to .. -.

UNIT 7 .FOREST FIRE

Structure
7.0 Learning Outcome
7.1 Introduction
.,
7.2 Forest Fire: Causes and Impacts
7.2.1 . Causes of Forest Fire
7.2.2 Impacts of Forest Fire
7.3 Forest Fires in India
" 7.4 Preparedness and Response
7.4.1 Prevention
7.4.2 Detection
7.4.3 Suppression
7.5 Past Disasters: Forest Fires
7.6 Lessons Learnt
7.7 Conclusion
7.8 . Key Concepts

7.9 References and Further Reading

7.10 Activities

7.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand about forest fire and its characteristics;
• Discuss causes and impacts of forest fire on forest, environment and society;
• Describe the prevention, detection and suppression methods used in controlling forest fire;
and
• Highlight the role of'Central and State Governments in preventing and controlling this hazard.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Forest fire poses a threat to the forest wealth; and disturbs the bio-diversity, ecology and environment
of the region. The Hirnalayan forests, to be more specific Garhwal Himalayas, have been burning
regularly during the last few summers. In case of no rain for months during summer, the forests
become littered with dry old leaves and trees. These could bust into flames ignited by the slightest
spark. Thus, the origin of forest fire can be either natural or man-made. In certain countries, in the
higher latitudes, lightning is the major cause offorest fires. However, in India, most ofthe forest
fires have man-made origin, such as, cigarette or bidi stubs or left over embers.
As per an estimate of the Forest Survey ofIndia the total forest cover is 76.50 million hectares.
Though the forest area of the country as per official record is around 23.27 per cent; in reality the
forest exists on much less geographical area, as a major part ofthe forest land is devoid of or have

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 Forest Fire 73

very scattered tree cover. Estimation on the basis of satellite imagery reveals that the real forest
cover of the country is only 63.34 million hectares, i.e., 19.27 percent of the total area. This forest
cover is very rich in fauna and flora. As per available records, the country's forests have 45000
species of plants (12% of the global plant wealth) and 65,000 species of animals. This valuable
wealth is threatened, and forest fire is a major source of worry.

.
" Despite its richness in variety of fauna and flora, the forest cover ofIndia is very less, when
compared to its total population. This forest cover (1 per cent ofthe total world forest cover) has
to meet the demand of more than 1000 million people (16 per cent of the world population) and
470 million cattle ( 18 per cent of the total world cattle population) ofthe country. Illicit felling,
collection of minor forest produce, encroachment on forest land, shifting cultivation, forest fire etc.
, are the consequences ofthis intense population pressure and as a result of such activities the
forests are depleting at an alarming rate.
.
, In this Unit, we will discuss about the causes and impacts offorest fire in India. The Five Year
Plans have provided funds for forest fire fighting. In the context of disaster management, we will
explain the preparedness and mitigation measures. On the basis of past experiences we will
highlight the lessons learnt with special reference to the Policy of Forest Fire.

7.2 FOREST FIRE: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

The forest fire is a major cause of injury and loss to the forests. The frequency of fire episodes and
subsequent damage ofthe forest are rising as the pressure on the forest resources mount due to
increase in the human and livestock population. The impact of the fire is diverse on the forest
ecosystem. Besides directly damaging the trees, the fire also affects forest regeneration, microclimate,
soil erosion, and wildlife etc. adversely. In most ofthe cases, the forest fire causes retrogression of.
forest vegetation. It is one ofthe major degenerating factors, which extensively damage the growing
stock and its generations, making area vulnerable to erosion. It has wide-ranging adverse ecological,
economic and social implications. While statistical data on fire loss are weak, it is estimated that
the proportion of the forest areas prone to forest fire annually ranges from 33 per cent in some
states to over 90 per cent in other states. As per an estimate ofthe UNDP and FAO project in the
Maharashtra State, the economic loss due to forest fire is around Rs. 9000/- per hectare per
annum. Ifthis is multiplied to the total forest cover ofthe country, this comes to a very substantial
amount. Beside this the other losses dueto forest fire, i.e., to the environment, the wild life, etc. are
beyond repair.

