Final Year Project

HEV USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY WITH ARDUINO MICRO
CONTROLLER
HYBRID ELECTRIC VRHICLE USING SOLAR AND WIND

ENERGY WITH AURDINO MICROCONTROLLER
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
TANKALA GANESH 21EM5A0217

CHADARAM KARTHEEK 21EM5A0203
IKKURTHI PAVAN KUMAR 21EM5A0208
BOKKA SANJEEVA HANUMA 21EM5A0202
VANTAKU GIRI 21EM5A0219
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under the Esteemed Guidance of
Mr. B.SUBRAHMANYAM M.Tech
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated by J.N.T.U-Kakinada, Accredited by NAAC)
Seetharampuram, Narsapur-534280.West Godavari(Dist.), AP
2021-2024
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

CONTROLLER

TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Affiliated by J.N.T.U-Kakinada, Accredited by NAAC)
SEETHARAMPURAM, NARSAPUR-534 280, W.G.DT. (A.P)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the main project report entitled “HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY WITH AURDINO
MICROCONTROLLER” is a Bona fide Work of TANKALA GANESH (21EM5A0217),
CHADARAM KARTHEEK (21EM5A0203), IKKURTHI PAVAN KUMAR
(21EM5A0208), BOKKA SANJEEVA
HANUMA (21EM5A0202), VANTAKU GIRI (21EM5A219) carried out during the
academic year 2021-2024 in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
“BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY”.
Mr. B. Subrahmanyam M.Tech (Ph. d) Mr. A. SATYANARAYANA M. Tech, (Ph.

D) Assistant Professor Associate Professor
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

CONTROLLER

CONTROLLER

TECHNOLOGY
Seetharampuram, Narsapur-534280.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
DECLARATION
This is to certify that this internship report entitled "HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY WITH AURDINO MICROCONTROLLER" submitted
by T.GANESH (21EM5A0217), CH.KARTHEEK (21EM5A0203),I.PAVAN KUMAR(21EM5A0208),
B.S.HANUMA (21EM5A0202), V.GIRI (21EM5A0219) to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Kakinada, through Swarnandhra Institute of Engineering & Technology for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering is a
bonafide record of Internship Report work carried out under my supervision during the year
2023-2024. This study has not been submitted to any other institution or university for the
award of any other degree.
Name of the student Reg.no Signature

T.GANESH (21EM5A0217)
CH.KARTHEEK (21EM5A0203)
I.PAVAN KUMAR (21EM5A0208)
B.S.HANUMA (21EM5A0202)
V.GIRI (21EM5A0219)
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to
the best of my knowledge.
PROJECT GUIDE

CONTROLLER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to the project guide Dr. B.
Subrahmanyam M.Tech (Ph. D). Professor, Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering For assisting us both technically and morally by giving
valuable suggestions and constantly Encouraging us throughout this project.
We express our gratitude to our chairman Mr.K.V Satyanarayana

Garu, Treasurer Mr.K.V Swamy Garu, Director Mr.A Srihari Garu and Principle
Dr.P.Pandarinath M.Tech.,Ph.D for providing necessary facilities to make this
project a success.
As this work takes its present Shape, the author’s express their in
depth thanks and gratitude to Mr. A Satyanarayana, M.Tech, Ph.D Associate
Professor and Head of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department for
his inspiring guidance, sustained encouragement and valuable suggestions
through out in this course of project work.
PROJECT ASSOCIATES
T.GANESH (21EM5A0217)
I.PAVAN KUMAR (21EM5A0208)
CH.KARTHEEK (21EM5A0203)
B.SANJEEV HANUMA (21EM5A0202)
V.GIRI (21EM5A0219)

CONTROLLER
ABSTRACT
This Project proposes a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) system which solves the
major problems of fuel and pollution. The renewable energy is vital for today’s
world as in near future the non-renewable sources that we are using are going
to get exhausted. The hybrid electric vehicle is a step in saving these non-
renewable sources of energy. The basic principle of solar car is to use energy
that is stored in a battery during and after charging it from a solar panel. Power
generated by renewable energy sources has recently become one of the most
promising solutions for the electrification of islands and remote rural areas. But
high dependency on weather conditions and the unpredictable nature of these
renewable energy sources are the main drawbacks. To overcome this
weakness, different green energy sources and power electronic converters
need to be integrated with each other. The charged batteries are used to drive
the motor which serves here as an engine and moves the vehicle in reverse or
forward direction. This idea, in future, may help to protect our fuels from
getting extinguished.
Key Words : Hybrid electric vehicle, Extinguished, Electronic Converters,

Electrification, Pollution, Solar panel, wind mill.

CONTROLLER
INDEX
CHAPTER NO. Page. No
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY 2-4
3. EXISTING SYSTEM
3.1 COMPONENTS 5
4. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED SYSTEM
4.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM 6
4.2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
4.2.1 NANO
4.2.2 ARDUINO NANO BOARD LAYOUT
4.2.3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
OF ARDUINO NANO
4.2.4 HOW TO POWER UP ARDUINO NANO
4.2.5 DIFFERENT MEMORIES
OF ARDUINO NANO
4.2.6 INPUT AND OUTPUT PINS
OF ARDUINO NANO
4.2.7 COMMUNICATION INTERSACES
IN ARDUINO NANO
4.2.8 ADDITIONAL FEATURES
4.2.9 ARDUINO NANO PINOUT
4.3 RECTIFIER
4.3.1 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
4.4 DC MOTOR
4.4.1 L298N MOTOR DRIVER
4.4.2 L298N MODULE

HEV USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY WITH ARDUINO
4.4.3 L298N MOTOR DRIVER WORKING

4.4.4 CONNECT L298N WITH ARDUIN0
4.5 L298N WITH STEPPER MOTOR
4.5.1 L298N WITH DC MOTOR
4.5.2 ALTERNATE OF L298N
4.5.3 WHICH IS BETTER L298D OR L298N
4.6 SOALR PANEL
4.6.1 FEATURES
4.6.2 APPLICATIONS OF SMALL SOLAR PANNELS
4.7 WIND MILL
4.7.1 HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINES
4.7.2 VERTICAL-AXIS TURBINES
4.7.3 WINDPOWER PLANES OR WIND FANS
4.8 16*2 LCD DISPLAY
4.8.1 COMAND CODER FOR 16*2 LCD
4.8.2 DISPLAYING CUSTOM CHARACTERISTICS IN CG-RAM
4.9 INTERFACING LCD 16*2 WITH ARDUINO
4.9.1 DISPLAY THE LED BRIGHTENESS ON A 16*2 LCD
4.10 DIODE
4.10.1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
4.10.2 LED SYMBOL
4.10.3 CONSTRUCTION OF LED
4.10.4 LED WORKING
4.10.5 HISTORY OF LED
4.10.6 LED CIRCUIT FOR BIASING
4.10.7 TYPES OF LED’S
4.10.8 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED
4.10.9 WHITE LED’S

4.10.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

DIODE AND LED
4.10.11 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGE OF
LED’S
4.11 LEAD ACID
4.11.1 MATERIAL USED FOR
LEAD ACID BATTERY
4.11.2 LEAD ACID BATTERY WORKING
4.11.3 BATTERY CHARGING
4.11.4 SELF-DISCHARGED
4.11.5 CHARGE OF ELECTROLYTE
OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
AFTER CHARGE AND
DISCHARGE
5. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION ARDUINO IDE SOFTWARE
5.1 ARDUINO SOFTWARE INTERFACE
5.1.1 MENUS SECTION
5.1.2 TOOLBAR SECTION
5.1.3 STATUS BAR SECTION
5.1.4 HOW TO USE ARDUINO SOFTWARE
6. RESULT
6.1 RESULT
7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
7.1 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
REFERENCES


HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY

WITH ARDUINO MICROCONTROLLER
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses about the usage of solar energy and wind energy to power
up the vehicle. In order to achieve the required voltage, the Photo Voltaic (PV)
Module may be connected either in parallel or series, but it’s costlier. Thus to
make it cost effective, power converters and batteries are been used. The
electrical charge is consolidated from the PV panel and wind turbine and
directed to the output terminals to produce low voltage (Direct Current).An
electric vehicle is pollution free and is efficient at low speed conditions mainly
in high traffic areas. But battery charging is time consuming. The charge
controllers direct this power acquired from the solar panel and wind turbines
to the batteries. According to the state of the battery, the charging is done, so
as to avoid overcharging and deep discharge. The voltage is then boosted up
using the boost power converter, ultimately running the BLDC motor which is
used as the drive motor for our vehicle application. In the course work, the
characteristic features of the components: solar panel, wind turbine, charge
controller, battery, interleaved converter, PIC16F877A and BLDC motor
required for the vehicle application were studied in real time and also were
modelled individually and the complete hardware integration of the system
into meet up the application’s requirement.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY
 Adejumobi, S.G. Oyagbinrin, F.G. Akinboro & M.B. Olajide, et al in October

