Ocean - Facts at Your Fingertips by DK

POCKET EYEWITNESS
OCEAN
FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

DK DELHI
Senior Editor Virien Chopra
Senior Art Editor Vikas Chauhan
Project Art Editor Heena Sharma
Art Editor Tanisha Mandal
Assistant Editor Sukriti Kapoor
Picture Researcher Co-ordiantor Sumita Khatwani
Picture Research Manager Taiyaba Khatoon
Managing Editor Kingshuk Ghoshal
Managing Art Editor Govind Mittal
Senior DTP Designer Neeraj Bhatia
DTP Designer Bimlesh Tiwari
Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh
Production Manager Pankaj Sharma
Jacket Designer Juhi Sheth
DK LONDON
Senior Editor Ankita Awasthi Tröger
Senior Art Editor Laura Gardner Design Studio Ltd
Project Editors Bharti Bedi,
Ben Ffrancon Davies, Priyanka Kharbanda
Managing Editor Christine Stroyan
Managing Art Editor Anna Hall
Senior Production Editor Andy Hilliard
Production Controller Samantha Cross
Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT
Publisher Andrew Macintyre
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler
Art Director Karen Self
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf
Author Ben Hubbard
Consultant Derek Harvey
First published in Great Britain in 2021 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited
DK, One Embassy Gardens, 8 Viaduct Gardens,
London, SW11 7BW
The authorised representative in the EEA is
Dorling Kindersley Verlag GmbH, Arnulfstr. 124,
80636 Munich, Germany
Copyright © 2021 Dorling Kindersley Limited
A Penguin Random House Company
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001–322652–Jun/2021
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is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-2414-7790-8
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CONTENTS
4 A world of water 98 Cetaceans
6 The five oceans 106 Ocean birds
8 How the oceans were formed 108 The twilight zone
10 Ocean topography 110 The midnight zone
12 Oceanic winds and storms 112 Hydrothermal vents
16 Ocean currents
18 Ocean water 114 POLAR WATERS
20 Ocean environments
22 History of ocean life 116 Polar oceans
24 Humans and the oceans 118 Polar life
26 SEASHORES 124 HUMANS AND

AND THE COAST THE OCEANS
28 The coast 126 Sailing the oceans

30 Rocky shores 128 Explorers
32 Rocky shore life 130 Deep-sea exploration
34 Soft shores 132 Modern ships
36 Soft shore life 134 Ocean recreation
40 Salt marshes and mangroves 138 Food from the oceans
42 Shorebirds and seabirds 140 Energy
46 Schools of fish 142 Oceans in peril
144 Saving the oceans
48 SHALLOW SEAS
146 Fascinating facts
50 Shallow seas 148 Did you know?
52 Seagrass meadow life 150 Glossary
54 Kelp forest life 152 Index
56 Molluscs 156 Acknowledgments
62 Crustaceans
64 Echinoderms
66 Fish in shallow seas
68 Cartilaginous fish Scales and sizes
72 Coral reefs This book contains profiles of ocean
creatures with scale drawings to
74 Coral reef life
show their size.
78 THE OPEN OCEAN
1.8 m 15 cm 4 cm
(6 ft) (6 in) (1.5 in)
80 Ocean waters
82 The sunlit zone
84 The food chain
86 Jellyfish
88 Predators
92 Cartilaginous fish 1.8 m (6 ft) 20 cm (8 in)
96 Filter feeders
4 | OCEAN
A world of water
Earth is a blue, watery world, with seawater covering more than
two-thirds of its surface. Most of this seawater is contained
in five vast oceans. Beneath the waves, these oceans teem
with life. The ocean environment is vital to our survival on land,
yet it remains a mysterious and largely unexplored place.
Chemical soup
Life on Earth probably began around
hydrothermal vents deep on the ocean
floor. These vents spew boiling hot water
containing dissolved chemicals and minerals
that are essential building blocks for life.
The blue planet

From space, Earth looks like a green
and blue marble covered with ocean
water. Water makes Earth a unique
planet and the only one we know
of that supports life.
Varied habitats
Oceans and seas make up the
largest environment for life on Earth.
There are many habitats within this
environment, and a vast variety of
animal and plant life.
A WORLD OF WATER | 5
Wild surface
The world’s oceans are
closely linked to our weather
and climate, and therefore
have a significant impact on
life on land. In turn, human
activity on land affects the
health of the oceans.
Muir Glacier, Alaska, USA, 1941

Changing levels
Global warming caused by accelerated climate change is
leading to the melting of glaciers and polar ice. This is, in turn,
warming the oceans and causing sea levels to rise, threatening
low-lying coastal regions and islands with flooding.
The extent of this glacier reduced Muir Glacier, Alaska, USA, 2004
by nearly 11 km (7 miles)
between 1941 and 2004.
6 | OCEAN
The five oceans

The largest bodies of water on Earth are the five oceans: the
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern oceans. Although
the oceans have different names, they are all connected.
Together, they make up one large mass of constantly moving
water that stretches around the globe.
The Pacific
Ocean
Covering more than a
third of the Earth’s surface,
the Pacific is the world’s largest
ocean. It is also the deepest and
contains the Mariana Trench – the
world’s deepest place. Many island
chains are found in the Pacific,
including the islands of Hawaii.
The Atlantic
Ocean
Around half the size
of the Pacific, the Atlantic
is the world’s second-largest ocean.
It separates the continents of
Europe and Africa from North
and South America.
A rocky outcrop off the coast of

Penzance, Cornwall, UK, near
the western edge of Europe
THE FIVE OCEANS | 7
The Indian Ocean

Most of the Indian Ocean lies
around the Earth’s equator. This
means it contains mainly warm,
tropical water, which can reach 28°C
(82°F). Little wonder, then, that it is home
to some of the largest coral reefs on Earth.
However, the water becomes cooler as
it mingles with the Southern Ocean.
Arctic icebergs
The polar oceans Arctic

The Northern Hemisphere’s Ocean
Arctic Ocean and the Southern
Hemisphere’s Southern Ocean
are the world’s coldest waters.
They are fringed with vast ice
sheets and feature floating
icebergs. Global warming is Southern
causing a lot of this ice to melt. Ocean
Sea and land

Seas are large areas
of salty water partly
surrounded by land.
Some seas, such as
the Caspian, are entirely
landlocked. Others
feed into oceans; the
Mediterranean (right),
for example, links to
the Atlantic Ocean.
8 | OCEAN
How the oceans

were formed
The oceans are nearly as old as the Earth itself. They formed four
billion years ago as the molten Earth cooled and clouds of
condensed water rained onto the surface. Over millions of years,
this rainwater flooded the planet and created one global ocean.
Clouds in the Earth’s

atmosphere
Molten planet
Early in its life, the Earth was made entirely of molten
rock and metal. Over time, the metal sank to form a
hot core surrounded by a thick, rocky mantle and
a thin crust. The young planet’s atmosphere,
which originally contained carbon dioxide
and poisonous gases from volcanic
eruptions, gradually came to contain
water vapour and oxygen.
Crust lying Ocean crust

over the The crust that makes up the ocean
mantle floor is different from that which
makes up dry land. Both are made
Liquid Rocky mantle up of volcanic rock, but oceanic
outer core rock is denser (mainly basalt) than
Solid inner core continental rock (mainly granite).
Floor formation
The ocean floor is constantly evolving.
When forces inside the Earth pull its
crust apart, rising molten rock fills in the
gaps to form new seafloor. Elsewhere,
ocean floor gets pulled back into the
Earth to be recycled.
Comets
Much of Earth’s ocean water came from
rainclouds in its atmosphere. More water
came from ice-carrying comets that melted
as they crashed down onto the planet.
Rising molten rock Ocean floor forms
Panthalassic Panthalassic
Early oceans Ocean Ocean
The first ocean covered
the globe and no land Global
was visible above its Ocean
surface. Most of the land
4–2.5 billion 541–485 million 359–299 million
emerged as lighter, less years ago years ago years ago
dense, continental rock Tethys
rose to the surface. This Ocean Atlantic
land and the ocean South Ocean
Atlantic
around it evolved over
Ocean
3.8 billion years.
201–145 million 66–23 million Present
years ago years ago day
Fossil of an
Marine life ichthyosaur
Around 3.5 billion years ago, life began
as simple organisms in the deep ocean.
Over time, more complex life evolved – including
giant marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, which
rivalled the land-dwelling dinosaurs in size.
10 | OCEAN
Ocean topography
The seafloor is not a flat, featureless place. Beneath the waves
is a vast landscape that rivals anything seen on land. There are
towering volcanoes and mountain ranges thousands of kilometres
long. Stretching out below them are hills, plains, and trenches.
Oceanic Flat plain

Ridge
ridges
Oceanic ridges
make up a raised
mountainous chain
that stretches for
about 80,000 km
Continental shelves (50,000 miles) around
A continental shelf is the shallow edge the Earth. In some
of a continent that lies submerged by places, it is 2,500 m
the ocean. At the edge of the continental (8,200 ft) high.
shelf is the steeper continental slope.
Submerged seamount
Model showing a
section of the seafloor
OCEAN TOPOGRAPHY | 11
The average
Abyssal plains depth of the Seamounts
Abyssal plains are flat, Pacific ocean and volcanic
muddy areas of the floor is 4,280 m
(14,050 ft).
islands
seafloor. The mud is Seamounts are
made up of soft, settled 11,034 m underwater mountains
clay or silt mixed with Mariana (36,201 ft)
created mainly by extinct
the waste and remains Trench volcanoes. Some
of organisms. seamounts rise above
the surface to create
Oceanic volcanic islands, such as
trenches Hawaii’s Mauna Kea.
Caused by tectonic
activity, oceanic trenches
are deep gashes in the
seafloor. The deepest
trench – Mariana –
extends to more than
11,000 m (36,000 ft)
below the water’s surface.
12 | OCEAN
Oceanic winds
and storms
When the sun shines on the Earth’s atmosphere, it heats up the
air. As this warm air floats upwards, cold air rushes in to replace
it. This creates wind. Oceanic winds whip up waves, move water
around in currents, and create storms.
Circulation and spin