7.2.1 Causes of Forest Fire

Fire has three components to start, i.e., oxygen, fuel and heat, which play an important role in
forest fire management. At least 16 per cent oxygen must be in the air for a fire to start. Some
fuels, such as, dead plants, dry leaves, pine needles and grass are more likely to bum than moist
green plants because the dead material contains less moisture or water than living plants. Heat can
be supplied by lightning striking a tree or grass. People also can provide heat by using a match
carelessly starting a fire or leaving afire unattended.

In most of the cases forest fires are caused b,,-human induced activities. Fires occur naturally very
rarely due to lightning, sun heat accumulation, and volcanic eruption or rarely by rock frictions.
Humans start most ofthe fires, i.e., approximately 90 per cent. Some human-started fires are set
on due to some purpose (arson), but most are accidental. In developing countries like India forest
fires have close link with the poverty. The people in India residing within the forests or nearby
areas are dependent on forests for their livelihood. They ignite forests mainly for collection of

7 \ I
 74 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

. forest produce or clearing the land for agricultural purposes. Various natural processes, such as,
lightning start the remaining 10per cent of forest fires.
The main human induced causes offorest fire may be enlisted as follows:
• Burning by contractors and local villagers for better growth of tendu leaves and other minor
..
'
forest produce.
• Burning by villagers to make collection of mahua and sal seeds etc. more convenient.
.' Camp fire by picnickers, trackers, shepherd etc. are also man induced causes offorest fire.
• Sparks from railway engines (using coal as fuel), may also initiate a forest fire.
• Careless throwing of burning cigarettes, bidis, or matchsticks near forest is another major
cause.
.
, • Careless burning of fields after crop harvesting.
• Careless handling of resin during resin tapping season may also start forest fire.
• Use offire forroad construction may also initiate fire.
• Farmers sometimes bum fire near fields to scare away the wild animals. This fire may spread
in the nearby forest.
• Sometimes forest firemay be started intentionallyalso. Obtaining good grass growth, concealing
.:the illicit felling, personal rivalry etc. may be such causes offorest fire.
The forest fires cause immense loss to the environment and the property. Ecological, economic
and social impacts of the forest fire are affecting day-to-day life of people.
As per rough estimate, average direct economical annual loss due to forest fire in country is Rs.
440 crores. What is more damaging is the fact that regeneration offorest takes long time or does
not take place at all because the land is used up for other purposes.

7.2.2 Impacts of Forest Fire

Fires in fotest are not always harmful. Small and controlled forest fires are essential for effective
forest growth and development. The foresters use fire as management tool to renew the natural
environment of the forest. Forest managers start forest fire, called "prescribed fire", which is daily
observed and controlled by them.
Although such controlled forest fires benefit an ecosystem, the uncontrolled forest fires cause
wide-ranging adverse ecological, economic and social impacts as listed below:
• Loss of human and cattle livestock. Though it is very rare but in some cases if the fire spreads
rapidly and the wind blows with high velocity, the people living or working in the forest may
be trapped in the fire and killed. .
• Loss of valuable timber resources and other minor forest produce.
• Soil erosion resulting in loss of soil productivity and flooding in the downstream side.
• Loss oflivelihood for the tribal and other population residing near the forest.
• Degradation of water catchment areas resulting in loss of water.
• Degradation of the micro-climate ofthe area making it an unhealthy living condition.
• Loss ofbio-diversity and extinction of plants and animals.
• Loss of wild life habitat and depletion of wild life.
• Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover and production.
!?-- "",..'
,,;~

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 Forest Fire 75

.' Increase of Carbon - Di- Oxide in the atmosphere thereby assisting global warming.
• Loss of carbon sink resource.
• Change in microclimate of the area as a result, making unhealthy living conditions.
• Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production.
;. • Ozone layer depletion.
• Health problems leading to diseases.
• Indirect effect on agricultural production: loss oflivelihood for the tribals as approximately 65
million people are classified as tribals who directly depend upon collection of non-timber
forest products from the forest areas for their livelihood.
,
7.3· FOREST FIRES IN INDIA
..
As per Forest Survey ofIndia Report, about 50 per cent of forest areas in the country are fire
prone(ranging from 33 per cent in some states to 90 per cent in the others). Very heavy, heavy and
frequent forest fire damages are noticed over 0.87 per cent, 0.14 per cent and 5.16 per cent
forest areas respectively. Thus, in total 6.17 per cent of forests are prone to severe fire damage in
the country.