2011 proposed a concept on Hybrid Solar and Wind Power: An Essential for
Information Communication Technology Infrastructure and people In rural
communities. In today’s technology driven world electricity is one of the
foremost thing for our day to day life activities. As we all are oblivious of the
fact that the renewable sources of energy are depleting at a lightning fast rate.
So it’s time for us to shift the focus from conventional to non-conventional
sources of energy to produce electricity. The output of the electricity
produced by non- conventional sources is less than their counterparts.
Renewable sources do not have any detrimental effect on the environment.
Solar-wind hybrid system is basically an integration of solar plant and a wind
energy plant. It will help in providing the uninterrupted power supply.
 Kavita Sharma, Prateek, Haksar in Jan–Feb, 2012 proposed on “Designing of

Hybrid Power Generation System using Wind Energy- Photovoltaic Solar
Energy- Solar Energy with Nano antenna” tackling the problem of Fuzzy
controller for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) under varying isolation
and shading conditions. Under these dynamic changes, most MPPT techniques
fail to rapidly locate the global maximum power point and are stuck at global
maxima leading therefore to inconsistent power generation and low system
efficiency. In order to overcome this problem, we have proposed in this paper
to apply the Adaptive Neural Fuzzy Interference System (ANFIS) algorithm in
order to achieve global maximum power point tracking in record time. Using
this method, the total output power of the solar system and wind system is
maximized while minimizing the steady-state oscillations and the tracking time.
 Nahidul Hoque Samrat, Norhafizan Ahmad, Imtiaz Ahmed Choudhury, Zahari
Taha in 2015 proposed on “Technical Study of a Standalone Photovoltaic–
Wind Energy” Based Hybrid Power Supply Systems for Island Electrification in
Malaysia. Energy is one of the most important factors in the socioeconomic
development of a country. In a developing country like Malaysia, the
development of islands is mostly related to the availability of electric power.

Power generated by renewable energy sources has recently become one of the
most promising solutions for the electrification of islands and remote rural
areas. But high dependency on weather conditions and the unpredictable
nature of these renewable energy sources are the main drawbacks. To
overcome thisweakness, different green energy sources and power electronic
converters need to be integrated with each other. This study presents a battery
storage hybrid standalone photovoltaic-wind energy power supply system. In
the proposed standalone hybrid system, a DC-DC buck-boost bidirectional
converter controller is used to accumulates the surplus hybrid power in the
battery bank and supplies this power to the load during the hybrid power
shortage by maintaining the constant dc-link voltage. A three-phase voltage
source inverter complex vector control scheme is used to control the load side
voltage in terms of the voltage amplitude and frequency. Based on the
simulation results obtained from MATLAB/Simulink, it has been found that the
overall hybrid framework is capable of working under variable weather and
load conditions.
 Sandeep Kumar, Vijay Kumar Garg, et al in 2013 Inherently variable nature

of renewable sources of energy such as solar and wind, are incapable of
meeting continuous supply demand. Combining solar photovoltaic (PV) and
wind power could offer a feasible solution to the problem of continuous power
supply, particularly in those geographical locations where both resources are
available in abundance. The present paper investigates the solar and wind
energy potential in Indian sub-continent. The feasibility of harnessing
renewable energy per sq. meter of land (i.e. energy density) from a combined
solar PVWind hybrid system in the selected location - Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, is
reported. The solar irradiance and wind velocity data for the last three decades
for the selected site is collected using PV system software. A novel design of
PV- wind hybrid system is proposed to gauge the better utilization of the
existing space, productivity enhancement, and energy/m2 harnessed from the
utilized land. The proposed system would pave a way forward towards
developing a more sustainable, effective and rugged hybrid renewable energy
systems that could cater the energy needs of the Indian sub-continent and
similar geographical locations.


 Samrat NH, Ahmad NB, Choudhury IA, Taha ZB in 2014 Prospect of Wave
Energy in Malaysia, in Proceedings of the IEEE 8th International Power
Engineering and Optimization Conference. Our earth is a water planet; nearly
two thirds of the earth’s surface is covered by ocean water. But the shortage of
fresh water is a major problem in many areas, especially in rural villages near to
the sea or islands. Now, renewable energy-based desalination system is rising
around the world due to the adverse environmental effect and high-energy
requirements of the conventional fuel- based desalination system. This paper
describes the prospect of an off-grid stand-alone wave-powered reverse
osmosis desalination system for those areas. A simulation model for the
prediction of the wave power delivered for a given value of the wave height
and period is adopted. Based on the availability of the wave data, the amount
of the water produced at different sites of Malaysia can be calculated in this
paper. In addition, this paper deals with an economical analysis of wave energy
production for reverse osmosis desalination system.

CHAPTER-3
EXISTING
SYSTEM
In this existing system, Due to scarcity of fossil fuel in future and its detrimental
effect on the environment, an alternative energy has to be discovered. The
hybrid system has been designed and installed to generate power which
combines solar panel. Also the sun is probably the most important source of
renewable energy available today. The hybrid model system is renewable
energy system, which helps conserve energy by reducing the use of fuel in
vehicle. Hence developing a new method for the economical evaluation.
3.1 COMPONENTS
Components used this system :
1.Arduino nano
2.16*2 lcd display
3.l298n motor driver
4.12v,10w solar
panel 5.12,10w wind
mill
6. diodes
7. led light
8.dc
motor
9.12v,7.5Ah battery


CHAPTER-4
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED SYSTEM
4.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The wind and solar powered car has high efficiency and is a vehicle with least
maintenance. Block diagram of the proposed system is shown in Figure 1. The
car works on the concept of charging and discharging of the battery on board.
When the vehicle runs, the motor consumes power from the battery and after
certain kilometers, it needs to be recharged. In this car, power is generated
from wind turbines and the solar modules are directed to the battery for the
charging. The battery is recharged on board and the car doesn’t need to be
standby for charging. To conserve the energy and to utilize it at best a vehicle is
designed which will run on the battery and which will get charged by free
energy sources. Then as per the requirement, the solar panel and wind energy
generator motor is connected. Energy generated from a wind turbine is shown
by using LED in the project for demo purpose. But in actual, this energy will be
as per the battery voltage ratings and used to charge the battery which will be
then used to drive a vehicle. For building a robot which is driven by remote, a
Bluetooth module HC05 is selected as a remote which works by using a
Bluetooth controller application and checked its functioning. The data signal
coming from the Bluetooth module is given bit by bit to the controller. Then
Controller is programmed for receiving the bits from the application and as per
the signal gives some respective output. The controller receives the bits sent
from remote and checks whether it is from required signal or not. If bits match
with the required data then as per the condition, Controller will drive robot
either forward, reverse, left, right or stop. For driving motors of the vehicle,
Driver IC L293D which receives the signal from the controller is used and as per
the signal, it gives 12V or 0V to the motor terminals. And as per the voltages on
motor terminals motor rotates in either forward or reverse or stop. For moving
the vehicle in forwarding direction signal is sent in such a way that driver IC
gives 12 and 0V to both the motors to run in thesame direction i.e. forward.
For moving reverse 12 and 0V are given to the motors by driver IC L293D
exactly in opposite way as of forward so both motors rotate in reverse
direction. For moving in left direction left motor will remain stopped and the
right motor will move in forward direction while for moving in right direction
right motor will remain stopped and left will be moved in the forward direction.
In this way the vehicle is driven by remote wirelessly by using the battery as a
supply source.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
4.1 Block Diagram of Proposed model
4.2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION ARDUINO

4.2.1 NANO :
After Arduino UNO, the most popular board in the Arduino line-up is probably the Arduino
Nano. Both UNO and Nano are based on ATmega328P Microcontroller but Nano is
significantly smaller in size compared to UNO.