Condensation Warm air rising from the equator moves
towards the poles and then circulates back
to the tropics. But the spin of the Earth
means that, relative to the direction
from which they are
blowing, winds veer
Precipitation off to the right in
the northern
Evaporation hemisphere
and to the
left in the
southern
hemisphere.
The water cycle Rising

warm air
Water from the seas and oceans is
warmed by the sun and rises into
the air as water vapour. As the water Winds
vapour cools, it forms rain clouds. veering to
Rain falls onto the land and into the left
the rivers, which return the water
to the seas and oceans.
Earth’s trade winds

OCEANIC WINDS AND STORMS | 13
Hurricanes
Circulating storm clouds forming
over tropical oceans can cause Climate change is
highly destructive storms that also contributing to
bring devastating winds and rain. more cyclones. The
These are known as hurricanes more heat there is in
in the northeast Pacific or north the sea, the more
Atlantic, cyclones in the South likely a cyclone
is to occur.
Satellite image of Hurricane Pacific and Indian oceans, and
Matthew over Haiti typhoons in the northwest Pacific.
Direction of
Storm clouds
the Earth’s Oceanic winds move in a
spin predictable direction unless
they encounter local weather
Winds
veering to systems. These systems are
the right caused by warm, moist air
rising from the ocean or sea.
This air carries water vapour,
which creates heavy rain
and circulating storm clouds.
Storm surges
Hurricanes can make
the sea rise up and
form a large wave of
water called a storm
surge. When this reaches
land, it can cause
catastrophic flooding.
Air returning Storm surge

to equator in Devon, UK
Hurricanes can contain winds of over
120 km/h (75 mph)

and unleash more than 9 trillion litres
(2.4 trillion US gallons) of rain a day.
HURRICANES
A hurricane is a swirling mass of cloud and wind that
forms over warm oceans and unleashes rain and gales
on land with monstrous force. Hurricanes are among
the most devastating of natural disasters and are
responsible for countless human casualties.
16 | OCEAN
Ocean currents
Winds push on the ocean surface, creating surface currents whose
direction is also affected by the Earth’s rotation. At the same time,
deep in the ocean, unaffected by the wind, there are much slower
currents that are driven by changes in the seawater’s temperature.
Surface currents
As the Earth rotates, wind blowing between
the equator and the poles gets deflected.
This sets the ocean’s surface currents
spinning in circles called gyres – clockwise
in the north and anticlockwise in the south.
Each gyre has a calm centre – such as
the weed-choked Sargasso Sea in the
North Atlantic. Free floating seaweed in the Sargasso Sea
Ocean currents
across the world
North
North
Pacific gyre
Atlantic
gyre
South South
Pacific Atlantic Indian
gyre gyre Ocean
gyre
Warm ocean
currents Cold ocean currents
OCEAN CURRENTS | 17
Movement of water
In parts of the ocean, water rises up
to the surface from the deep. These
upwellings are common near coastlines:
water pushed away from the shore by
wind gets replaced by nutrient-rich
water drawn up from the ocean bottom,
nourishing blooms of plankton. The
movement of surface water to deeper
Phytoplankton bloom in the Barents Sea levels is called downwelling.
Deep-water 1-km- (0.6-mile-)

deep current
currents
Deep-water currents help
to mix ocean water in a
1,000-year cycle called the
global conveyor belt. As
water becomes chilled,
it gets denser and
heavier – so it sinks near
the poles. It then flows
near the bottom into the
Indian and Pacific oceans, Colder current on
where it rises back up. ocean bottom
Deep water circulation around the continents
Currents and climate

Currents influence the world’s climate by
bringing cold and warm waters to different
regions – without these currents, many places
would be hotter or colder. The Isles of Scilly,
off southwest England, lie in the path of a
warm North Atlantic current called the Gulf
Stream, so have a milder climate than the
Abbey Gardens in the Isles of Scilly rest of the UK.
18 | OCEAN
Ocean water
Seawater tastes salty because it contains a lot of salt called sodium
chloride, mixed with smaller amounts of other chemicals. It is made
up of about 96.5 per cent water and 3.5 per cent salty chemicals.
Oceans turned salty when they were formed billions of years ago,
as these chemicals washed into them from the land.
Changing states
Warm liquid water that evaporates
changes into a gas called water
vapour, which mixes with the air.
Freshwater freezes to form solid ice
at 0°C (32°F), but seawater freezes
only at -1.9°C (28.58°F). Ice, being
less dense than water, floats in it.
Salty water
Water streaming across the land to the sea
collects minerals, known as salts. Most of
this salt is sodium chloride, which we
consume as table salt. This is what
makes ocean water undrinkable.
Light and temperature

Light and heat from the sun are absorbed
by water, which means that the oceans
are brightest and warmest at the surface
during the day.
OCEAN WATER | 19
Sound Water pressure

Sound carries further than
light in water, and is four times
Water pressure Ship at sea
faster than it is in the air. This level, 1 atm
can be measured
enables marine creatures such
in atmospheres
as whales to communicate Scuba diving
(atm). At sea level, 40 m (130 ft), 4 atm
across great distances
the pressure of
through the water.
the atmosphere
equals 1 atm. Submarine 1 km
The pressure (0.6 miles), 100 atm
increases by
1 atm for every
Submersible
10 m (33 ft) you 10 km (6 miles),
go down. 1,000 atm
Oxygen in water
One molecule of water is
made up of two atoms of
hydrogen (H) and one
atom of oxygen (O).
Animals that breathe
underwater use
oxygen that is
dissolved in the
water. Oxygen levels
are highest near
the surface.
Scientists say coral
reefs can regrow after
appearing to be dead,
but only if the water
returns to its normal
temperature.
20 | OCEAN
Ocean environments
The oceans are made up of four main environments: seashores
and the coast, shallow seas, polar waters, and the open ocean.
Most ocean creatures live in the shallow seas, but life exists even
in deep-sea trenches 11 km (7 miles) below the surface. This is
why the ocean is the largest habitat for life on Earth.
Shallow seas
Shallow seas on the continental shelves
usually reach no deeper than 200 m
(655 ft). Life – including algae, plants,
and animals – is abundant here, powered
by the sun and nourished by nutrients
washed in from land. This habitat has
the greatest variety of ocean life.
Seashores
The seashore can be a tough place for
ocean life because it is regularly covered
and uncovered by the tides. Crashing
waves also cause constant erosion,
carving out new formations, such
as sea stacks, cliffs, and caves.
OCEAN ENVIRONMENTS | 21
Polar waters
Covered by thick ice
during the long winter
months, the Southern
and Arctic oceans make
up the world’s polar
waters. Despite their
freezing temperatures,
these oceans are home
to a surprising variety
of life.
The open ocean

The open ocean is deep, wide, and mostly unexplored by
humans. More people have been to the moon than the
deepest spot on the seafloor. In between the surface and the
seafloor, the ocean’s many layers support a plethora of life.
22 | OCEAN
History of ocean life

The living things that existed in prehistoric times were different
from those that are around today. Over billions of years and across
countless generations, life changed by a process of evolution.
New kinds of life appeared and others went extinct, and the
oceans played a big part in the history of life on Earth.
Early life
Life began as single cells
in the oceans more than
3.5 billion years ago. These
evolved into organisms
that had more complex
multicelled bodies –
including animals such
as jellyfish and worms –
billions of years later.
Brachiopod
fossil from 300 Fossil remains of life forms
million years ago from 2 billion years ago
Early fish
The first vertebrates
(animals with spines) were
jawless fish, appearing
more than 500 million
years ago (mya). They
evolved into fish with
biting jaws, which came
to dominate the oceans
and included some of the
first big ocean predators. Fossil of the jawless Cephalaspis lyelli
HISTORY OF OCEAN LIFE | 23
Giant reptiles
Life evolving on land included the dinosaurs
during the Age of the Reptiles, between 250
and 66 mya. Many reptiles returned to the
ocean to evolve into swimming giant reptiles, Plesiosaurus
such as the Plesiosaurus. skeleton
Mass extinction
There have been five mass
extinctions on Earth. Some
of these events destroyed The mass extinction
most species of creature of 66 mya wiped out
that lived in the oceans the dinosaurs, along
of the past. The last with 70 per cent of
extinction was around all species on
66 mya that wiped out the planet.
Ammonite fossil the giant marine reptiles.
Modern
ocean life
In the last 50 million Megalodon
years, swimming
mammals, such as
whales, evolved from
land-living ancestors.
And some prehistoric
sharks, such as the
megalodon, became
giants to prey on them.
Great white shark
24 | OCEAN
Humans and the oceans

Human life on land has always been linked to the oceans. We
have used the oceans for travel, trade, and food since before
recorded history. Over the last few centuries, however, human
activity has started to endanger the oceans. Fortunately, there is
growing global awareness that the oceans must be protected.
Overharvesting Their fur’s incredible

We have always relied on the oceans insulating properties
help keep polar bears
for fish, but overfishing is making warm in the frigid Arctic.
many species extinct. Most countries
banned whaling after some whale species
were driven to the brink of extinction.
Fishing
Whaling
HUMANS AND THE OCEANS | 25
Pollution
Sewage, plastics, oil spills,
and chemical run-offs are
all poisoning the oceans.
However, some countries
are now enacting laws to
reduce or prevent these
forms of pollution. Oil can kill or harm creatures Plastic can choke seabirds
Destruction of habitats
Climate change, overfishing, and pollution
are putting many marine habitats under
severe stress. Some of these habitats are
so degraded that their native animal
species can no longer live there.
Urbanization of coastlines
As the global population increases, so does coastal
development, leading to the destruction of many
marine habitats in coastal waters. Some countries
are now taking steps to protect these areas.
The loss of their