There has been a prolonged dry spell during the summer of 1999 that has resulted in a large
number of forest fires in Himachal Pradesh. However, in 1995 more than 450 cases offorest fires
were reported. A research study, which was conducted by Indian Space Research Organization
(lSRO), highlighted that the forest fires affected 21.5 per cent of the total forest area in the hill
districts ofUttarakhand, i.e., Almora, Chamoli, Tehri and Pauri. The most vulnerable stretches are
the youngest mountain ranges of Himalayas. In India, the forests of Western Himalayas are more
frequently vulnerable to forest fires than in Eastern Himalayas. The frequency and intensity of
forest fires has increased due to large-scale expansion of Chir (Pine) forests in the Himalayas.
Table .7.1 depicts the patterns of total land area, forest area, and cropped area in vulnerable
Himalayan States.

Table 7.1 Himalayan States of India: Vulnerable to Forest Fire

Sr. No. State Total Land Forest Area (%)

Area (ha)
1. Manipur 2211000 27.33
2. Arunachal Pradesh 8374300 61.55
3. Himachal Pradesh 3367600 31.09
4. Assam (Hill Districts) 1522200 19.49
5. Sikkim 710000 20.80
6. Meghalaya 2243000 -

7. Mizoram 2102000 61.99

8. Tripura 1049169 57.78
9. Nagaland 1513774 56.98
10. Uttarakhand 5358595 63.91
11. Jammu & Kashmir 4505000 60.98

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 76 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

, "

It is evident from the above table that the affected area happens to be in the Ganga - Yamuna
watershed. The percentage of forest area is highest in the Uttarakhand and lowest in Assam. In
1995, forest fires in the Uttarakhand had destroyed about 3,75,000 hectares of forest wealth.

7.4. PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

.
"

Keeping in view the impact offorest fires on human beings, cattle, wild life, forest, environment
etc., it becomes of utmost importance that they are managed in a planned and scientific way. The
ideal forest fire management has basically three steps, i.e., prevention, detection and suppression
offorest fire as depicted in the schematic diagram (Fig. 7.1).

.
, SUPPRESSION

TRAINING OF
PEOPLE &
I WATCHTOWER I DIRECT INDIRECT
STAFF METHODS METHODS
I FIRE WATCHER I
FIRE LINE

OTHER MODERN
OTHER
TECHNIQUES i.e.
PRACTICES infra red cameras,
smoke detectors etc

Figure 7.1 Forest Fire Management

7.4.1 Prevention
As prevention is better than cure, therefore, it is of utmost significance that necessary preventive
measures are taken to manage the forest fire in an affected area. In this context, Cutting of forest
fire line is avery old and traditional method, which is very successful in preventing the forest fire. In
this method, fire lines are made by clearing a strip of vegetation in the forest. This helps in preventing
the fire spread beyond a limit and thus controls its spreading. The training ofthe forest official and
making people aware about disaster management are such preventive measures that may prove
quite successful in forest fire prevention. Educating the local people about the do's and don'ts to
prevent forest fire is very important. They must be made aware ofthe damage, which fire causes to
the environment and their health etc. Awareness programmes should be conducted for the villagers
at Panchayat and Block levels. Placards may be put at appropriate places and pamphlets distributed
showing the causes and damages offorest fire. Various audio-visual means, such as, film shows,
radio and TV etc are to be used for telecasting programmes about the fire. At school level and
even college level the syllabi must contain lessons on forest fire.

7.4.2 Detection
Despite all these preventive measures, ifthere is forest fire, the first and the immediate step in its
management is detection of fire. There are various traditional methods, effectively used in developing
countries for detection of fire in the forest. Appointing fire-watcher during fire season is one such
traditional method. This method is quite effective as the watcher is usually a local man, and is well
acquainted with the area and has good relations with the villagers. In case of fire, he gets immediate
information and further informs the forest officials about the incidence. Erection of watchtower is

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 Forest Fire 77

. .
another method used for forest fire detection. These towers are made on sufficient height, so that
the fire or the smoke coming out of it may be noticed from a distance. Beside these tradition a I
methods, recently many new techniques have been evolved for forest fire detection. The use of
modem infrared imaging equipment can help fire fighters to locate fire through smoke. Planes
equipped with small infrared cameras can detect heat from wildfires at night and in heavy smoke.
"
They can penetrate even the thickest cloud or smoke and show fire fighters, where the hotspots
exists. A fire's location and direction are mapped and then used to send fire fighters to control the fire.

