manufacturing
Sugarcane is used commonly as a raw material for the production of sugar.
Steps Involved in Sugar Production
1. Correcting the harvest
2. Cleansing & Grinding
3. Juicing
4. Clarifying
5. Evaporation
6. Crystallization: evaporating the water from sugar syrup.
7. Refinery: raw sugar is transported to a cane sugar refinery for the removal of molasses,
minerals & other non-sugars. This known as the purification process.
8. Separation & packaging
3.4.5. Paper and Pulp
Paper is a mixture made from rags & wood pulp.
Wood pulp is a dry fibrous material.
The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulp wood.
Wood pulp is made from soft-wood frees, such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock &
from hard woods such as eucalyptus, aspen & birch.
Wood is composed of cellulose, lignin, oils and resins.
Lignin is used to bind fibres of cellulose together.
MANUFACTURING OF PULP & PAPER
1. Harvesting
2. Preparation
3. Pulping: used to make wood pulp from the chipped wood pieces.
A. Mechanical Pulping: utilizes steam, pressure & high temp.
Fibre is greatly reduced
Paper used for newspapers are a typical product of mechanical pulping.
B. Chemical pulping: is manufactured using the Kraft process or the Sulphite process.
i. The Kraft Process: is the dominant chemical pulping method which is most widely
used for making pulp from all types of trees. The process uses aqueous NaOH &
Na2S as a digestion solution.
ii. The Sulphite process: uses a cooking liquor (digestion) of NaHSO4 or Mg(HSO4)2
4. Bleaching: removing colouring matter from wood pulp increasing brightness.
The most common bleaching agents are strong oxidizing agents such as Cl2, chlorine oxide
& H2O2.
5. Making paper from pulp

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3.4.6. Tannery
Tanning is a process of converting raw animals hides & skins to leather using tannin.
Tannin is an acidic chemical that permanently alters the protein structure of a skin so that it
can never return to raw hide or skin again.
Leather is a durable & flexible material created by the tanning of animal hides and skins.
Leather production involves various Preparatory stages, Tanning, and Crusting.
1. PREPARATORY STAGES:
a. Curing: involves salting or drying the hide once it has been removed from the animal. It also
removes excess water from the hide and skin. Brine Curing is the simplest & fastest method.
b. Soaking: Cured hides are soaked in water from several hours to several days to remove salt,
dirt, debris, blood & excess animal fat from the skin.
c. Flesh removal: Animal hides are removed through a machine that strips the flesh from the
surface of the hide.
d. Hair removal: the soaked hides & skins are transported to large vats where they are immersed
in a mixture of lime & water. This process is called liming. It loosens the hair from the skin &
makes hair removal easier.
After 1-10 days soaking, the hair is mechanically removed from the hide by a hair-removing
machine.
e. Scudding: Hair & fat missed by the machines are removed from the hide with plastic tool or dull
knife.
f. Deliming: involve the removal of lime from the skin or hides in a vat of acid.
2. TANNING:
is a process that converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into a stable material. There are two
main types of tanning.
a. Vegetable or Natural tanning:
The skin is placed in a solution of tannin.
Tannins occur naturally in the barks & leaves of many plants.
The primary barks used in modern times are: chestnut, oak, tanoak, hemlock, quebracho,
mangrove, wattle (acacia) & myrobalan
Naturally, hide is flexible & is used for making shoes, luggage and furniture.
b, Mineral tanning:
The skin is placed in solutions of chemicals such as Chromium sulphate & other salts of Cr.
Chrome tanning is faster than natural stanning & requires only 24 hrs. The leather is
greenish-blue in colour, derived from Cr.
This process produces stretchable leather that is used for making garments and hand bags.
3. CRUSTING:
This is the final stage in leather manufacturing and includes dyeing and rolling the leather to
make it strong.