Arctic sea ice habitat
due to climate
change means polar
bears are now
endangered.
Seashores
and the coast
Situated where the land meets the ocean, coasts are
extreme, ever-changing environments. Battered by
winds, waves, and weather, and significantly affected
by daily tides, they are constantly eroded and altered,
with their seashores and rocky cliff faces getting
chiselled into new and fascinating forms.
COASTAL CRABS
Brightly coloured coastal
scavengers, Sally Lightfoot
crabs are a common
sight on the shores of the
Galápagos Islands and
South and Central America.
28 | SEASHORES AND THE COAST
The coast
Coastlines take many different forms – from rocky shores and
soft beaches to cliffs, caves, and arches. Between the land
and the sea, this is a constantly changing environment.
Rocky shores Soft shores

Different kinds of rock give shorelines Stone washed away from rocky shores
their different characters – such as hard by waves is swept down the coast.
granite, crumbly chalk, or the solidified It eventually settles as shingle and
lumps of volcanic lava of the Giant’s sand that make up soft shores, such
Causeway in Northern Ireland (above). as beaches.
THE COAST | 29
Wave power
Waves pounding the shores grind
away at the bases of coastal cliffs
and erode them over time. Eventually,
the rock at the bottom of the cliff
cannot support the weight above
it, causing it to collapse.
Sea caves and arches

Sometimes the action of waves
carves away at cliffs to create
sea caves. If the cave is situated
on a headland, the waves can
eventually break through
the cliff to create rocky
archways, such as
the Blue Caves of
Zakynthos in
Greece (left).
Stone to sand
Stones and rocks swept into the water
are tossed about by the waves. Over time,
the sharp edges are ground away, forming
cobbles, pebbles, and sand.
Rocky shores
Most of the life on a rocky shore is adapted to surviving under
water, but where the oceans meet the land, resident animals
and seaweed must tolerate being left high and dry at each
low tide. Those living on the most exposed shores must
also withstand powerful, crashing waves.
Living on the rocks

The animals and seaweeds that live
higher on a rocky shore spend longer
out of water during low tides so need
special adaptations to cope with being
dry – unless they are protected in tidal
pools. Life also needs to cling to rock
without being washed away.
Most seashore
animals, such as
Many seaweed starfish, can only
species need to feed, breathe, and
stay submerged. reproduce when
under water.
Tides
Caused by the moon’s gravity, the tide
makes the water rise and fall along the
coast every day. At high tide, the shore
is completely submerged by seawater.
At low tide, the water goes back, leaving
the shore dry. The creatures left behind
are adapted to living briefly on land.
ROCKY SHORES | 31
Tidal pools
Tidal pools keep their water even at low
tide. Larger pools contain the richest
collections of life, because smaller pools
can dry out or overheat in the sun.
Tidal pool life

Some creatures, such as sea anemones,
spend their lives in tidal pools attached
to the rock. As these pools are always
submerged, the creatures can survive
at both high and low tide.
A slimy coating
Tidal pools helps protect
Mussels are keep seaweeds seaweeds that are
tethered to rocks and prawns exposed to the air.
by special threads, submerged,
and only feed at even at low tide.
high tide.
Rocky shore life

FOCUS ON… Life between the tides includes a huge
SEA variety of animals that live attached to
ANEMONE the rocks or move between the nooks
Slow-moving predators, sea
anemones devour any small
prey that strays near their
and crannies, as well as seaweeds that
stinging tentacles. thrive in the sunlight.
Grunt sculpin
Rhamphocottus richardsonii
The bottom-living grunt sculpin uses its fins to

crawl over rocks and seaweed, and may take shelter inside
the empty shells of giant barnacles. Covered with small
plates and spines, this fish has a unique appearance.
RANGE North Pacific Ocean

SIZE 9 cm (3.5 in)
▲ The beadlet anemone GROUP Mail-cheeked fish
retracts its tentacles when
exposed at low tide.
▲ When submerged, it
extends its tentacles to
paralyse and pull its prey
into its mouth.
ROCKY SHORE LIFE | 33
Coralline seaweed Purple starfish

Corallina officinalis Pisaster ochraceus
An aggressive but slow-moving
hunter, the purple starfish feeds on
many animals, including mussels.
It grabs the mussel in its arms and
pulls the shell apart.
RANGE Eastern Pacific Ocean

Like other seaweeds, this species is
SIZE 35 cm (14 in) arm span
attached to rocks by a sucker-like structure
called a holdfast. Its pink, coral-like GROUP Echinoderms
fronds are common in tidal pools.
RANGE Atlantic and Pacific oceans

SIZE 12 cm (4.5 in)
GROUP Red seaweed
Rock gunnel
Pholis gunnellus
Often mistaken for an eel, this
flat, elongated fish is very slippery,
allowing it to easily slip away
from predators. Females
lay their eggs in shells
and crevices.
RANGE North
Atlantic Ocean
SIZE 25 cm (10 in)
GROUP
Mail-cheeked fish
Soft shores
Over time, solid rock gets weathered, or worn away, by waves,
wind, and rain into particles of stones and sand. This sediment
is then eroded, or washed away, and settles elsewhere as soft
shores, such as sandy beaches and mudflats. A lot of life is
buried beneath the surface in these places.
Beaches
Some beaches are made up of sand, but Estuaries
others – called shingle beaches – have Estuaries are bodies of water
bigger lumps of rock called pebbles and usually found at the ends of
cobbles. All these particles are moved rivers, where freshwater mixes
about by waves and tides, so beaches with salty seawater. Sediment
are constantly reshaped over time. washed downriver often builds
up into extensive mudflats
along the banks of estuaries.
Beds of shellfish are common
in estuaries, as are small fish,
shrimp, and crabs.
Estuary near Dundee

Beach, Australia
A sandy beach in Hong Island, Thailand
SOFT SHORES | 35
Mudskippers
Mudflats are alive with
creatures such as mud
skippers that burrow beneath
the wet mud. Mudskippers
are fish that not only swim
but can also climb, walk,
and skip on land. Spotted mudskipper
Mudflats
The tiniest particles of sediment,
mixed with bits of dead matter,
settle as mud to form mudflats.
Mud is sticky and is a better
environment for rooting plants
and burrowing animals than
shifting sand.
Pollution threatens
estuary habitats, and
may have caused a
20 per cent drop in
estuary-dependent
fish in just 20 years.
Tidal mudflats in
South Island, New Zealand
Soft shore life

FOCUS ON… A beach at low tide can seem barren and
CHRISTMAS lifeless, but beneath the surface are a
ISLAND multitude of creatures. Many burrow into
RED CRAB
Christmas Island red crabs the sand to search for food, while others
are famous for their annual
mass migration across the
hide there in wait for high tide.
island to lay their eggs in
the Indian Ocean.
Mole crab
Emerita talpoida
The mole crab is named for the way it can reverse
into its burrow, like a mole. This leaves the antennae
on its head sticking out of the sand. It uses them to
sense and catch prey on the beach.
RANGE Western Atlantic Ocean

SIZE 3 cm (1 in)
▲ Every year, millions of GROUP Decapod crustaceans
these crabs emerge from
the forest and swarm
to the beach.
▲ Once on the beach, the

crabs mate. The female later
releases her eggs in the
coastal waters.
SOFT SHORE LIFE | 37
Pacific razor clam

Siliqua patula
The Pacific razor clam is an expert
at burrowing rapidly into the wet
sand with its large foot. Once
buried, the clam expels a spout
of seawater out above the surface.
Burrowing foot
RANGE Northeastern
Pacific Ocean
SIZE 18 cm (7 in)
GROUP Bivalve molluscs
Lugworm Sand hopper

Arenicola marina Talitrus saltator
Also known as the sand flea, this
The lugworm small crustacean is famous for its jumping
lives in deep ability. It hides beneath the sand during
burrows in tidal flats. the day and comes out at night to feed
It feeds by sucking in on seaweed and other organic debris.
small quantities of sand
and mud through an RANGE Northeastern Atlantic Ocean,
inlet hole, filtering out Mediterranean Sea
anything edible, and
then excreting whatever SIZE 1.5 cm (0.5 in)
is left as a sandy cast GROUP Amphipod crustaceans
on the mudflat.
RANGE Northeastern Atlantic Ocean,

Mediterranean Sea
SIZE 20 cm (8 in)
GROUP Segmented worms
Ghost crabs can reach speeds of
10 km/h
(6 mph)
while scuttling sideways
across the sand.
GHOST CRAB
Resting in its beach burrow by day, the ghost
crab emerges at night to hunt. Its name comes
from its pale, sandy colour, which allows it to blend
into the beaches and dunes until it starts moving.
The ghost crab defends its burrow by making loud
rasping sounds with its claws and stomach.
Salt marshes and

mangroves
Salt marshes and mangroves can be found in places that are
sheltered from waves, such as bays and around estuaries. Here,
there is a good build up of mud, which is needed for rooting.
While salt marshes occur in estuarine systems across the world,
mangroves tend to grow along the fringes of tropical oceans.
Salt marshes
Salt marshes are often
made up of winding
creeks and muddy pools.
At high tide, these fill
up with water, while
at low tide the plants
are left exposed.
Salt-tolerant plants
Glasswort is a hardy
species of flowering
halophyte – plants that
are adapted to and
thrive in saltwater.
SALT MARSHES AND MANGROVES | 41
Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees that are
specially adapted to growing in the airless
tidal mud. Many grow their roots above the
soil where they can absorb oxygen from the air.
A unique habitat
Mangrove forests provide a
unique habitat for a variety
of creatures, both big and
small. One such creature is
the archerfish, which hunts
by squirting water at prey
resting on leaves.
Shorebirds and seabirds