7.4.3 Suppression

, After detection, attempts are made to suppress forest fire. There are two general ways to attack a
forest fire, i.e., direct and indirect.

Direct Method
For small, low-intensity fires, fire fighters cool fire's edges with water, bushes, dirt and chemicals,
then scrape a fire line to expose soil and eliminate fuel around the fIre. In India, traditionally fire is
extinguished by use of twigs and bushes. If available, soil or dust! sand is also used for the
purpose. Various tools, i.e., rack, pulaski, flask key, shovel, macklied, garden racks etc. are also
used for fighting fire. But in hilly terrain it is observed that the traditional methods are more frequently
applied for the purpose. The tools provided by the forest department are heavy and not feasible to
carry them at the fire spot due to their weight and the lack of training of the forest officials, To
suppress fire, the role oflocal population is very important. Though attempts have been made
through Joint Forest Management Committees to involve people, but still there is much more to be
done. The local population is to be assured that the survival of the forest is must for their own
survival.

Indirect Method
For larger fires, fire fighters construct a fire line at a distance from the fire and burnout the area
between it and the fire, depriving the main fire of fuel. Initiating an anti forest fire is another indirect
method offorest fire suppression. In this method, a controlled fire is initiated in the forest that
spread in opposite direction ofthe main forest fIre. When the two fires meet, they automatically
suppress.
In developed countries airplanes and helicopters are used for detection and suppression of forest
fire. This method though bit costly, is very effective to fight fire in difficult terrain.
As per Constitution of India, the Central and State Governments in the country are competent to
legislate on the issue of forestry. The implementation part of the forest policy/ programmes lies with
the State Government. Thus, the fIre prevention, detection, supressions activities about forest fire
are also responsibility of the State Governments' Forest Departments. The policy, planning and
financing is the primary responsibility of the Central Government. For carrying out forest fire
management in the states, there is generally no separate wing or department. Various activities of
forest fire management are carried- out, by the regular staff of the Forest Departments in the
states. During forest fire seasons, in some of the divisions, fire- watchers are recruited by the State
Government as special provision. At the Central level, the Ministry of Environment and Forests is
the nodal agency for forest conservation and protection. FOTestfire- management is looked after
by the "Forest Protection Division" ofthe Ministry, which is headed by a Deputy Inspector General
of Forests. The Ministry is implementing plan scheme "Modem forest fire Control Method' in
'India under which state governments are provided financial assistance for fire prevention and
control. This assistance is being used for procuring the hand tools, fire resistant clothes, and fire

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 78 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

fighting instruments, wireless sets, construction of fire watch towers, fire finders, creation of fire
lines, and for research" training and publicity on fire fighting.

Community involvement
In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) Committees have been set up at village level for the
"
purpose of involvement ofthe community in forest protection and conservation. There are about
35000 JFM committees covering an area of more than 7 million hectares. These JFM committees
have also been given responsibilities to protect the forest from fires.