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3.4.7. Food Processing & Preservation
Food preservation is the process of treating & handling food to stop or greatly reduce spoilage,
loss, of quality, edibility or nutritive value caused or accelerated by microorganisms.
Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms
as well as reducing the Oxidation of fats, which causes rancidity.
Modern methods of food preservation are:
A. Freezing
B. Freeze-drying is a superior preservation method for a variety of food products and food
ingredients
C. Vacuum-Packing
Inorganic and Organic preservatives
Inorganic preservatives are NaCl, nitrate & nitrite salts, sulphites, SO2
Organic preservatives are lactic acid & lactates, propionic acid and propionates, citric acid,
acetic acid, sorbic acid & sorbates, benzoic acid & benzoates, and methyl and propyl parabens
(benzoic acid derivatives)
3.4.8. Manufacturing of Ethanol
Ethanol is one of the constituents of an alcoholic beverages Tella, Tej, wine, Kati Kalla,
Ouzo, gin and whisky which all contain ethanol.
Industrial preparation of Ethanol
1. Fermentation: is the slow decomposition of carbohydrates such as sucrose, starch &
cellulose.
C12H22O11 → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 by the enzyme INVERTASE
Glucose Fructose
C6H12O6 + H2O → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 by the enzyme ZYMASE
Glucose Ethanol
Fermentation can produce an alcoholic beverage whose ethanol content is 12-15% only. The
alcohol kills the yeast & inhibits its activity when the percentage is higher.
To produce beverages of higher ethanol content, distillation is required.
Most liquor factories in Ethiopia use molasses, a byproduct of sugar industries as a raw material to
produce ethanol.
In the brewing industry, germinated barley caned malt (bikil) is used as the starting material.
2 (C6H10O5)n + nH2O → n(C12H22O11) by the enzyme DIASTASE
Starch Maltose
n(C12H22O11) + nH2O → 2n C6H12O6 by the enzyme MALTASE
Maltose Glucose
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C6H12O6 + nH2O → CH3CH2OH + CO2 by the enzyme ZYMASE
Glucose ethanol
2. Catalytic Hydration of Ethene
CH2=CH2 (g) + H2O (g) → CH3CH2OH (g) at 573K, 60atm., and catalyst H3PO4
BEER
 The raw materials are barely & hops
 Germination of barley converted to malt sugar
 Heat stops this process & the material now is called malt.
 After drying & grinding the barley water is added
 After adding hops and yeast the process of fermentation begins.
 Stored in tanks for a period of time.
 Later, it is pasteurized & CO2 is added under a pressure & supplied to consumers.
 Average beer has an alcohol content of between 2-6% by volume.
WINE
 Grapes are the most common raw materials for producing wines.
 The liquid that is derived from the crushing process is called Must. Most wines have an
alcohol content varying from 10-16% by volume.
LIQUOR
 Liquors are made by distillation of grape wine
 rum is produced from sugar cane & whisky from rye.
 Most liquors have an alcohol content between 30-45% by volume.
Local preparation of ethanol (Araki)
 The barley is mode into Bikil
 Bikil is mixed with Gesho to make starter 'Tinses'
 The starter is left to ferment for about 4 days.
 The bread is made from ingredients of teff, barley, wheat, and sorghum.
 The bread is broken down into small pieces mixed with starter & left to stand for 5 to 10
days.
 Water is added to liquify the thick dough-like mixture & left for 1 to 2 days.
 The liquid mixture is boiled & distilled. The distillate is called 'Araki'. The residue is
locally called 'atela' & usually used to feed cattle.
3.4.9. Soap & Detergent
Soaps
Animal fats & vegetable oil are used for manufacturing soap. Soaps are substances used to
remove dirt. They are also called surfactants or surface-active agents because they reduce the
surface tension of water & change the surface properties.
Soaps are either Na or K salts of higher (long- chain) carboxylic acids. Soaps that are Na-
salts are called hard soaps and those that are K-salts are soft soaps.

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 Soaps are prepared by boiling animal fat or vegetable oil with a base. The reaction that
produces soap is called Saponification.
O
||
H2C–O–C–C17H35
| O H2C–OH
| || |
H2C–O–C–C17H35 + 3NaOH → H2C–OH + C17H35COONa
| O |
| || H2C–OH
H2C–O–C–C17H35

Animal fat Glycerol Soap (Sodium stearate) (Sodium octadecanoate)

The water-soluble part is – COONa and the fat-soluble part (hydrophobic) is C17H35
O
||
R~~~~~~~~~~~~C–O–Na+

Hydrophobic Hydrophilic

In industry, tallow, lard, cotton seed oil, palm oil, castor oil, olive oil, and oil of soya beans are used
to prepare ordinary soap.
Industrially, soap is produced in four basic steps.
i. Saponification: a mixture of animal fat and coconut oil is mixed with NaOH and heated.
ii. Glycerine Removal
iii. Soap purification: any remaining NaOH is neutralized with a weak acid such as citric
acid.
iv. Finishing: additives such as preservatives, colour, and perfumes are added and mixed in
with soap and shaped into bars for the market.
Detergents
Are Na-salts of sulphonated long chain organic alcohols.
R–C6H4SO3Na. R is an alkyl group with chain of 10 to 18 C’s
The water-soluble group is – SO3Na. The fat-soluble group is R–C6H4
The advantage of detergents is they lather well with both soft and hard water.
Ex. Sodium lauryl Sulphate: C12H25–O–SO2–ONa.
C12H25–OH + HO–SO2–OH → C12H25–O–SO2–OH + H2O
Dodecyl (lauryl) alcohol H2SO4 Lauryl Hydrogen Sulphate
C12H25–O–SO2–OH + NaOH → C12H25–O–SO2–ONa + H2O
Sodium lauryl sulphate

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Dry Cleaning
The use of different chemicals that are capable of dissolving grease and other dirt stains in a
similar manner as soaps without the use of water.
The most commonly used chemicals in dry cleaning are organic chemicals such as CCl4,
Cl2C=CCl2, C6H6, and gasoline.

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