Seabirds and shorebirds are specially adapted for life by the sea.
These adaptations include webbed feet, waterproof feathers, and
glands to remove salt (from the seawater they swallow when
feeding) from their blood. Seabirds spend most of their lives out
at sea, but return to shore to lay eggs and raise chicks.
Cape gannet
Morus capensis
FOCUS ON… The Cape gannet can plunge into the ocean to depths
FEEDING of 20 m (65 ft) to catch fish. Although it is a graceful flier,
Shorebirds feed by wading the gannet is famous for its clumsy-looking takeoffs.
and digging with their beaks.
Seabirds dive for their dinner.
RANGE Western and southern Africa
SIZE 90 cm (35.5 in)
GROUP Cormorants and relatives
▲ Roseate spoonbills have

a long beak that flattens into
a spoon-shaped tip, helping
them dig out prey.
▲ Atlantic puffins dive and

pursue their prey underwater
by using their wings to propel
themselves forwards.
SHOREBIRDS AND SEABIRDS | 43
Atlantic puffin
Fratercula arctica
The most colourful
seabird of the North
Atlantic, the puffin has Bright
strong wings that help it beak Small, stubby
skim over the ocean and wings help
scan for food. It brings with swimming
back whole fish to its
coastal nest.
RANGE Eastern North America,

Europe, Arctic
SIZE 36 cm (14 in)
GROUP Waders, gulls, and auks
Thick-billed murre Great frigatebird

Uria lomvia Fregata minor
The great frigatebird has extra-long
wings to expertly glide through the air.
It flies high, observing other birds, and
then swoops down to steal their catch.
RANGE Tropical islands and oceans

SIZE 1.05 m (3 ft 5 in)
GROUP Cormorants and relatives
A large seabird with a heavy body, the
thick-billed murre stands upright when it Throat sac – only on
walks on land. When underwater, it uses male birds – inflated
its narrow wings to swim after fish. as a mating display
RANGE Northern North America,

northern Eurasia
SIZE 43 cm (17 in)
Blue-footed booby
Sula nebouxii
The blue-footed
booby is a plunge-diver
that usually feeds in
flocks. When the birds
see a shoal of fish, they
dive down into the water
together to catch them.
RANGE Western Central

Distinctive, blue America, Galápagos Islands,
webbed feet northwestern South America
SIZE 84 cm (33 in)
GROUP Cormorants and
relatives
Roseate spoonbill
Platalea ajaja
With its pink feathers

and distinctive bill, the roseate
spoonbill is easy to identify. It
feeds by sweeping its partly
opened bill from side to side
in the water to sift for fish.
Spoon-shaped bill RANGE Central and South

America, Caribbean
SIZE 87 cm (34 in)
GROUP Herons and relatives
SHOREBIRDS AND SEABIRDS | 45
Brown pelican
Pelecanus occidentalis
While most pelicans fish at
the surface of the water, the
brown pelican plunge-dives
into the water from great
heights, mainly taking Pacific
anchovies and sardines.
RANGE North and Central

America, Caribbean
SIZE 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in)
GROUP Herons and
relatives
Eurasian curlew Australian pelican

Numenius arquata Pelecanus conspicillatus
The Eurasian curlew breeds in The Australian pelican has the
inland bogs and moorland, but longest recorded bill of any bird. It mostly
overwinters on coastal mudflats. Wading feeds by swimming along the water and
in the shallows, it uses its striking curved sweeping its bill just below the surface to
bill to snap up its prey. trap any fish it can
find there.
RANGE Europe, Asia, Africa
SIZE 60 cm (24 in) RANGE Australia,
New Guinea
SIZE 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in)
GROUP Herons and
relatives
Schools of fish
Fish gather together in large groups called shoals that help
them avoid predators. When these groups swim in unison in
the same direction, they are called schools. These schools
work like a single creature, helping the fish catch smaller
creatures and evade capture by larger predators.
Bluestripe snapper
Lutjanus kasmira
FOCUS ON… It is easy to recognize the bluestripe snapper from
SARDINE RUN its bright yellow colour and the four electric-blue
Every year, billions of sardines stripes running down its sides. A resident of coral
migrate to spawn along reefs and lagoons, this fish schools together around
Africa’s southeast coastline. the sandy seabed.
RANGE Indian and western Pacific oceans, Red Sea

SIZE 40 cm (16 in)
GROUP Perches and relatives
▲ The large groups of

sardines create a feeding
frenzy among predators.
▲ These groups, or shoals,

can measure more than
7 km (4.5 miles) long and
1.5 km (a mile) wide.
SCHOOLS OF FISH | 47
Yellowback fusilier
Caesio xanthonota
Shoals of yellowback
fusiliers often have other
fish species mixed in with
them. Mainly yellow, the
fusilier changes to a red
and green colour while
resting at night.
RANGE Indian Ocean

SIZE 40 cm (16 in)
GROUP Perches and
relatives
Atlantic mackerel European pilchard

Scomber scombrus Sardina pilchardus
Its streamlined, torpedo-shaped

body makes the Atlantic mackerel
a fast swimmer. Large numbers of the
fish school together in summer to feed
on plankton and other small fish.
RANGE North Atlantic Ocean, Also sometimes known as a sardine, the

Mediterranean Sea European pilchard spends its life in large
SIZE 60 cm (24 in) shoals and sometimes travels as far as
100 km (62 miles) out to sea to hunt.
GROUP Mackerels and relatives
RANGE Northeast Atlantic Ocean,

Mediterranean Sea
SIZE 30 cm (12 in)
GROUP Herrings and relatives
Shallow seas
Situated on continental shelves, shallow seas are
sunlit places that teem with animal and plant life.
This life is perfectly adapted to suit every shallow
sea habitat – from sandy seabeds and seagrass
meadows to kelp forests and coral reefs.
TROPICAL STARFISH
The Panamic cushion
star lives in seagrass
beds around the
Pacific coastlines of
Costa Rica and the
Galápagos Islands.
50 | SHALLOW SEAS
Shallow seas
The world’s shallow seas lap the edges of the continents and
lie above underwater shelves that extend out from the shore
before giving way to the deeper open ocean. This is a habitat
for several species, and light may penetrate right to the sea
bottom, especially if the water is not clouded by sediment.
Continental shelf
Continental shelves
Continental Continental shelves can range
slope Open ocean
from 30 km (19 miles) wide to over
bottom
1,000 km (620 miles) wide before
dropping down along continental
slopes to the open ocean bottom.
But nowhere are they deeper than
200 m (655 ft).
Rocky seabeds
In some places on the continental
shelves, rocky reefs form on the bedrock
of the seabed. These habitats are full of
nooks and crannies for many different
communities of marine life.
Sandy seabeds
Sand created by coastal erosion makes
up part of the sediment that covers
continental shelf seabeds. This sand
is full of burrowing creatures.
SHALLOW SEAS | 51
Ocean productivity
The waters of shallow seas are
fertilized by nutrients running
off from land and coming from
decaying waste and dead
matter. This, combined with
energy from the sun, make
coastal waters more productive
than the open ocean.
Lagoons and bays

Lagoons are shallow bodies of water separated
from the sea by coral reefs, barrier islands, and
sandbars. A bay is an often crescent-shaped
piece of the coast enclosing calm water.
Lagoon in the Bora Bora group

of islands in the Pacific Ha Long Bay, South China Sea
52 | SHALLOW SEAS
Seagrass meadow life

Seagrasses are the only flowering plants that can survive
in seawater. They grow in soft seabeds in warm, shallow
water. Meadows of seagrass provide a sheltered habitat
for a range of marine creatures, such as seahorses, green
turtles, and sea cows.
West Indian Manatee

Trichechus manatus
A member of the sea cow group, the West Indian manatee is a large mammal
related to elephants. With no hind limbs, the manatee uses its paddle-shaped
tail to propel itself through shallow waters, grazing on plants such as seagrass.
RANGE Southeastern North

America, Caribbean, northern
South America
SIZE 3.9 m (12 ft 8 in)
GROUP Sirenians
Collisions with boats,

entanglement in fishing
nets, and habitat loss
have left manatees a
threatened species.
SEAGRASS MEADOW LIFE | 53
Green sea turtle

Chelonia mydas
The green sea turtle has

no teeth, but a sharp beak
with which to graze on
seagrass. Although adults
of this species eat only
plants, young green
sea turtles hunt for
small animals.
RANGE Tropical and

warm temperate oceans
SIZE 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in)
GROUP Reptiles
Spiny seahorse Queen conch

Hippocampus histrix Strombus gigas
The spiny The queen conch sea snail lives
seahorse lives on the seafloor. It uses its toothed
alone or with a tongue to feed on seagrass.
mate and anchors
itself to seagrass RANGE Tropical western
and corals with Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean
its tail. It feeds by
sucking zooplankton SIZE 30 cm
into its mouth. (12 in)
GROUP
Gastropod
RANGE Indian molluscs
and western
Pacific oceans
SIZE 17 cm (6.5 in)
Sand-
GROUP Pipefish coloured
and seahorses shell
54 | SHALLOW SEAS
Kelp forest life

Kelp is a giant brown seaweed that grows on rocks in cool,
coastal waters. Where it grows thickly, kelp can form whole
underwater forests. These forests provide food and shelter for
many marine creatures, some of which eat the seaweed and
others, each other.
Purple sea urchin California sea lion

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus Zalophus californianus
The purple sea urchin is the main An expert swimmer, the California sea
enemy of kelp forests. It lives on the lion has special breathing adaptations
seafloor and feeds on the kelp fronds. for long dives. It is one of two types
Over time, herds of urchins can destroy of mammal that feed on the fish found
whole kelp forests. in kelp forests – the other is the
harbour seal.
RANGE Eastern Pacific Ocean
SIZE 9 cm (3.5 in) diameter RANGE
Western North
GROUP Echinoderms America
Spikes for protection SIZE 2.4 m
from predators (7 ft 10 in)
GROUP
Pinnipeds
KELP FOREST LIFE | 55
FOCUS ON…
SEA OTTERS
Sea otters are important
inhabitants of kelp forests.
They eat purple sea urchins, ▲ Sea otters rest by wrapping ▲ After resting, they dive down
which are harmful to these themselves in kelp and floating to collect purple sea urchins,
seaweed forests. on the surface. which they eat at the surface.
Senorita fish
Oxyjulis californica
As well as feeding on invertebrates, this

fish gains additional nourishment from
picking parasites off larger fish. At night,
it hides in the sandy seafloor with only
its head left exposed.
RANGE California coastal waters