7.5 PAST DISASTERS: FOREST FIRES

,
In India there is no comprehensive study to indicate the loss of forests in terms of area burned and
value, volume and regeneration etc. damaged by fire. The available forest fire statistics are not
reliable as it is underestimated in most ofthe cases. The reason behind this is probably, the fear of
accountability. However Forest Survey ofIndia in a countrywide study in 1995 estimated that
about 1.45 million hectares of forest area is affected by fire annually in the country. According to
assessment of the Forest Protection Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government
ofIndia, 3.73 hectares of forests are affected by fires, annually in India.
During 1990s several forest fires occurred in the hills ofUttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) and
Himachal Pradesh. From 1995 to 1999, fire hazards in these two states assumed dangerous
dimensions. An area of 6, 77,700 hectares was affected by these fires. The estimated timber loss
from these hazards was US $ 43 million. Besides, the other losses due to these fires were -loss of
soil fertility, soil erosion, loss of employment, drying up of water resources and loss ofbio- diversity.
This fire brought a major change in the micro-climate ofthe region in the form of soil moisture
balance and increased evaporation. The thick smoke due to fire spread and affected visibility.
Besides these major forest fires, the loss from the other fires reported from 13 states of the country
for the period 1994-1996 comes to US $ 20 million. One other major fire reported from the state
ofTamil Nadu for the year 1996-97 in sandalwood forest caused immense loss.
Though no quantitative figures are available about other losses due to forest fires in the country, yet
the losses in productivity ofthe land, regeneration of species, deleterious impacts on water shed
etc. are also reported due to forest fire in the country.
The susceptibility or vulnerability of the forests fire varies from place to place depending upon the
type of vegetation and the climate. As far as the fire season is concerned, various regions ofthe
country have different normal and peak fire seasons, which vary from February to June. In the hills
ofUttranchal and Himachal fire season starts late and most of the fire occurrences are reported
between April and June. However, in certain circumstances the fire may start bit early also, as seen
in the case of year 2000-2001, when the fire was reported in the month of February also. One
such fire in the Gwar Forest area ofRudraprayag district, Uttranchal claimed four lives and injured
many more. The fire broke out in the grass field, when women were busy in cutting the grass. The
probable reason ofthe fire seems to be the negligence of the people, may be due to some lighted
bidi. Due to heavy wind in the valley the fire did spread very rapidly such that it engulfed the grass
cutters within no time and caused the tragedy.

7.6 LESSONS LEARNT

The incidence of forest fire in the country is on the increase and more and more area is burnt year
after year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal and desultory approach to the problem.
, Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire

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 Forest Fire 79

management programme are lacking. Important forest fire management elements, i.e., strategic fire
plans, coordination among departments, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire
management and extension programmes are not effective.
Taking into consideration the grim situation of the problem, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
. Government of India has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest fire Control. Under this plan,
it is proposed to introduce a well- coordinated and integrated fire -management including the
following components.
o Prevention of man-caused fires through education and environmental, modification: It will
include silvicultural activities,engineering works, people's participation, education and
enforcement. It is proposed that more emphasis is given on the people's participation through
Joint Forest Fire Management for fire prevention.
iI) Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation points, efficient
ground patrolling, cornmunication network etc. Use of modem techniques, i.e.,Remote sensing
etc. are also to be given due importance in the fire detection. For successful fire management
and administration, National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) is also to be developed in
the country. .
iii) Fast initial counter measures should be developed.
iv) Vigorous follow-up action is necessary.
v) Introducing forest fuel modification system at strategic points should be enconraged.
Each ofthe above components plays an important role in the success ofthe entire system of fire '
management. Special emphasis is to be given on the research, training arid implementation of
plans. In India for better management of forest fire, there is an urgent need to make research in the
field of fire detection and suppression of forest fire. It is required that original research fit for Indian
condition is carried out for fire management. The Government is considering, setting up a National
Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite centres in different parts ofthe country to bring
the latest forest fire fighting technologies to India through proper research, training of personnel
and technology transfer on a long-term basis.

Do's and Don'ts

Creating awareness among citizens can play very significant role in prevention and control of forest
fires. Advertisement through local media like radio, television, pamphlets, signboards, news papers,
panchayats etc. may be very effective in this regard. Teaching people about the do's and don'ts to
prevent and control forest fire may be effective tool of forest fire management techniques.
What to do before.and during forest fire?
Do's
• Take appropriate preventive measures before fire season.i. e."cutting
- .' fire line, removal of
dry litters from the forest, etc. ;:
• Make people aware about the causes and adverse impacts offorest fire.
• Do apply seasonal mitigation measures before fire season, i.e., reduction of fuel, removal of
dry timber from forest etc.
• Ifthere is a fire, try to put the fire out by digging or circle around it by water or by bushes,
if not possible inform fire brigade or forest officials.
• In case of fire, move farm animals and movable property to safer places.
• . Follow the effective monitoring and warning system.
-( .

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 80 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

.• Encourage people to leave the tradition of shifting 'cultivation and collection of Minor Forest
Produces by burning fire in the forest area,

Don'ts
• One should not throw smoldering cigarette butt or bidi in ,or near the forest.