4.2 Front and Back view of Arduino Nano Board
Despite the size, Arduino Nano packs in more or less the same features as UNO. If you
compare UNO and Nano, then Nano lacks the DC Power Jack and contains a mini-B type USB
connector. Other than that Nano is very similar to UNO in terms of functionality.
The Nano board is designed in such a way that the pins are breadboard friendly so that you
can easily mount it on one for your DIY projects.
Overall, the Arduino Nano is a very good alternative to the mighty Arduino UNO and is
available at a lower price. Personally speaking, I suggest Arduino Nano over UNO as it is
cheaper, breadboard friendly, small in size and has couple of more pins (digital and analog
IO) than UNO.
4.2.2 Arduino Nano Board Layout

The following image shows the layout of a typical Arduino nano board. As you can see from
the previous image, there are a couple of components on the bottom side of the board as
well (5V Regulator and USB-to-Serial Converter IC are the main ones).

4.3 ARDUINO NANO BOARD LAYOUT
MCU ATmega328P
Architecture AVR
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage 7V – 12V
Clock Speed 16 MHz
Flash Memory 32 KB (2 KB of this used by bootloader)
SRAM 2KB
EEPROM 1KB
Digital IO Pins 22 (of which 6 can produce PWM)
Analog Input Pins 8

As you can notice, the Type-B USB connector from Arduino UNO is replaced with mini-B type
connector. Also, there is no 2.1 mm DC jack to provide external power supply. Apart from
that, the layout of Arduino Nano is very much self-explanatory.
Regarding the pin, I will discuss about them in the Arduino Nano Pinout Section.
4.2.3 Technical Specifications of Arduino Nano
As Arduino Nano is also based on ATmega328P Microcontroller, the technical specifications

are similar to that of UNO. But none the less, let me give you a brief overview about some
important specifications of Arduino Nano.
4.2.4 How to power up the Arduino Nano?
There are a couple of ways in which you can power the Nano board. The first and easy way is
using the mini-B type USB Connector. The next way is to provide a regulated 5V supply
through the 5V pin (Pin number 27).
Finally, the Nano has an onboard regulator at the bottom (along with the USB – to – Serial
Converter). To use, you can provide an unregulated supply in the range of 6V to 20V to VIN
pin of the Nano (Pin number 30).
4.2.5 What are Different Memories of Arduino Nano?
Strictly speaking, this is specific to the MCU used on the Nano Board, which is ATmega328P.
There are three different memories available in ATmega328P. They are:
• 32 KB of Flash Memory
• 2 KB of SRAM
• 1 KB of EEPROM
• 2 KB of the Flash Memory is used by the bootloader code.

4.2.6 Input and Output Pins of Arduino Nano
Of the 30 pins available on the Nano board, 22 pins are associated with input and output. In
that 14 pins (D0 to D13) are true digital IO pins, which can be configured as per you
application using pinMode(), digitalWrite() and digitalRead() functions.
All these Digital IO pins are capable of sourcing or sinking 40mA of current. An additional
feature of the Digital IO pins is the availability of internal pull-up resistor (which is not
connected by default). The value of the internal pull-up resistor will be in the range of 20KΩ
to 50KΩ.
There are also 8 Analog Input Pins (A0 to A7). This is a couple more than Arduino UNO
(which only has 6). All the analog input pins provide a 10-bit resolution ADC feature, which
can be read using analogRead() function.
An important point about Analog Input pins is that they can be configured as Digital IO pins,
if required (all analog pins except A6 and A7 can be configured as digital IO).
Digital IO pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 11 are capable of producing 8-bit PWM Signals. You can use
analogWrite() function for this.
4.2.7 Communication Interfaces in Arduino Nano
Arduino Nano supports three different types of communication interfaces. They are:
• Serial
• I2C or I2C
• SPI
Perhaps the most common communication interface in the Arduino universe is the Serial
Communication. In fact, the Arduino boards (UNO or Nano or Mega) are programmed using
the serial communication.
Digital IO pins 0 and 1 are used as Serial RX and TX pins to receive and transmit serial
data. These pins are connected to the serial pins of the on-board USB to Serial Converter
IC.


Analog Input Pins A4 and A5 have alternative functions. They can be configured as SDA (A4)
and SCK (A5) to support I2C or I2C or Two Wire Interface (TWI) communication.
The final communication interface is the SPI. Digital IO Pins 10, 11 12 and 13 can be
configured as SPI pins SS, MOSI, MISO and SCK respectively.
4.2.8 Additional features
There is an on-board LED connected to digital IO pin 13. Use this LED to perform Blinky
operations. The reference voltage for the internal ADC is by default set to 5V. But using the
AREF pin, you can manually set the upper limit of the ADC.
To reset the microcontroller, you can use the on-board RESET button.
Although you can program the Arduino Nano using the USB cable, there is a provision to
program the MCU using the In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) interface.
The UART bootloader, which is preloaded in to the ATmega328P microcontroller, enables

programming through serial interface. But ICSP doesn’t need any bootloader. You can
program Arduino nano using ISCP or use the ISCP of Arduino Nano to program other Arduino
Boards.
Digital IO Pins 2 and 3 can be configured as External Interrupts Pins INT0 and INT1
respectively. Use attachInterrupt() function to configure the Interrupt for rising edge, falling
edge or level change on the pin.


4.2.9 Arduino Nano Pinout
Now that we have seen a little bit about Arduino Nano and its important features and
specifications, let us dive into the Arduino Nano Pinout. The following image shows the
complete pinout of Arduino Nano Board.
4.4 ARDUINO NANO PINOUT
Complete Arduino Nano Pinout
As you can see from the image, I described each pin of the Arduino Nano with its
microcontroller equivalent pin, alternative functions, default functionality and other
additional features.
For higher resolution image, click here.

Pin Pin
Description Alternative Functions
Number Name
Digital IO Pin 1 Serial

1 TX / D1 Generally used as TX
TX Pin
Digital IO Pin
2 RX / D0 Generally used as RX
0 Serial RX
Pin
3 RST Reset (Active LOW)
4 GND Ground
5 D2 Digital IO Pin 2
6 D3 Digital IO Pin 3 Timer (OC2B)
7 D4 Digital IO Pin 4 Timer (T0/XCK)
8 D5 Digital IO Pin 5 Timer (OC0B/T1)
11 D8 Digital IO Pin 8 Timer (CLK0/ICP1)
12 D9 Digital IO Pin 9 Timer (OC1A)
13 D10 Digital IO Pin 10 Timer (OC1B)

14 D11 Digital IO Pin 11 SPI (MOSI) Timer (OC2A)
15 D12 Digital IO Pin 12 SPI (MISO)
16 D13 Digital IO Pin 12 SPI (SCK)
17 3V3 Power
18 AREF Analog Reference
19 A0 Analog Input 0
23 A4 Analog Input 4 I2C (SDA)
24 A5 Analog Input 5 I2C (SCL)
+5V Output from regulator or

27 5V
+5V regulated Input

28 RST Reset (Active LOW)
29 GND Ground
30 VIN Unregulated Supply
For pin description of Arduino Nano, let us assume some basic numbering. Let the numbering
MISO Master In Slave Out (Input or Output)
5V Supply
SCK Clock (from Master to Slave)
MOSI Master Out Slave In (Input or Output)
RESET Reset (Active LOW)
GND Ground
begin with the TX Pin (D1). So, TX is Pin 1 RX is Pin 2, RST is Pin 3 and so on. On the other
side, D13 is Pin 16, 3V3 is Pin 17 etc.
With this information, let us now see the pin description of Arduino Nano.
The following table describes the pins of the ICSP Connector.
4.3 RECTIFIER:
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave
rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre- tap transformer is used, but
this method is


rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only
uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.
4.5 RECTIFIER
4.3.1 BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special
packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge
rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes
conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum
current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at
least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages).
4.6 Representation of Bridge Rectifier
4.4 DC MOTOR:
When DC electric current flowing in the coil in accordance with the direction of the arrow,
while the direction of the magnetic field B is from north to south pole, the coil will be driven
by the force F in the direction as shown in Figure 1. This condition occurs continuously so
will result in rotation on the axis of the coil. The direction of the electric current in the coil is
fixed, because of the split ring on the end of the coil.