SIZE 25 cm (10 in)
GROUP Wrasses and relatives
56 | SHALLOW SEAS
Molluscs
FOCUS ON… There are more than 90,000 mollusc
FOOD species, which include octopuses,
Molluscs are a large varied
group and each species has
oysters, squid, and sea snails. Most
its own way of catching and molluscs have a head, a shell, a soft
consuming food. Many feed
using a tongue-like structure body, and a muscular foot.
called a radula.
Fluted giant clam

Tridacna squamosa
The fluted giant clam has a hard, hinged shell. It

attaches itself to hard coral in sunlit waters. Sunlight
gives the algae living inside the clam energy to make
food, which in turn is shared by the clam.
RANGE Indian and western Pacific oceans, Red Sea

▲ Most squid, such as this
Caribbean reef squid, have SIZE 45 cm (18 in)
well-developed eyes for GROUP Bivalve molluscs
hunting prey.
▲ Sedimentary bivalves,
such as this giant clam, filter
food from the water with
their gills.
MOLLUSCS | 57
Flamingo tongue snail

Cyphoma gibbosum
With its soft body wrapped

around a hard shell, the
flamingo tongue snail is
brightly coloured to warn off
predators. It feeds on the
bodies of soft coral, leaving
their hard skeletons behind.
Bright warning colours
RANGE Tropical western Atlantic

Ocean, Caribbean
SIZE 3.8 cm (1.5 in)
GROUP Gastropod molluscs
Queen scallop Small giant clam

Aequipecten opercularis Tridacna maxima
When it is young, the queen scallop A striking blue, green, or brown colour
shoots out fine threads from its foot onto when its shell is open, this clam lives
a nearby rock and stays attached until on sandy seabeds and coral reefs, but
adulthood, when it releases itself needs well-lit areas due to its symbiotic
and swims freely. relationship with photosynthetic algae.
RANGE Indian and western Pacific oceans

SIZE 42 cm (17 in)
RANGE Eastern
Atlantic Ocean, GROUP Bivalve molluscs
Mediterranean
Sea
SIZE
11 cm
(4.5 in)
GROUP
Bivalve
molluscs
Cuttlefish can
change colour
in a fraction of a second – for
camouflage, to scare away
predators, or to attract mates.
CUTTLEFISH
The male Australian giant cuttlefish is famous for the
brilliant colour changes of his elaborate courtship
display. After mating, he protects the female from
the rivals gathering around them as she settles
beneath his outstretched arms and lays her eggs
among the rocks and plants of the seabed.
60 | SHALLOW SEAS
Bigfin reef squid

Sepioteuthis lessoniana
A large, muscular squid with
pear-shaped fins, the bigfin
reef squid is found in shallow
waters around
coral reefs
and seagrass
meadows. When
threatened, it
releases a dark
cloud of ink to
disorientate its predator.
RANGE Indian and western

Pacific oceans, Red Sea
SIZE 80 cm (31 in)
GROUP Cephalopod molluscs
Giant Pacific octopus

Enteroctopus dofleini
The giant Pacific
octopus is larger and lives
longer than any other
octopus species. Usually
reddish-pink, the octopus
can change colour to blend
into its surroundings and
stay hidden from predators.
RANGE North Pacific

Ocean
SIZE 3 m (9 ft 10 in)
GROUP Cephalopod
molluscs
MOLLUSCS | 61
Greater blue-ringed octopus

Hapalochlaena lunulata
Although only the size of a golf
ball, the greater blue-ringed
octopus can be deadly if
provoked, with an extremely
venomous bite that causes
paralysis in its prey. The
octopus’s blue rings act as
a warning to its predators A single greater
by pulsating just before it blue-ringed octopus
launches an attack. carries enough
venom to kill
26 people.
RANGE Tropical western
Pacific Ocean
SIZE 12 cm (4.5 in)
Coconut octopus Humboldt squid

Amphioctopus marginatus Dosidicus gigas
The coconut octopus gets its name The predatory Humboldt squid can
from the coconut shells it uses as armour. chase its prey at a top speed of 24 km/h
If threatened, the octopus climbs inside (15 mph). Like other cephalopods, it
and pulls the coconut shells shut. can swim forwards and backwards by
squirting water from its siphon organ
to create jet propulsion.
SIZE 30 cm (12 in) RANGE Eastern Pacific Ocean
GROUP SIZE 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)
Cephalopod GROUP Cephalopod
molluscs molluscs
Dark arms
with white
suckers
62 | SHALLOW SEAS
Crustaceans
Many marine invertebrates (animals without backbones) are
arthropods. Most arthropods have jointed legs, segmented
bodies, and hard exoskeletons. On land, arthropods are usually
insects, but in the ocean most are hard-shelled crustaceans,
such as shrimp, crabs, and lobsters.
Harlequin shrimp American lobster

Hymenocera picta Homarus americanus
A small crustacean, the harlequin The world’s heaviest crustacean,
shrimp is covered with colourful dots and the American lobster has a shrimp-like
spots. The shrimp smells out its prey – body and ten legs that include two large,
which includes starfish – with its sensory strong claws. One claw is used to crush
antennae and attacks with its flat claws. shells; the other has edges like a steak
knife that tears the flesh.
Pacific oceans RANGE Northwest Atlantic Ocean
SIZE 5 cm (2 in) SIZE 1.14 m (3 ft 9 in)
GROUP Decapod crustaceans GROUP Decapod crustaceans
Ripper claw
used to cut
Heavy claw used

to crush prey
CRUSTACEANS | 63
Giant hermit crab

Petrochirus diogenes
Like other hermit crabs, the giant
hermit crab uses a borrowed shell to Shell of a conch
cover its back, which is otherwise sea snail
unprotected. When it outgrows the shell, Giant hermit crabs
the crab simply looks for a new one. may be able adapt
to warming ocean
RANGE Tropical western temperatures, but their
Atlantic Ocean metabolism will
SIZE 30 cm (12 in) slow as a result.
GROUP
Decapod
crustaceans
Clown mantis shrimp

Odontodactylus scyllarus
A stunning shrimp with a
killer strike, the clown mantis
shrimp “punches” its prey.
It uses the solid clubs under
the front of its body to deliver
a fast and forceful blow that
smashes the exoskeleton
of its prey and reveals the
soft tissue beneath.
RANGE Indian and

western Pacific oceans
SIZE 17 cm (6.5 in)
GROUP Stomatopod
crustaceans
64 | SHALLOW SEAS
Echinoderms
Sea cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish, and feather stars are
some of the creatures that live along the bottom of shallow
seas. They belong to a group of animals called echinoderms,
many of whom are shaped like five-pointed stars, have a
mouth in the middle, and can regenerate limbs.
Candy-cane sea cucumber

Thelenota rubralineata
FOCUS ON…
This red-striped sea cucumber lives on the sea bottom
GROWING A where it filters sand to search for food. Like all sea
NEW BODY cucumbers, it has a fat, fleshy body, a mouth, and tentacles,
Starfish can sometimes grow as well as tube feet on the underside for movement.
an entirely new body from a
severed limb.
RANGE Western Pacific Ocean
◀ A starfish SIZE 50 cm (20 in)
loses a limb GROUP Echinoderms
with vital
pieces of the
body attached
to it.
◀ Cells at
the point
of the break
start growing
to create a
new body.
◀ Over time,
the cells build
enough tissue
that the limb
grows into a
new starfish.
ECHINODERMS | 65
Variable bushy feather star

Comaster schlegelii
Up to 200 arms, each

lined with branches
known as pinnules, help
the bushy feather star
catch plankton drifting
past it. It moves to
different locations by
floating, crawling, rolling,
and even walking.
RANGE Western
Pacific Ocean
SIZE 40 cm (16 in)
arm span
GROUP Echinoderms
Sunflower starfish Red knob starfish

Pycnopodia helianthoides Protoreaster linckii
Although starfish are slow-moving The arms of the red knob starfish
creatures, the sunflower starfish can are covered with rows of bright red spiny
move at about 10 cm (4 in) per minute. knobs called tubercles. At the end of
It is also a fearsome hunter, with up to each arm is an eye capable of seeing
24 arms that can grab prey. light and dark shapes.
RANGE Indian and western Pacific oceans

RANGE SIZE 12 cm (4.5 in) arm span
Northeastern
GROUP Echinoderms
Pacific
Ocean
SIZE
90 cm (35 in)
arm span
GROUP
Echinoderms
66 | SHALLOW SEAS
Fish in shallow seas

Coastal fish are the most abundant in the world, and an
amazing variety of species inhabits the shallow waters on
continental shelves. Some fish feed on weeds or plankton,
while others are hunters of small fish. Some are camouflaged
so they can ambush their prey.
Great barracuda
Sphyraena barracuda
Barracudas have pointed jaws and RANGE Tropical and warm

needle-sharp teeth. They attack temperate oceans
schools of fish in lightning-fast strikes SIZE 2 m (6 ft 7 in)
and use their teeth to tear their prey
into bite-sized pieces. GROUP Barracudas and billfish
Distinctive silver,
shining scales
Formidable
predators, barracudas
are fast movers with a
top speed of 58 km/h
(36 mph).
Back dorsal
fin for
acceleration
FISH IN SHALLOW SEAS | 67
Marbled stargazer Snowflake eel

Uranoscopus bicinctus Echidna nebulosa
An active nocturnal hunter, the

snowflake eel has sharp teeth that can
easily cut through flesh and the shells
of small crustaceans.
RANGE Indian and Pacific oceans,

Red Sea
This fish has eyes on the top of its head.
These help it to spot and launch an attack SIZE 1 m (3 ft 3 in)
on unsuspecting prey from its position GROUP Eels
buried in sand on the seabed.
RANGE Eastern Indian and western