.
"
• The burning wood should not be left by picnicker or other people working in the forest.
• Don't enter the forest during the fire .
•' Don't lift the dry litter during summer season
• Don't be scared, be calm and encourage others to suppress the fire,

, 7.7 CONCLUSION
Forest cover in India, despite its richness in fauna and flora, is very less, when compared to its total
population. This natural resource is under tremendous pressure due to various factors, Fire is one
of the major causes of injury and loss to forest wealth. As in most of the cases the reasons behind
forest fire are human induced and the frequency and subsequent damage due to forest fire are on
increase. Due to population growth and various other factors, the forest fire situation in India has
become very grim and serious. Country's forests are under continuous threat from forest fires,
which cause much loss to forest property and environment. Though small scale controlled forest
fire, is necessary for good forest growth, yet the uncontrolled large forest fire are very damaging
and have long lasting and disastrous impact on forest. In India more than 90 per cent forest fires
are induced by human being,
The main responsibility of forest fire management lies with the state forest department. The Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia is the nodal ministry for forest fire management
in the country. Ministry under a central scheme is providing financial as well as technical assistance
to state governments in managing the forest fires. Peoples' participation in forest fire management
and making people aware of Do's and Don'ts can play major role in forest fire prevention and
control. The Ministry has prepared a National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control, having major
component of people's participation and new researches in the field offorest fire management.

7.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Carbon sink Trees absorb Carbon-di-oxide and build up the same in the form of wood.
Thus they act as carbon sinks.
Crown Fires The most unpredictable fires, they bum the tops of trees and are spread
rapidly by wind. These fires, invariably ignited by the surface fires, spread
from top to top of trees. Due to its nature, it is very difficult to control this.
type of fire, until it drops to the ground.
Fire line To prevent forest fire spread, vegetation is removed along a strip at some
interval.
Firestorms A fire storm is an intense fire over a large area. As the fire bums, heat
creates convection and air rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More air
makes the fire spin violently like a storm. Flames fly out from the base and
burning embers spew out the top of the fiery twister, starting smaller fires
around it. Temperatures inside these storms can reach 2,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. These fires spread very speedily and can destroy major forest
within no time. The control of such fire is very difficult and need special
efforts.

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 Forest Fire 81

Ground Fires These fires bum roots and other material on or beneath the surface. They
spread by slowly smoldering edge with no flame and little. smoke and are
more damaging than surface fires because they can destroy vegetation
completely. In mosrof the cases it is very difficult to detect this type of fire,
and thus they can continue to burn for months and destroy major valuable
forest cover.
,"
. .
JFM Joint Forest Management is a prgramme with sole objective of involving
common people in forest conservation and development.

' <, ~~, Ozone layer A gas layer, surrounding the earth, which prevents harmful ultraviolet rays
""--~------,--=""""'~~----~.--------- to reach the earth's surface.

Surface Fires These are the most common wildfires. They bum undergrowth and dead
material along the floor,ofthe forest and help more than harm, as long as
they don't growl~er. If grown in size these fires not only destroy the
undergrowth but}llso engulfthe forest vegetation., .
>,
Watchtower A high raised structure built in forest to detect forest fire.

7.9 REFERENCESANDFURTHERREADING , '-.

. Bahuguna, V. K. and Satendra,2002, "Fire Situation in India, International Forest Fire News", at
; http://www2.rufuni-freiburg.deljireglobeliffn 26content -,
; ~ -
: Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, 2001, N.C.OM., LLP.A., New Delhi

Satendra, "Forest Fire", Employment News 20-26 April 2002, Publication Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi.

Satendra, "Forest-Fire- Problem and Solution", Kurukshetra, 1988, Government of India

publication, New Delhi.

satenra: "Forest Fire Prevention and Control in Himalaya", 2002, Proc. of Silver Jubilee National "<,

Seminar on Geodynamics and Environment Management in Himalaya, H.N. B. University,

Garh~al.

Viegar, Domingos Xavier (Ed.), 2002,Forest Fire Research & Wildland Fire Safety, Millpress,
'Netherlands.

7.10 ACTIVITIES
1) What are the causes and impacts of forest fires in India?
2) Explain the reasons for ineffective disaster management in forests and suggest the methods to
improve the system.
3) On the basis of past forest fires, describe the importance of preparedness and mitigation.