4.7 DC MOTOR
4.4.1 L298N motor driver:

What is L298N Motor Driver
If you’re looking for an inexpensive way to control two DC motors, the L298N motor driver is
a good choice. It can control the speed and direction of two DC motors, including bipolar
steppers such as the NEMA 17-type. It works by using a technique called L298N PWM to
control input voltage, sending on-off pulses to the motors. Compared to ICs, breakout
boards can be more convenient to prototype.
The L298N motor driver has two channels, channel A and channel B. To operate the motor
in channel A, connect pins Out 1 and Out 2. Then connect pins Enable A and Enable B to the
motor. The Enable A pin must be high to turn the motor on. To operate the motor in the
counterclockwise direction, make the Input 1 pin low. For optimal performance of this
motor type, the L298N motor driver is ideally paired with a 5V power supply.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, SIET

4.8 L298N MOTOR DRIVER
4.9.A L298N MOTOR DRIVER WORKING

The L298N motor driver module contains two screw terminal blocks, one for a motor and
one for a Ground pin. In addition, the module has a 5V pin that can either be an input or an
output. The L298N PWM signal from the motor will control the speed of the motor.
Engineers have designed the circuit to seamlessly operate with a range of electronic and
mechanical components, including sensors, switches, and detectors.
4.4.2 L298N Module
This IC has a datasheet. This L298N motor driver datasheet will provide you with detailed
information regarding this IC, including specifications, absolute maximum ratings, block
diagram, and suggested circuits. The L298N motor driver datasheet also has circuits you can
use with your Arduino Uno R3. Read it carefully, and be sure to follow all instructions
thoroughly. This IC also contains two control pins. One controls the motor’s direction, and
the other controls the speed.
The L298N motor driver is a double H-bridge design, with a low level of heat and
interference. This device supports up to 2A of current with a power rating of 25W. This
module can drive two DC motors, one 2-phase, and one four-phase stepper. It operates on
the driver voltage and requires an external 5V power supply. Once installed, it is ready to
use.
The L298N module is a dual H-bridge motor driver that allows you to control the speed
and direction of two DC motors. The module accepts standard TTL voltage levels and is
useful for projects with powered wheels. Additionally, it finds application in regulating
lighting brightness. The H-bridge circuit accepts both polarity and pulse width modulation
(PWM).
4.4.3 How L298N Motor Driver Works
The L298N motor driver is an IC that has two input power pins. The Vs pin powers the motor,
while the Vss pin powers logic circuitry. A common ground connects both pins. An on-board
78M05 5V regulator also powers the L298N motor driver. Enabling or disabling the 78M05 is

possible. The L298N module can be used with Arduino Uno and Raspberry Pi.

4.9. B L298N MOTOR DRIVER WORKING
The L298N motor driver controls both the speed and direction of rotation of a dc electric
motor. It does this by using a L298N PWM system, which means it can control voltage using
square wave pulses. The wider the pulses, the faster the motor will rotate. However, the
exact pulse width will vary depending on the type of motor you’re driving. To find the
correct value, you’ll need to experiment.
To use the L298N motor driver, first, you need to know how it operates. This is achieved via
the Truth Table. The Truth Table is a special mathematical table that contains inputs and
outputs based on a set of Boolean functions. In this example, you need to set the input and
output pins to HIGH. You must then translate the values of the TTL input and output pins to
make the driver work.
4.4.4 Connect L298N with Arduino
The L298N Motor Driver is a cheap way to control DC motors. This motor driver can control
the speed and direction of two DC motors. You can also utilize it to control a bipolar stepper
motor, like a NEMA 17 brushless motor. The motor driver uses L298N PWM to control the
input voltage by sending a series of ON-OFF pulses.

4.10 CONNECTING L298 WITH ARDUINO
The L298N module is a dual H-bridge DC motor driver. The circuit is straightforward, with
just one sketch that declares the pins on the Arduino Uno that control the motors. Then it
pulls all of those pins low and calls two user-defined functions. At that point, the circuit is
complete! You’ve completed your first project with a DC motor driver!
The L298N motor driver board comes with two 3.5mm pitch screw terminals. It supports a
variety of DC motors with five to 35V, and it can even control relays and solenoids. It also
has an integrated 5-V regulator, which is useful for supplying logic circuits. You can purchase
L298N driver boards from multiple sources at reasonable prices. You can also buy an
optional 5 V power input.
4.5 L298N with DC Motor

The L298N with DC motor IC is a microcontroller that can be used to drive LEDs or other
loads that require a higher current. It has three inputs, pins 1 and 2 that control the
direction of rotation, and two inputs 3 and 4 that control the backward and forward
movement of the


motor. The onboard 5V regulator controls the voltage and speed of the motor. To control
the motor’s speed, the IC uses a L298N PWM signal to regulate the motor’s speed.
4.11 INTERFACING L298N WITH DC MOTOR
Using the L298N with a DC motor is extremely easy and straightforward. The sketch you’ll
use to control the speed and direction of a DC motor is very simple and doesn’t require any
libraries. This sketch declares the corresponding Arduino Uno pins for the motors and pulls
them low. Next, it calls two user-defined functions, which control the speed and direction
of the motor. In this way, you can make the motor work in any direction that you need it
to.
4.5.1 L298N with Stepper Motor

This L298N with a stepper motor driver board is an advanced circuitry controller that uses
dual full-bridge drivers to control DC and stepper motors. It is also capable of controlling
solenoids and inductive loads. The L298N module has two channels and a 78M05 5 V
power regulator. This board features a simple design with easy programming. This motor
driver board is compatible with many Arduino projects.
To connect a stepper motor to an L298N H-bridge module, first identify the wires.
Below are the steps for connecting a stepper motor to an Arduino Uno. Kindly take note
that the wires of a stepper motor should exhibit identical polarization on both inputs. To use
the L298N with a stepper motor, you must have a Raspberry Pi running at least 5V.


4.12 INTERFACING L298N WITH STEPPER MOTOR
This stepper motor driver has a good CR2032-type IC. The L298N motor driver can deliver up
to two Amps per coil. While this isn’t ideal for a high-end project, it is fine for basic
applications. It is very robust – the chip and the resistors should last for a long time. You can
also power the Pi or Arduino Uno R3 with a 5V port. Ensure acquiring a 10W resistor with a
minimum rating of 20 Amps.
4.5.2 Alternate of L298N
If you are looking for an Alternate of L298N, here are some things to know about this
particular IC. The L298N motor driver is a dual-H bridge DC motor driver IC. You’ll find that
it is very similar to the L293D series but is a bit more expensive. It’s also not suitable for
motors with higher voltages, like a 12-volt version.
The L298N module is ideal for custom-built robots and vehicles, while the TB6612FNG is
perfect for child-sized RC toys and Micro Metal Gear Motors. While you’ll still need a
transistor or MOSFET circuit to drive a DC motor, you’ll likely be running two of them at
once. The Alternate of L298N also comes with easy-to-follow wiring diagrams, so you can
get started quickly.

4.5.3 Which is Better L293D or L298N

If you’re wondering which Arduino is better for your project, you’ve come to the right
place. A L293D or L298N shield is one option. You can use both to drive DC motors,
bipolar stepping motors, and relays. Both shields can also drive as many as six motors.
Here’s a closer look at their differences and how they compare.
4.6 Solar Panel :
4.13 SOLAR PANEL
The 10W 12Volts 36-cell Solar Panel (41 x 30 cm) for DIY Projects is ready to use without
requiring a frame or special modifications. We have chosen to sell these Polycrystalline solar
cells because they are Laser cut to the proper size and encapsulated in the special sun and
weather resistant materials which give them unique characteristics. You will not regret using
such high performance, compact solar cells from Robu.in.
The 12v 10W mini Solar Panel has Polycrystalline solar cells which are encased and
protected by a durable outer poly frame. This 3v 150mA mini Solar Panel for DIY Projects is
light weighted, very strong and weather-resistant substrates or injection molded trays
customdesigned for the target product. These Small Epoxy Solar Panels are simple to install
or add to your existing product and their construction requires no frame or special
modifications.
Polycrystalline solar cells have 2 to 3 times the power of amorphous thin-film solar panels.
Very small space is required for installation and to connect 12v Solar Panel, just solder or
crimp to the copper tape.