Pacific oceans
SIZE 20 cm (8 in)
GROUP Weeverfish and relatives
Red gurnard
Chelidonichthys cuculus
A bottom-dwelling fish that lives on sandy LOCATION Northeastern
and rocky seabeds, the red gurnard has a Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea
spiny fin that acts like a finger to find food. SIZE 70 cm (28 in)
GROUP Mail-cheeked fish
Spiny
food-finding
fin
68 | SHALLOW SEAS
Cartilaginous Caribbean reef shark

Carcharhinus perezii
fish A common sight in tropical

waters, the Caribbean reef
shark often rests on the
Shallow seas that are rich with seabed, where it uses its
throat to pump water
life and teem with shoals of fish over its gills.
provide plenty of food for sharks
and rays. These predators have
skeletons made from rubbery
cartilage – rather than harder,
heavier bone – and bodies that
are oily, all of which help to make
them buoyant in the water.
Bull shark
Carcharhinus leucas
The bull shark is an aggressive
hunter that sometimes also
attacks humans. One of the few
shark species that can swim
in both fresh- and saltwater,
it favours murky waters where
it can stay hidden.
RANGE Tropical and warm

temperate coastlines
and rivers
SIZE 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in)
GROUP Sharks
CARTILAGINOUS FISH | 69
Lesser electric ray

Narcine bancroftii
RANGE Caribbean, eastern
South America
GROUP Sharks
This slow-moving ray, also known as the

Caribbean numbfish, has up to 26 rows of
sharp teeth and two electric organs that it
uses to fight off predators and stun prey.
RANGE Caribbean
SIZE 65 cm (26 in)
GROUP Skates and rays
Tiger shark
Galeocerdo cuvier
A voracious killer, the tiger
shark is known to fatally attack
Sharp, serrated
humans. Known as the “rubbish teeth for tearing
bin of the sea”, it eats almost through prey
anything it sees – tyres and
licence plates have been
among the unusual things
found in the stomachs of
tiger sharks.

temperate oceans
SIZE 7.4 m (24 ft 3 in)
GROUP Sharks
Measuring more than 350,000 sq km
(135,000 sq miles), the Great Barrier Reef is
the largest
living structure
on Earth. It can even be
seen from space.
GREAT BARRIER REEF
Coral reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef,
are complex, rainbow-coloured habitats that
teem with many thousands of different creatures.
Fish, lobsters, clams, seahorses, and sea turtles
are just a few of the resident marine species
that rely on coral reefs for their survival.
72 | SHALLOW SEAS
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are vast, colourful ecosystems found in clear, shallow
tropical waters. Built from the skeletons of coral polyps, the
reefs are rocky ridges that support the greatest variety of life in
the oceans. These “rainforests of the seas” are at risk, however.
What is coral?
Coral is a colony of thousands of
soft animals, called polyps, with
tentacles for catching planktonic
food. The polyps produce a stony
outer skeleton that builds up under
them as a solid rocky foundation,
which becomes the coral reef.
Open cup coral polyps
Types of coral reef

It takes thousands of years for rocky coral foundations to build up into
massive reefs. There are three types of reefs: fringing reefs, barrier reefs,
and atolls. Fringing reefs are the most common.
Atolls are reefs around Fringing reefs grow Barrier reefs are separated
volcanic islands close to the coast from the coast by a channel
CORAL REEFS | 73
Corals at risk
The polyps of many kinds of corals contain tiny
algae called zooxanthellae. As well as giving some
corals colour, these algae help nourish them by
photosynthesizing in sunlight. However, global
warming is threatening this symbiotic partnership.
Overfishing: Overfishing can
Warming water: end up reducing the numbers
Warming water makes polyps spit out of algae-eating animals. This
their zooxanthellae. This bleaches the allows algae to grow unchecked
coral white (below) and starves it of and smother the reef.
food, and can eventually make it die.
Pollution: Many forms of pollution,

including chemical run-offs from
factories, oil spills, plastic, and
fertilizer from farms, can poison
coral reefs in nearby waters.
Acidity: Extra carbon dioxide

in oceans causes acidity that
prevents corals from building
strong skeletons. This leaves
them vulnerable to breaking
and dying.
74 | SHALLOW SEAS
Coral reef life

Fuelled by sunlight and bathed in warm tropical waters, coral
reefs are crowded with thousands of species, making them
the most diverse ocean habitats on the planet. Fish and other
animals blaze with different colours as a way of recognizing
their own kind – or of warning others to stay away.
Christmas tree worm

Spirobranchus giganteus
FOCUS ON…
The Christmas tree worm cements its hard,
ALGAE IN tube-like body onto a coral reef and uses its
CORALS feathery tentacles to catch plankton floating
in the water.
Zooxanthellae are tiny
algae that live inside
coral polyps. RANGE Tropical oceans
SIZE 20 cm (8 in)
GROUP Segmented
◀ Zooxanthellae
live in the gut lining
worms
of the polyp and in
surrounding water.
◀ The
zooxanthellae in
the water have
tails that help
them swim.
◀ The
zooxanthellae
inside the polyp
are tailless and
do not swim.
CORAL REEF LIFE | 75
Reef squid Pygmy seahorse

Sepioteuthis sepioidea Hippocampus bargibanti
The miniature
pygmy seahorse
wraps its tail
around soft
coral and
Fins to help stretches out to
with propulsion
suck tiny plankton
The reef squid can propel itself from the water
2 m (6 ft 7 in) out of the water and around it.
fly for 10 m (32 ft 10 in) through
the air before re-entry.
RANGE Tropical
RANGE Tropical western Atlantic western Pacific Ocean
Ocean, Caribbean SIZE 2.5 cm (1 in)
SIZE 40 cm (16 in) GROUP Pipefish and
GROUP Cephalopod molluscs seahorses
Day octopus
Octopus cyanea
With the ability to change

colours and camouflage itself,
the day octopus can make
itself virtually invisible to
predators. This means
that, unlike many other
cephalopods, the octopus
feeds during daylight.

76 | SHALLOW SEAS
Mandarin fish Butterfly fish

Synchiropus splendidus Chelmon rostratus
The Mandarin fish may look bright There are around 115 species of
and beautiful, but it is covered in a thick, butterfly fish. This copperband butterfly
bad-smelling mucus that helps deter fish has a false eye spot, which
predators. The fish hunts crustaceans may help distract
and invertebrates on the seafloor. predators. Its
narrow, pointed
mouth helps it
RANGE
pluck food from
Tropical western
coral crevices.
Pacific Ocean
SIZE 7 cm (3 in)
GROUP
Dragonets
RANGE Eastern Indian
and western Pacific oceans
SIZE 20 cm (8 in)
GROUP Perches and relatives
Emperor angelfish
Pomacanthus imperator
As a juvenile, the emperor angelfish

may eat the skin and parasites of
other fish. In adulthood, the angelfish
uses its needle-sharp teeth to eat
small invertebrates, sponges,
and algae.
RANGE Indian and

western Pacific oceans,
Red Sea
SIZE 40 cm (16 in)
GROUP Perches and
relatives
Strong jaws
for chewing
CORAL REEF LIFE | 77
Orange clownfish
Amphiprion percula
Living around coral reefs, the

orange clownfish is a sociable
species that communicates by
making popping and clicking
sounds. Clownfish eggs and
larvae are looked after by the
male parent.
RANGE Tropical western

Pacific
SIZE 11 cm (4 in)
GROUP Damselfish and
relatives
Fins with
black bands
Clown triggerfish Spotted trunkfish

Balistoides conspicillum Lactophrys bicaudalis
The clown triggerfish forages for

food around coral reefs. It uses its
strong jaws and teeth to crack open hard-
shelled sea urchins and crustaceans.
RANGE Indian and

western Pacific oceans
With its dark spots, triangular body,
SIZE 50 cm (20 in) pointed head, thick lips, and protruding
GROUP Pufferfish mouth, the spotted trunkfish is a
and relatives distinctive and easily recognizable fish.
RANGE Caribbean, tropical western

Atlantic Ocean
SIZE 48 cm (19 in)
GROUP Pufferfish and relatives
The open
ocean
The open ocean is a vast expanse of water that
seems to stretch out endlessly to every horizon.
Apart from the occasional island, land is often far
from view. Below the waves, the water is deep.
The deepest point in the ocean, the Mariana
Trench, is around 11 km (7 miles) from the surface.
GIANT JELLYFISH
The open ocean is the
domain of some of the
world’s largest jellyfish,
such as the lion’s mane,
which has tentacles up
to 36.5 m (120 ft) long.
80 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Ocean waters
On the surface, the open ocean is so vast that the occasional
island is often the only land in sight. Below the surface, the
water is divided into different depth zones. During the descent
to the deep, dark bottom, the temperatures plummet, the
pressure increases, and the light fades.
The open ocean

The open ocean contains 99 per cent
of the world’s water. Between the sunlit
surface and the darkness of the deep, this
is a largely featureless habitat, with islands
that rise up from the rocky bottom providing
the only isolated specks of land.
Islands: Most islands in the open

ocean are the tops of rocky mountains
that were pushed up from the ocean
bed by volcanic activity.
Open ocean: Most organisms of the open ocean Atolls: Coral reefs growing around
spend their entire lives swimming or floating in an island form a ring called an atoll,
mid-water – far away from the solid bottom lying separated from the central island
kilometres beneath them. peak by a calm lagoon.
OCEAN WATERS | 81
Sunlit zone:
Depth zones 0–200 m
The ocean is made (0–655 ft)
up of five different
depth zones: the
Twilight
sunlit zone, twilight zone: 200–
zone, midnight zone, 1,000 m
abyssal zone, and (655–
hadal zone. The 3,300 ft)
deepest places on
Earth are found in
the hadal zone.
Midnight zone: Rocky

1,000–4,000 m seafloor
(3,300–13,100 ft)
Bioluminescent
fish
Deep-sea
fish
Abyssal zone:
4,000–6,000 m
(13,100–19,700 ft)
Hadal zone:
6,000–11,000 m
(19,700–36,100 ft)
Oceanic
crust
82 | THE OPEN OCEAN
The sunlit zone

Sunlight makes surface seawater bright enough for floating
algae to photosynthesize and grow in the open ocean. These
produce the food that supports a wealth of animals that drift
or swim in this vast habitat, from the tiniest plankton to the
biggest predators at the top of the ocean food chain.
Sargassum seaweed
Sargassum natans
Most seaweeds cannot survive in the open RANGE Western central Atlantic and
ocean because they grow while attached to western Indian oceans
rocks, but in the calm Sargasso Sea in the SIZE 8 m (26 ft 3 in)
North Atlantic, there are thick mats of
floating sargassum seaweed, which GROUP Brown seaweed
provide shelter for many animals.
THE SUNLIT ZONE | 83
Single-celled algae Copepods

Trillions of microscopic, single-celled
algae make up part of the drifting
plankton called phytoplankton. Like
land plants and seaweeds, they
photosynthesize to make food.
RANGE Oceans worldwide

SIZE Microscopic Tiny crustaceans that hang in the water
by their long antennae, copepods are
GROUP Green algae
part of the group of drifting creatures
called zooplankton. Zooplankton feed
on phytoplankton.

SIZE 1–20 mm (0.04–0.8 in)
GROUP Copepod crustaceans
Krill Protozoans
Krill are tiny, shrimp-like creatures that The smallest member of the zooplankton
form vast swarms that are fed upon by group, protozoans are single-celled, like
fish, birds, and mammals. Krill themselves algae. However, they feed on microscopic
feed on phytoplankton. living things in the water, rather than
making food by photosynthesis.
RANGE Oceans
worldwide RANGE Oceans worldwide
SIZE 1–15 cm (0.4–6 in) SIZE Microscopic
GROUP Euphausid GROUP Protozoans
crustaceans
84 | THE OPEN OCEAN
The food chain

All organisms are linked by food chains – energy and nutrients
flow from one living thing to another when they feed. On land,
plants are the ultimate source of food, but food chains of the
open ocean begin instead with microscopic single-celled algae
drifting in the surface plankton.
Producers
Single-celled algae in the plankton
(phytoplankton) are the
producers of the open ocean
food chain. This is because
they use the sun’s energy
to produce sugar and other
food by photosynthesis.
Cyano
bacteria
Primary
consumers
Scientists have Tiny creatures that
found that human- cannot make
created microplastics their own food feed
have spread through the on phytoplankton.
deep ocean and These creatures
entered the include zooplankton
food chain. and the larval stages
of some fish. K ril l
THE FOOD CHAIN | 85
Secondary consumers
The smallest carnivores make up the
third level of the food chain. They
feed on the primary consumers that
have already digested their food
of phytoplankton.
na
Tu
Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers are prey
for larger hunters called tertiary
consumers. An example is tuna,
which is then eaten by shark.
Lantern fsh
Quaternary
consumers
The biggest, most powerful
predators are at the top of
the food chain. Each top
predator needs a large
expanse of habitat to supply
Gre the food that it needs.
at white shark
86 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Jellyfish
Jellyfish are not fish at all, but soft, jelly-like creatures called
cnidarians that do not have a heart, brain, bones, or blood.
Most jellyfish are armed with long, stinging tentacles to stun
their prey and drag them into their mouths. Their umbrella-
shaped body pulsates to propel them up through the water.
Lion’s mane jellyfish

Cyanea capillata
The lion’s mane jellyfish gets its name from RANGE Arctic, North Atlantic,
its shaggy tentacles that can be up to 36.5 m and North Pacific oceans
(120 ft) long and look like a lion’s mane.
SIZE 1 m (3 ft 3 in) diameter
Each tentacle contains stinging cells, which
are like small harpoons that spear its prey. GROUP Cnidarians
JELLYFISH | 87
Moon jellyfish Crowned jellyfish

Aurelia aurita Cephea cephea
With a body shaped like a Named after the crown shape

saucer, the moon jellyfish drifts that forms its head, the crowned jellyfish
through the water, trapping is a rhizostome jellyfish: instead of
small prey in its tentacles tentacles, it has frilly arms that end
wherever it goes. in lots of tiny mouths.
RANGE Indian
RANGE and western
Oceans Pacific oceans,
worldwide Red Sea
SIZE 30 cm SIZE 14 cm
(12 in) diameter (5.5 in) diameter
GROUP GROUP
Cnidarians Cnidarians
Mauve stinger Barrel jellyfish

Pelagia noctiluca Rhizostoma pulmo
The mauve stinger has many tiny This jellyfish is large,

red spots that contain stinging cells, translucent, and shaped
and a reddish colour enhanced like a mushroom. It
by its bioluminescent glow. can grow to be larger
When startled, this jellyfish than a person,
leaves behind a trail of but its stings are
bioluminescent mucus. relatively harmless
to humans.
RANGE Northeastern
RANGE Atlantic and Atlantic Ocean,
Pacific oceans, Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea SIZE 90 cm (35 in)
SIZE 7 cm (3 in) diameter diameter
GROUP Cnidarians GROUP Cnidarians
88 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Predators
The ocean is full of powerful predators that spend their lives
prowling the waters hunting for prey. These predators have
streamlined bodies and strong muscles that are ideal for fast
bursts of attacking speed. They are armed with sharp teeth,
gripping tentacles, or slashing bills.
Orca (killer whale)

Orcinus orca
The orca is the biggest member of the RANGE Oceans worldwide
dolphin family and the largest hunter of SIZE 10 m (32 ft 10 in)
warm-blooded prey. With 10-cm- (4-in-)
long teeth, it has been known to hunt GROUP Toothed whales and dolphins
prey as large as the great white shark.
Orcas jump,
or breach, out
of the water
perhaps to play or
communicate.
PREDATORS | 89
Marlin
Makaira nigricans
Swordlike bill
The marlin is a formidably fast RANGE Tropical and temperate

hunter, which chases squid and fish. oceans
Its long, sharp bill slices through the
water to stun its prey, making them SIZE 5 m (16 ft 5 in)
easier to catch. GROUP Barracudas and billfish
North Atlantic giant squid

Architeuthis dux
One the world’s largest invertebrates,

the North Atlantic giant squid is a
deep-sea dweller that can grow up
to 18 m (59 ft) long. The squid’s two
feeding tentacles can grab prey up
to 10 m (32 ft 10 in) away.
RANGE North Atlantic Ocean

Feeding
SIZE 18 m (59 ft) tentacle
Reaching speeds of more than
30 km/h
(19 mph),
sailfish are among the fastest
fish in the ocean.
NEED FOR SPEED

A sleek body, powerful muscles, fast reaction times,
and a centrally heated brain all help to make sailfish
the champion swimmers of the open ocean. Their
long, sharp bill is used like a cutlass to slash through
shoals of smaller fish, tearing them to pieces.
92 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Cartilaginous fish
Cartilaginous fish have skeletons that are made of cartilage
rather than bone. The group includes chimaeras that have
rabbit-like teeth for crunching hard shellfish; flat-bodied rays
that live on the bottom or swim in mid-water; and sharks that
are sharp-toothed predators or giant, cruising filter-feeders.
Great white shark

Carcharodon carcharias
FOCUS ON…
One of the deadliest predators in the ocean, the
SHARK great white shark is a formidable hunter with large jaws
SENSES and sawlike teeth. It preys on warm-blooded animals,
such as seals, and can even keep its own body at a high
Sharks are equipped with
super senses to hunt, kill, temperature, allowing it to chase down prey in chilly seas.
and eat their prey.
RANGE Tropical and temperate oceans
GROUP Sharks
▲ Barbels are whisker-like

fleshy filaments that detect
vibrations made by prey.
▲ Sensitive pores on the

snout can pick up a prey’s
electrical signals.
CARTILAGINOUS FISH | 93
Common thresher Blue shark

Alopias vulpinus Prionace glauca
The common thresher is an
aggressive hunter that usually feeds
on schooling fish, often using its tail to
stun them. It is a strong swimmer, and
one of the few sharks known to jump
out of the water.
RANGE Tropical and

temperate oceans Highly migratory, the blue shark is
known for the long voyages it makes
to find food and a mate. Their litters
GROUP Sharks can contain up to a hundred shark pups.

SIZE 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in)
GROUP Sharks
Oceanic whitetip shark

Carcharhinus longimanus
Fond of swimming through
schools of tuna with an open
mouth, the oceanic whitetip
hunts near the water’s surface.
It prefers fish and squid but
will even eat garbage from
boats when hungry.
RANGE Tropical and

temperate oceans
SIZE 3.9 m
(12 ft 10 in) long
GROUP Sharks
94 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Scalloped hammerhead shark

Sphyrna lewini
One of eight hammerhead

shark species, the scalloped
hammerhead has a flat, T-shaped
head with an eye at each end. The
shark hunts by swinging its head
from side to side to detect prey.
Hammer-like head, more
than a third of the shark’s
total body length

temperate oceans
SIZE 4.2 m (13 ft 9 in)
GROUP Sharks
Pelagic stingray
Pteroplatytrygon violacea
The name of this stingray

comes from its preference
for a pelagic habitat, which
means open ocean. It rarely
visits the seafloor and hunts
near the surface instead.
RANGE Tropical and

temperate oceans
Long,
venomous tail
CARTILAGINOUS FISHES | 95
Pacific spookfish
Rhinochimaera pacifica
The Pacific
spookfish has a
long, spear-shaped
snout with small sensory
pits that help in locating
prey. Once it detects prey,
the fish uses its sharp,
beaklike mouth to catch
and crush its victim.
RANGE Pacific Ocean