4.6.1 Features:
1. 100% new high quality.
2. 12 volt 10-watt polycrystalline solar panel USB charging
3. High conversion speed, high-efficiency output.
4. Excellent low light effect.
5. High transmittance tempered glass.
6. A unique technique to prevent water frozen within the deforming framework.
7. Small Epoxy Solar Panels are simple to install or add to your existing product.
8. Construction requires no frame or special modifications
9. Small space required for installation.
10. Has 2 to 3 times the power of amorphous thin-film solar panels
11. Ready to use, they require no frame or special modifications.
12. For connection, just solder or crimp to the copper tape.
4.6.2 Applications of Small Solar Panels:

1. Small Home Projects
2. Science Projects
DC Output Voltage (V) 12
Max Power Output (W) 10
No. of Cells 36
Material: Polycrystalline Silicon
Outdoor Power Bank, Many micro

Application USB powered Electronic Gadget
Length (mm): 405
Width (mm): 300
Height (mm): 25
Weight (g): 1381

Shipping Weight 1.5 kg
Shipping Dimensions 42 × 31 × 2 cm
3. Electronic Applications.
4. Charging Small DC Batteries.
5. Build Your Own Solar-powered Models/Toys.
4.7 WIND MILL:

There are two basic types of wind turbines:
• Horizontal-axis turbines
• Vertical-axis turbines
The size of wind turbines varies widely. The length of the blades is the biggest factor in
determining the amount of electricity a wind turbine can generate. Small wind turbines that
can power a single home may have an electric generating capacity of 10 kilowatts (kW). The
largest operating wind turbines have electric-generating capacity of about 15,000 kilowatts
(15 megawatts). Larger turbines are in development. Wind turbines are often grouped
together to create wind power plants, or wind farms, that provide electricity to electric-
power grids.
4.14 HORIZONTAL-AXIS WIND TURBINE

4.14 (B) HORIZONTAL-AXIS TURBINE
Darrieus vertical-axis wind turbine in Martigny, Switzerland
Source: Lysippos, Wikimedia Commons author (GNU free documentation license) (public
domain)
4.7.1 Horizontal-axis turbines are similar to propeller airplane engines

Horizontal-axis turbines have blades like airplane propellers, and they commonly have
three blades. The largest horizontal-axis turbines are as tall as 20-story buildings and have
blades more than 100 feet long. Taller turbines with longer blades generate more
electricity. Nearly all operating wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines.
4.7.2 Vertical-axis turbines look like eggbeaters

Vertical-axis turbines have blades that are attached to the top and the bottom of a vertical
rotor. The Darrieus wind turbine was named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus,
who patented the design in 1931. The turbine looks like a giant, two-bladed eggbeater and
is the most common type of vertical-axis turbine. Some versions of the vertical-axis turbine
are


100 feet tall and 50 feet wide. Very few vertical-axis wind turbines are in use today because
they do not perform as well as horizontal-axis turbines.
4.7.3 Wind power plants, or wind farms, produce electricity for electric power grids
Wind farms are clusters of wind turbines that produce large amounts of electricity. A wind
farm usually has many turbines scattered over a large area. As of the end of 2022, the
Highland Wind Project in Iowa had the most wind turbines—462 turbines—with a total
nameplate generating capacity of about 502 megawatts (or 502,000 kilowatts). However, the
Grand Prairie Wind energy project in Texas had the largest total nameplate capacity, at
1,027 MW (about 1 million kilowatts) and 365 wind turbines.
4.15 Horizontal-axis wind turbines on a wind farm
4.8 16*2 LCD DISPLAY:

An LCD screen is an electronic display module that uses liquid crystal to produce a visible
image. The 16×2 LCD display is a very basic module commonly used in DIYs and circuits. The
16×2 translates a display of 16 characters per line in 2 such lines. In this LCD, each
character is displayed in a 5×7 pixel matrix.

4.16 16*2 LCD DISPLAY

LCD 16×2
A 16X2 LCD has two registers, namely, command and data. The register select is used to
switch from one register to other. RS=0 for the command register, whereas RS=1 for the
data register.
Command Register: The command register stores the command instructions given to the
LCD. A command is an instruction given to an LCD to do a predefined task. Examples like:
• initializing it
• clearing its screen • setting the cursor position
• controlling display etc.
Processing for commands happens in the command register.
Data Register: The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is
the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. When we send data to LCD, it
goes to the data register and is processed there. When RS=1, the data register is selected.

4.8.1 Important Command Codes for 16×2 LCD
Sr. No Hex Code Command to LCD instruction Register
1 01 Clear display screen
2 02 Return home
3 04 Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)
4 06 Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)
5 05 Shift display right
6 07 Shift display left
7 08 Display off, cursor off
8 0A Display off, cursor on
9 0C Display on, cursor off
10 0E Display on, cursor blinking
11 0F Display on, cursor blinking
12 10 Shift cursor position to left
13 14 Shift the cursor position to the right
14 18 Shift the entire display to the left
15 1C Shift the entire display to the right
16 80 Force cursor to the beginning ( 1st line)
17 C0 Force cursor to the beginning ( 2nd line)

18 38 2 lines and 5×7 matrix
4.8.2 Displaying Custom Characters on 16X2 LCD

Generating custom characters on LCD is not very hard. It requires knowledge about the
custom generated random access memory (CG-RAM) of the LCD and the LCD chip
controller. Most LCDs contain a Hitachi HD4478 controller.
CG-RAM is the main component in making custom characters. It stores the custom
characters once declared in the code. CG-RAM size is 64 bytes providing the option of
creating eight characters at a time. Each character is eight bytes in size.
CG-RAM address starts from 0x40 (Hexadecimal) or 64 in decimal. We can generate custom
characters at these addresses. Once we generate our characters at these addresses, we can
print them by just sending commands to the LCD. Character addresses and printing
commands are below.
In the table above you can see starting addresses for each character with their printing
commands.
The first character is generated at addresses 0x40 to 0x47 and is printed on LCD by just sending a
command 0.

The second character is generated at addresses 0x48 to 0x55 and is printed by sending a
command 1.
4.8.3 How to Generate Custom Characters in CG-RAM

In LCD displays, each character is in a 5×8 matrix. Where 5 is the number of columns and 8 is
the number of rows.
4.17 LCD 16×2 Matrix
Here is a simple example of how to create the letter ‘b’ in CG-RAM.
The Array for generating ‘b’ is char b[7]={0x10,0x10,0x16,0x19,0x11,0x11,0x1E}; That is,
• Send the address where you want to create a character.
• Now create your character at this address. Send the ‘b’ character array values defined
above one by one to the data register of the LCD.
• To print the generated character at 0x40. Send command 0 to the command register
of LCD. The table below would explain this more clearly- CG-RAM Address Table
4.9 Interfacing LCD 16X2 with Arduino

LCD modules are very important in many Arduino-based embedded system designs to
improve the user interface of the system. Interfacing with Arduino gives the programmer
more freedom to customize the code easily. Any cost-effective Arduino board, a 16X2
character LCD display, jumper wires, and a breadboard are sufficient enough to build the
circuit.


4.18 Interfacing Circuit For detailed explanation, you can check how to use LCD with Arduino.
4.9.1 Display the LED Brightness on a 16×2 LCD

The combination of an LCD and Arduino yields several projects, the most simple one being
LCD to display the LED brightness. All we need for this circuit is an LCD, Arduino,
breadboard, a resistor, potentiometer, LED, and some jumper cables. The circuit
connections are below.
4.19 Display the LED Brightness on a 16×2 LCD

LCD 16×2 Project Circuit The detailed project is available at displaying the brightness of a
LED on an LCD display.
4.10 DIODE:
Diodes have two terminals, anode and cathode. Whether current flows or not depends on
the direction of voltage applied to these terminals. This operation is called rectification and
is the basic operation of diodes. A diode has two terminals: an anode (positive side) and a
cathode (negative side). The diode conducts current when the voltage at the anode is higher
than the voltage at the cathode by more than a value specified in a datasheet (roughly 0.7 V
in the case of silicon pn junction diodes). It does not conduct current when the difference
between the anode and cathode potentials is less than this value. Such action is called
rectification. This diode characteristic can be used for rectifier circuits that convert direct
current to alternating current (AC-DC conversion), reverse battery protection (reverse
current protection), and radio wave detection. The bias state in which the anode terminal is
higher than the cathode terminal is called forward bias, and the state in which it is lower is
called reverse bias. When a reverse bias is applied to the diode and this voltage is increased,
current suddenly flows at a voltage called breakdown voltage. Breakdown voltage is almost
constant irrespective of current. Utilizing this characteristic, diodes are also used in constant-
voltage circuits and nowadays for ESD and surge protection. However, typical diodes are
subject to degradation and permanent damage when they are operated in the breakdown
region. It is therefore necessary to use dedicated diodes such as Zener diodes or ESD
protection diodes for these applications.
4.20 Diode symbol and terminal name


4.21 V-I Curves of pn-junction diode
4.22 Diode rectification (half-wave rectification)

4.23 Diode-based detector circuit
LED :
The Light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962, Nick Holonyak
has come up with the idea of a light-emitting diode, and he was working for the general
electric company. The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical
characteristics to a PN junction diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the
forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction. The LED occupies a small
area which is less than 1 mm2. The applications of LEDs used to make various electrical and
electronic projects. In this article, we will discuss the working principle of the LED and its
applications.
4.10.1 Light Emitting Diode
The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it
is called a light emitting diode.

4.24 Light Emitting Diode

4.10.2 LED Symbol
The LED symbol is similar to a diode symbol except for two small arrows that specify the
emission of light, thus it is called LED (light-emitting diode). The LED includes two terminals
namely anode (+) and the cathode (-). The LED symbol is shown below.
4.25 LED SYMBOL

4.10.3 CONSTRUCTION OF LED
The construction of LED is very simple because it is designed through the deposition of three
semiconductor material layers over a substrate. These three layers are arranged one by one
where the top region is a P-type region, the middle region is active and finally, the bottom
region is N type. The three regions of semiconductor material can be observed in the
construction. In the construction, the P-type region includes the holes; the N-type region
includes elections whereas the active region includes both holes and electrons.
When the voltage is not applied to the LED, then there is no flow of electrons and holes so
they are stable. Once the voltage is applied then the LED will forward biased, so the
electrons in the N-region and holes from P-region will move to the active region. This
region is also known as the depletion region. Because the charge carriers like holes include
a


positive charge whereas electrons have a negative charge so the light can be generated
through the recombination of polarity charges.
4.10.4 Light Emitting Diode Working

The light-emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased,
then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combined
constantly, removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type
to the ptype silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the
complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny
packet or photon of light.
4.26 Working of Light Emitting Diode

The above diagram shows how the light-emitting diode works and the step by step process
of the diagram.
• From the above diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color including
the electrons which are indicated by the black circles.
• The P-type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are indicated by the white
circles.
• The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and pushing
the electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite direction.
• Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
• The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.

4.10.5 History of Light Emitting Diode

LEDs were invented in the year 1927 but not a new invention. A short review of LED history is
discussed below.
• In the year 1927, Oleg Losev (Russian inventor) was created the first LED and published
some theory on his research.
• In the year 1952, Prof. Kurt Lechovec has tested the theories of Losers theories and
explained about the first LEDs
• In the year 1958, the first green LED was invented by Rubin Braunstein & Egon Loebner
• In the year 1962, a red LED was developed by Nick Holonyak. So, the first LED is created.
• In the year 1964, IBM implemented LEDs on a circuit board for the first time on a computer.
• In the year 1968, HP (Hewlett Packard) started using LEDs in calculators.
• In the year 1971, Jacques Pankove & Edward Miller were invented a blue LED
• In the year 1972, M. George Crawford (Electrical Engineer) was invented the yellow color
LED.
• In the year 1986, Walden C. Rhines & Herbert Maruska from the University of Stafford
invented a blue color LED with Magnesium including future standards.
• In the year 1993, Hiroshi Amano & Physicists Isamu Akaski has developed a Gallium Nitride
with high-quality blue color LEDs.
• An electrical engineer like Shuji Nakamura was developed the first blue LED with high
brightness through Amanos & Akaski developments, which rapidly leads to the expansion
of white color LEDs. In the year 2002, white color LEDs were used for residential purposes
which charger around £80 to £100 for each bulb.
• In the year 2008, LED lights have become very popular in offices, hospitals & schools.
• In the year 2019, the LEDs have become the main light sources;
• The LED development is incredible, as it is ranged from small indication to light the offices,
homes, schools, hospitals, etc.

4.10.6 Light Emitting Diode Circuit for Biasing

Most of the LEDs have voltage ratings from 1 volt-3 volt whereas forward current ratings
range from 200 mA-100 mA.
4.27 Light Emitting Diode Circuit for Biasing

LED Biasing
If the voltage (1V to 3V) is applied to the LED, then it functions properly due to the flow of
current for the applied voltage will be in the operating range. Similarly, if the applied voltage
to an LED is high than the operating voltage then the depletion region within the light-
emitting diode will break down due to the high flow of current. This unexpected high flow of
current will damage the device.
This can be avoided by connecting a resistor in series with the voltage source & an LED. The
safe voltage ratings of LEDs will be ranges from 1V to 3 V whereas safe current ratings range
from 200 mA to 100 mA.
Here, the resistor which is arranged in between the voltage source and LED is known as the
current limiting resistor because this resistor restricts the flow of current otherwise the LED
may destroy it. So this resistor plays a key role in protecting the LED.
Mathematically, the flow of current through the LED can be written as
Where IF = Vs – VD/Rs
Where, ‘IF ‘is forward current
‘Vs’ is a voltage source
‘VD’ is the voltage drop across the light-emitting diode
‘Rs’ is a current limiting resistor
The amount of voltage dropped to defeat the barrier of the depletion region. The LED
voltage drop will range from 2V to 3V while Si or Ge diode is 0.3 otherwise 0.7 V.

Thus, the LED can be operated by using high voltage as compared with Si or Ge diodes. Light-
emitting diodes consume more energy than silicon or germanium diodes to operate.
4.10.7 Types of Light Emitting Diodes
There are different types of light-emitting diodes present and some of them are mentioned below.
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-red, orange,
and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near-ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
4.10.8 Working Principle of LED

The working principle of the Light-emitting diode is based on the quantum theory. The
quantum theory says that when the electron comes down from the higher energy level to
the lower energy level then, the energy emits from the photon. The photon energy is equal
to the energy gap between these two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the
forward biased, then the current flows through the diode.
4.27 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED

The flow of current in the semiconductors is caused by the flow of holes in the opposite
direction of current and the flow of electrons in the direction of the current. Hence there
will be recombination due to the flow of these charge carriers.
The recombination indicates that the electrons in the conduction band jump down to the
valence band. When the electrons jump from one band to another band the electrons will
emit the electromagnetic energy in the form of photons and the photon energy is equal to
the forbidden energy gap.
For example, let us consider the quantum theory, the energy of the photon is the product of
both the Planck constant and frequency of electromagnetic radiation. The mathematical
equation is shown
Eq = hf
Where his known as a Planck constant, and the velocity of electromagnetic radiation is equal
to the speed of light i.e c. The frequency radiation is related to the velocity of light as an f= c
/ λ. λ is denoted as a wavelength of electromagnetic radiation and the above equation will
become as a
Eq = he / λ
From the above equation, we can say that the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is
inversely proportional to the forbidden gap. In general silicon, germanium semiconductors
this forbidden energy gap is between the condition and valence bands are such that the
total radiation of electromagnetic wave during recombination is in the form of infrared
radiation. We can’t see the wavelength of infrared because they are out of our visible range.
The infrared radiation is said to be as heat because the silicon and the germanium
semiconductors are not direct gap semiconductors rather these are indirect gap
semiconductors. But in the direct gap semiconductors, the maximum energy level of the
valence band and minimum energy level of the conduction band does not occur at the same
moment of electrons. Therefore, during the recombination of electrons and holes are
migration of electrons from the conduction band to the valence band the momentum of the
electron band will be changed.
4. 10.9 White LEDs

The manufacturing of LEDs can be done through two techniques. In the first technique, the
LED chips like red, green & blue are merged within a similar package to generate white light;
whereas in the second technique, phosphorescence is utilized. Fluorescence within the
phosphor can be summarized within the epoxy surrounding then the LED will be activated
through the short wavelength energy using the InGaN LED device.

The different color lights like blue, green & red lights are combined in changeable quantities
to produce a different color sensation which is known as primary additive colors. These
three light intensities are added equally to generate the white light.
But, to attain this combination through a combination of green, blue & red LEDs which need
a complicated electro-optical design for controlling the combination & diffusion of different
colors. Further, this approach can be complicated because of the changes within LED color.
The product line of white LED mainly depends on a single LED chip using a phosphor coating
This coating generates white light once struck through ultraviolet otherwise blue photons.
The same principle is also applied to Fluorescent bulbs; the emission of ultraviolet from an
electric discharge within the tube will cause the phosphor to blink white.
Even though this process of LED can generate different hues, differences can be controlled
by screening. White LED-based devices are screened by using four exact chromaticity
coordinates which are adjacent to the center of the CIE diagram.
The CIE diagram describes all achievable color coordinates within the horseshoe curve.
Clean colors lie over the arc, but the white tip is within the center. The white LED output
color can be represented through four points which are represented in the middle of the
graph. Even though the four graph coordinates are close to clean white, these LEDs are
usually not effective like a common light source to light up colored lenses.
These LEDs are mainly useful to white otherwise clear lenses, backlight opaque,. When this
technology maintains to progress, white LEDs will certainly gain a reputation as an
illumination source & indication.
Luminous Efficacy
The LEDs’ luminous efficacy can be defined as the produced luminous flux in lm for each unit
and electrical power can be used within W. The rated internal efficacy order of Blue color
LED is 75 lm/W; amber LEDs have 500 lm/W & red LEDs have 155 lm/W. Because of internal
re absorption, the losses can be taken into consideration; the order of luminous efficacy
ranges from 20 to 25 lm/W for green & amber LEDs. This efficacy definition is also known as
external efficacy & is analogous to the efficacy definition normally used for other types of
light sources like multicolor LED.
Multicolor Light Emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode that produces one color once they connected in forward bias &
produce a color once they connected in reverse bias is known as multicolor LED.

Actually, these LEDs include two PN-junctions and the connection of this can be done in
parallel with the anode of one that is linked to the cathode of another.
Multicolor LEDs are normally red once they biased in one direction & green once they
biased in another direction. If this LED is turned ON very fast among two polarities, then this
LED will generate a third color. A green or red LED will generate a yellow color light once
rapidly switched backward and forward among biasing polarities.
4.10.10 Difference between a Diode and LED

The main difference between a diode and a LED includes the following.
Diode LED
The semiconductor device like a The LED is one type of diode, used to
diode conducts simply in one generate light.
direction.
The designing of the diode can be done The LED is designed with the gallium
with a semiconductor material & the flow phosphide & gallium arsenide
of electrons in this material can give their whose electrons can generate light
energy the heat form. while transmitting the energy.
The diode changes the AC into the DC The LED changes the voltage into light
It has a high reverse breakdown voltage The LED changes the voltage into light
The on-state voltage of the diode is
The on-state voltage of LED approximately
0.7v for silicon whereas, for
ranges from 1.2 to 2.0 V.
germanium, it is
0.3v
The diode is used in voltage rectifiers, The applications of LED are traffic signals,
clipping & clamping circuits, voltage automotive headlamps, in medical
multipliers. devices, camera flashes, etc
I-V Characteristics of LED

There are different types of light-emitting diodes are available in the market and there are
different LED characteristics which include the color light, or wavelength radiation, light
intensity. The important characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there is
the only red color. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the semiconductor process
and doing the research on the new metals for LED, the different colors were formed.


I-V Ch
4.28 V-I CHARACTERISTICS

The following graph shows the approximate curves between the forward voltage and the
current. Each curve in the graph indicates a different color. The table shows a summary of
the LED characteristics.
Characteristics of LED
What are the two types of LED configurations?

The standard configurations of LED are two like emitters as well as COBs
The emitter is a single die that is mounted toward a circuit board, then to a heat sink. This
circuit board gives electrical power toward the emitter, while also drawing away heat.
To aid in reducing cost as well as enhance light uniformity, investigators determined that the
LED substrate can be detached & the single die can be mounted openly to the circuit board.
So this design is called COB (chip-on-board array).
4.10.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of LED’s

The advantages of light-emitting diode include the following.
• The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny.
• By using the LED’s electricity is controlled.
• The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the microcontroller.
• Long Lifetime
• Energy efficient
• No warm-up period
• Rugged
• Doesn’t affect by cold temperatures
• Directional
• Color Rendering is Excellent
• Environmentally friendly
• Controllable
The disadvantages of light-emitting diode include the following.
• Price
• Temperature sensitivity
• Temperature dependence
• Light quality
• Electrical polarity
• Voltage sensitivity
• Efficiency droop
• Impact on insects
Applications of Light Emitting Diode
There are many applications of LED and some of them are explained below.

• LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries
• The light-emitting diodes are used in motorcycles and cars
• These are used in mobile phones to display the message
• At the traffic light signals led’s are used
4.11 LEAD ACID BATTERY :
4.29 LEAD ACID BATTERY
A lead acid battery is a rechargeable battery that uses lead and sulphuric acid to function.
The lead is submerged into the sulphuric acid to allow a controlled chemical reaction.
This chemical reaction is what causes the battery to produce electricity. Then, this reaction is
reversed to recharge the battery.
4.11.1 MATERIALS USED FOR LEAD ACID BATTERY

The primary active materials required to construct a lead acid battery are:
• Lead peroxide (PbO2): Dark brown, hard and brittle substance to form the positive plate.
• Sponge lead (Pb): The pure lead in soft sponge conditions creates the negative plate.
• Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4): A strong acid and a good electrolyte. It is highly ionised, and most of
the heat released in dilution comes from the hydration of the hydrogen ions. It is used for the lead
acid battery with a ratio of water: acid = 3:1.
4.11.2 HOW DOES A LEAD ACID BATTERY WORK?

The lead acid storage battery is formed by dipping the lead peroxide plate and sponge lead
plate in dilute sulfuric acid. An electric current is connected externally between these plates.
In diluted sulfuric acid, the acid molecules split into positive hydrogen ions (H+) and negative
sulfate ions (SO4 − −). When it reaches the PbO2 plate, the hydrogen ions receive electrons
from it and become hydrogen atom which again attacks PbO2 and forms PbO and H2O
(water). This PbO reacts with H2 SO4 and forms PbSO4 and H2O (water). SO4− − ions
(anions) move


towards the electrode (anode) connected with the positive terminal of the DC source, where
they will give up their extra electrons and become radical SO4. This radical SO4 cannot exist
alone; hence reacts with PbSO4 of anode and forms lead peroxide (PbO2) and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4).
4.11.3 WHEN A BATTERY IS CHARGED

Charging is a process that reverses the electrochemical reaction. It converts the electrical
energy from the charger into chemical energy in the battery. However, a battery does not
store electricity; it keeps the chemical energy necessary to produce electricity.
A battery charger reverses the current flow, providing that the charger has a greater voltage
than the battery. The charger creates an excess of electrons at the negative plates, and the
positive hydrogen ions are attracted to them. The hydrogen reacts with the lead sulfate to
form sulfuric acid and lead, and when most of the sulfate is gone, hydrogen rises from the
negative plates. The oxygen in the water reacts with the lead sulfate on the positive plates
to turn them again into lead dioxide, and oxygen bubbles rise from the positive plates when
the reaction is almost complete. This is called gassing.
4.11.4 SELF-DISCHARGE
One not-so-nice feature of lead acid batteries is that they discharge all by themselves, even
if not in use. A general rule of thumb is a one per cent per day self-discharge rate. This rate
increases at high temperatures and decreases at colder temperatures.
4.11.5 CHANGE OF ELECTROLYTE OF LEAD ACID BATTERY AFTER CHARGING

AND DISCHARGING
When the lead battery is discharged, the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte decreases
continuously, the water increases gradually, and the specific gravity of the solution falls.
When the lead acid battery is charged, sulfuric acid in the electrolyte keeps increasing,
water gradually decreases, and the specific gravity of the solution rises.
In practical terms, the change of electrolyte specific gravity determines the charging
condition of lead acid batteries. That’s why it is important to water batteries consistently, to
ensure you get the most out of the batteries.
If you are looking for a watering system to monitor and water your batteries effectively,
here’s a range of watering system products such as SMART BLINKY™ and AQUA FILLING
SYSTEMTM.


CHAPTER-5
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION ARDUINO IDE SOFTWARE
5.1 ARDUINO IDE SOFTWARE
ARTICLE TOP AD ARTICLE TOP AD ARTICLE TOP AD

The development of electronics is now easier thanks to arduino software (IDE), and arduino
boards (hardware) . This set help to build digital and interactive devices with the help of
other components. In Previous article we talk about arduino boards. In this article we will
recognize what is arduino software (IDE), and how use it.
The arduino software (IDE) is an open source software, which is used to programme the
Arduino boards, and is an integrated development environment, devlopped by arduino.cc.
Allow to write and upload code to arduino boards. And it consiste of many libraries and a
set of examples of mini projects.
arduino software (IDE) is compatible with different operating systems (Windows, Linux,
Mac OS X), and supports the programming languages (C/C++)
The Arduino software is easy to use for beginners, or advanced users. It uses to get started
with electronics programming and robotics, and build interactive prototypes.
So Arduino software is a tool to develope new things. and create new electronic projects,
by Anyone (children, hobbyists, engineers, programmers, … etc).

5.1 Arduino software interface:
5.2 Arduino software interface
5.1.1 Menus section:
5.3 MENUS SECTION
Menus are the main menus of the program, and they are 5 menus (File, Edit, Sketch, Tools,
Help), and they are being used to add or modify the code that you are writing.

5.1.2 Toolbar section:

The toolbar is the most important section in the Arduino software, because it contains the
tools that you will use continuously while programming the Arduino board. These tools
are:
5.4 TOOLBAR SECTION
1. Verify: this button use to review the code, or make sure that is free from mistakes.
2. Upload: this button is use to upload the code on the arduino board.
3. New: this button use to create new project, or sketch ( sketch is the file of the code).
4. Open: is use when you want to open the sketch from sketchbook.
5. Save: save the current sketch in the sketchbook.
6. Serial monitor: showing the data which have been sent from Arduino.
Code editor section:

Code editor is liberator of codes, is the white space in the program, in which codes are been
writting, and modifying on it.
5.1.3 Status bar section:
Status bar is a space can be found down the code editor, through it showing the status of
operation’s completion (compiling, uploading, … etc).
Program notifications section:
5.5 PROGRAM SECTION
Program notifications this program showing you the mistakes of codes, and some problems
that can be face you during the programmation process. And clarifies to you the type of the
mistake or the problem which happened and it reason. And it presents some instruction
through it, which you have to apply to process the mistake or the problem.
Serial port & Board selections:
Serial ports selections is a space in which the program showing you the type of the port
which is used to connect the arduino by computer.

5.6 SERIEL PORT AND BOARD SECTION
B selections is a space in which the program showing you the type of the arduino board.

5.1.4 How to use Arduino software:

After installation of electronic components by using input/output pins on Arduino board.
We connect Arduino board with computer by usb cable, then we open Arduino software.
First thing: in the menu we click on “Tools”, then we click on “Board” and we select Arduino
board which you are using.
Second: in the menu we click on “Tools” again, we click on “Port” and we select Serial port
that we connected Arduino board with.
Third: in “Code editor” we write the programming code, then we click on “Verify” to verify it
correctness.
Fourth: we click on “Upload” to upload the code on the Arduino board.
Thus, we have programmed the Arduino board using the Arduino program.

CHAPTER-6
RESULT
6.1 RESULT
A recent project showcased a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) utilizing solar and
wind energy for real-time energy management. The project implemented an
artificial neural network (ANN)-based approach to predict and optimize the
power generated from these renewable sources. The ANN model, using inputs
like temperature, humidity, air pressure, and solar radiation, effectively
estimated wind and solar energy production. This hybrid system enhanced
energy efficiency and reduced dependency on traditional fuel sources,
providing a sustainable solution for HEVs.
6.1 PROTOTYPE MODEL OF PROJECT
6.2 SOLAR AND WIND GWNWRATING POWER DISPLAY WITH 16*2 DISPLAY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, SIET

CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
7.1 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
It is shown in Figure 2, that the solar energy through solar panel and wind energy through
fan powers the system. There is huge potential for producing electricity from renewable
sources. This project gives a clear idea that vehicle-powered with the help of solar energy
and wind energy is more effective than fuel vehicle. By combining the two intermittent
sources of the wind and solar energy to charge battery of electric vehicle. The system’s
power transfer efficiency and reliability can be improved significantly. Here it is tried to find
key features for improving solar energy conversion that is distance, angle, wavelength, and
temperature. By the use of hybrid vehicles, it is possible to eliminate the usage of fossil
fuels. It has higher efficiency than using individual solar and wind system. As there is
synchronization between the electric motor and Bluetooth module, it is found that charging
cycle of batteries are less. The durability and convenience to the consumer can be improved
by using this type of vehicle. Charging of Lead acid batteries can be done through solar
charging scheme and wind turbine. This methodology of design can be relevantly adopted
and verified for three-wheeler and four- wheeler vehicles in future.

REFERENCES
1. A. Adejumobi, S.G. Oyagbinrin, F. G. Akinboro & M.B. Olajide, “Hybrid Solar and Wind
Power: An Essential for Information Communication Technology Infrastructure and people
in rural communities”, IJRRAS, Volume 9, Issue1, October 2011, pp 130-138.
2. Almaktar.M, Rahman.HA, Hassan.MY, Omar.WZW. (2013). Photovoltaic technology in

Malaysia: past, present, and future plan. International Journal of Sustainable Energy, (ahead-
of print), 1–13.
3. Clifton J, Boruff BJ. (2010). Assessing the potential for concentrated solar power
development in rural Australia. Energy Policy, 38(9), 5272–5280.
4. Hu X, Sun F, Zou Y. (2013). Comparison between two model-based algorithms for Li-ion
battery SOC estimation in electric vehicles. Simulation Modeling Practice and Theory of Li-
ion battery for electrified vehicles. Energy, 64, 953–960.
5. Kavita Sharma, Prateek Haksar “Designing of Hybrid Power Generation System using Wind
Energy- Photovoltaic Solar Energy- Solar Energy with Nano antenna” International Journal of
Engineering Research And Applications (IJERA) Vol. 2, Issue 1,Jan-Feb 2012, pp.812-815 .
6. Nahidul Hoque Samrat, Norhafizan Ahmad, Imtiaz Ahmed Choudhury, Zahari Taha“
Technical Study of a Standalone Photovoltaic–Wind Energy Based Hybrid Power Supply
Systems for Island Electrification in Malaysia”, Journal 2015.
7. Sandeep Kumar, Vijay Kumar Garg, “A Hybrid model of Solar-Wind Power Generation
System”, International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and
Instrumentation Engineering (IJAREEIE), Vol. 2, Issue 8, August 2013, pp. 4107-4016.
8. Samrat NH, Ahmad NB, Choudhury IA, Taha ZB, Prospect of Wave Energy in Malaysia, in
Proceedings of the IEEE 8th International Power Engineering and Optimization Conference,
2014.
9. Z. Wang, Z. Zou, and Y. Zheng, "Design and control of a photovoltaic energy and SMES
hybrid system with current source grid inverter," IEEE

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HEV USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY WITH ARDUINO MICRO

HYBRID ELECTRIC VRHICLE USING SOLAR AND WIND

TANKALA GANESH 21EM5A0217

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &

SEETHARAMPURAM, NARSAPUR-534 280, W.G.DT. (A.P)

Mr. B. Subrahmanyam M.Tech (Ph. d) Mr. A. SATYANARAYANA M. Tech, (Ph.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Name of the student Reg.no Signature

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

We express our gratitude to our chairman Mr.K.V Satyanarayana

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

Key Words : Hybrid electric vehicle, Extinguished, Electronic Converters,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.4.3 L298N MOTOR DRIVER WORKING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.10.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

 Adejumobi, S.G. Oyagbinrin, F.G. Akinboro & M.B. Olajide, et al in October

 Kavita Sharma, Prateek, Haksar in Jan–Feb, 2012 proposed on “Designing of

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

 Sandeep Kumar, Vijay Kumar Garg, et al in 2013 Inherently variable nature

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.1 Block Diagram of Proposed model

4.2 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION ARDUINO

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.2 Front and Back view of Arduino Nano Board

4.2.2 Arduino Nano Board Layout

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.3 ARDUINO NANO BOARD LAYOUT

Input Voltage 7V – 12V

Clock Speed 16 MHz

Flash Memory 32 KB (2 KB of this used by bootloader)

Digital IO Pins 22 (of which 6 can produce PWM)

Analog Input Pins 8

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,

4.2.3 Technical Specifications of Arduino Nano

As Arduino Nano is also based on ATmega328P Microcontroller, the technical specifications

4.2.4 How to power up the Arduino Nano?

4.2.5 What are Different Memories of Arduino Nano?

• 2 KB of the Flash Memory is used by the bootloader code.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,