GROUP Chimaeras
Frilled shark Spotted eagle ray

Chlamydoselachus anguineus Aetobatus narinari
This strange-looking shark belongs Unlike most other rays, the spotted
to a prehistoric group of sharks. Spending eagle ray does not lie motionless on
much of its time in its deep ocean habitat, the seafloor. Instead it swims around
it uses its trident-shaped teeth to snag its actively, foraging for food.
prey before swallowing it whole.
RANGE Atlantic and Pacific oceans temperate oceans
SIZE 2 m (6 ft 7 in) SIZE 8.8 m (28 ft 10 in)
GROUP Sharks GROUP Skates and rays
96 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Filter feeders
The largest fish in the world are not fearsome hunters but
gentle giants that filter seawater for food. Most of these slow-
moving animals use gill rakers that act like sieves, allowing
them to filter or strain plankton and small fish from massive
mouthfuls of seawater.
Megamouth shark
Megachasma pelagios
FOCUS ON…
GILL RAKERS
Manta rays and three shark
species use gill rakers to filter
food; baleen whales use
baleen plates to do this.
▲ Basking sharks swim

with their mouths open so
plankton-rich water flows
through their gill rakers.
Only discovered in 1976, the megamouth shark feeds

near the surface at night, then follows plankton into
deeper water during the day. It attracts prey with its
bioluminescent mouth tissue.
▲ The gill rakers are like RANGE Tropical and warm temperate oceans
the teeth on a comb, SIZE 5.5 m (18 ft)
straining seawater out GROUP Sharks
and leaving food behind.
FILTER FEEDERS | 97
Whale shark
Rhincodon typus
The largest living fish, the

whale shark has about
600 rows of small teeth, but
does not use them to eat;
instead, it filters plankton
through its gill rakers.
RANGE Tropical and

warm temperate oceans
SIZE 21 m (68 ft 11 in)
GROUP Sharks
Giant manta ray Basking shark

Mobula birostris Cetorhinus maximus
The largest ray in the world, the

giant manta has massive fins that are
8.8 m (28 ft 10 in) wide. It uses these fins
to propel itself through the water while
it filters plankton.
RANGE Tropical oceans

SIZE 9.1 m (29 ft 10 in)
The basking shark may look scary but is
harmless. It swims near the surface, where
Tail without it filters 1–1.5 million litres (2–3 million pints)
the stinger of
other rays
of seawater every hour while feeding.
RANGE Atlantic and Pacific oceans

SIZE 10 m (32 ft 10 in)
GROUP Sharks
98 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Cetaceans
Whales, porpoises, and dolphins all belong to a group of
aquatic mammals called cetaceans, known as much for their
often large size as for their intelligence and complex social
behaviour. Of this group, whales are the largest creatures on
Earth and inhabit every one of its oceans.
Dall’s porpoise Sperm whale

Phocoenoides dalli Physeter macrocephalus
The sperm whale is the largest toothed

Black and
white tail whale. Its head accounts for a third
of its total body length. Inside
the head is the biggest brain
of any creature on Earth.
The Dall’s porpoise could be the fastest

of all cetaceans, especially in short
bursts. It is usually only seen far offshore,
but, unlike other porpoises, it rarely jumps
clear of the surface.
RANGE North Pacific Ocean

SIZE 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in)
GROUP Toothed whales and dolphins
CETACEANS | 99
Baleen
FOCUS ON… plate
DIFFERENCES Row of
There are two main groups conical teeth
of whales: baleen whales
(Mysticeti), which filter food ▲ The sperm whale (a toothed ▲ The Bryde’s whale (a
from water through bristlelike whale) eats using the 36–52 baleen whale) eats by pushing
baleen plates, and toothed cone-shaped teeth it has in seawater through the baleen
whales (Odontoceti). its lower jaw. plates in its mouth.
Striped dolphin
Stenella coeruleoalba
One of the world’s most

widespread dolphins, the striped dolphin
usually lives in groups of about 100
individuals. It can leap up to 6 m
(19 ft 8 in) above the water’s surface.


SIZE 19.2 m (63 ft)
Adult humpbacks communicate using
“songs” that can last for more than
30 minutes.
These songs are considered the most complex
sound sequences of any animal on Earth.
SEA GIANTS
Growing to 17 m (55 ft 9 in) in length, humpback
whales have long heads, jaws covered in knoblike
projections, and widely-spaced white throat pleats.
These whales spend the summer in cold waters, before
migrating to warmer waters to give birth to their calves.
102 | THE OPEN OCEAN
Bryde’s whale
Balaenoptera edeni
The Bryde’s whale has a

large head, which makes up a
quarter of its body. Like all baleen
whales, it has dozens of throat
pleats that expand to hold a large
volume of water while it is
feeding. This whale eats
up to 658 kg (1,450 lb)
of food every day.

temperate oceans
SIZE 14.5 m (47 ft 7 in)
GROUP Baleen whales
North Atlantic right whale

Eubalaena glacialis
The North Atlantic right Dark, mottled

whale has raised patches black colouring
of skin on its head, called
callosities. Each whale
has a unique pattern of
callosities, making it
possible to identify
different individuals.
RANGE North
Atlantic Ocean
SIZE 16.5 m Broad, paddle-
(54 ft 2 in) shaped flippers
GROUP
Baleen whales
CETACEANS 103
Humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae
Humpback whales are well known not RANGE Oceans worldwide
just for communicating with complex SIZE 17 m (55 ft 9 in)
songs (which can be heard underwater
from 32 km/20 miles away), but also GROUP Baleen whales
for their group behaviour: they work
together to blow bubbles that scare
fish into denser shoals, making them
easier to swallow. Throat pleats
Large pectoral flipper
Depleted by 20th-
century whaling, whale
numbers are slowly
recovering, partly due
to the 1986 whaling
moratorium.
Minke whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
The minke is the smallest of
the baleen whales, which have
flat, hanging baleen plates in
place of teeth. The minke
whale has a torpedo
shape for deep dives. RANGE Oceans worldwide
SIZE 8.8 m (28 ft 10 in)
GROUP Baleen whales
Fin whale
Balaenoptera physalus
The second-largest whale in the ocean,
the fin whale has a distinctive black or Fin whales
brownish grey colour on its back and are nicknamed
sides, and white on its underside. “razorbacks” after the
distinct ridge behind
their dorsal fin.
Illustration of a fin whale

CETACEANS | 105
Blue whale
Balaenoptera musculus
Large tail
called a fluke
Flippers for steering
The world’s largest creature, the blue RANGE Oceans worldwide

whale devours many tonnes of krill
during the summer months. It migrates SIZE 32.6 m (106 ft 11 in)
to warmer oceans in the winter. GROUP Baleen whales
Sei whale
Balaenoptera borealis
RANGE Oceans worldwide One of the world’s fastest whales,
SIZE 27 m (88 ft 7 in) sei whales have sleek, streamlined bodies
that can reach speeds of up to 55 km/h
GROUP Baleen whales
(34 mph) in short bursts. They usually
swim in groups of two to five,
except when migrating.
Wide tail with a

notch in the middle
Illustration of a sei whale

GROUP Baleen whales
Ocean birds
FOCUS ON… Seabirds roam far over the open
FEEDING ocean while foraging for food or when
Seabirds have developed
several techniques for migrating. Some, such as albatrosses
catching food at sea. These
include skimming, plunging, and shearwaters, spend nearly their
diving, and even “swimming”
through the water.
whole lives out in the open ocean.
Arctic tern
Sterna paradisaea
Every year, the tiny Arctic tern flies from

its Arctic breeding grounds to its feeding
grounds in the Antarctic. This 96,000-km-
(59,650-mile-) long round trip is the
▲ Unusually for birds, many longest migration of any bird.
seabirds have a good sense
of smell. This is key to the
survival of seabirds, such as RANGE Worldwide
the albatross, that fly great
distances over the open SIZE 36 cm (14 in)
ocean in search of food. GROUP Waders, gulls,
and auks
▲ Albatrosses forage for fish

and cephalopods by seizing
them at the water’s surface
mid-flight, or very occasionally
by making surface plunges
or shallow dives.
OCEAN BIRDS | 107
Waved albatross Sooty tern

Phoebastria irrorata Onychoprion fuscatus
The waved albatross is famous for Sooty terns are fast fliers that can
its courtship dance, which includes reach speeds of 40 km/h (25 mph). They
head circling, beak snapping, fly to land to breed and form colonies
nodding, and waddling. of more than 1 million birds.
Successful couples
mate for life. RANGE Tropical
coastlines and
RANGE oceans
Galápagos SIZE 45 cm
Islands, (17.5 in)
northwestern
South America GROUP
Waders, gulls,
SIZE 93 cm (36.5 in) and auks
GROUP Tube-nosed
swimmers
Great shearwater
Ardenna gravis
Great shearwaters spend most of

their lives flying and are famous
for their shrill screams. They use
these calls to search for their
mates when returning to their
nesting burrows after nightfall.
Dark, hooked bill,

useful for digging
burrows for nesting
RANGE Atlantic Ocean

and islands
SIZE 51 cm (20 in)
GROUP Tube-nosed swimmers
The twilight zone

The twilight zone begins around 200 m (655 ft) below the
surface. Although there isn’t enough light for photosynthesizing
algae at these depths, there’s just enough for vision, and many
animals have evolved large eyes to be able to see. Others make
their own light, a process called bioluminescence.
Giant red shrimp Sloane’s viperfish

Aristaeomorpha foliacea Chauliodus sloani
The giant red shrimp is commonly

found in tropical oceans around the
world. It lives on the muddy ocean bottom
and feeds by scavenging on scraps left
behind by larger carnivores.

SIZE 6 cm (2.5 in)
GROUP Decapod crustaceans
Vibrant red colour

from pigments in
the shrimp’s
exoskeleton
Armed with huge jaws and fanglike teeth,

Sloane’s viperfish is a fearsome-looking
predator. Its long teeth trap prey, preventing
it from reversing out of the fish’s mouth.

SIZE 35 cm (14 in)
GROUP Dragonfish and allies
THE TWILIGHT ZONE | 109
Günther’s lanternfish
Lepidophanes guentheri
Günther’s
lanternfish is a small
twilight-zone dweller
with a unique pattern
of light-emitting organs, RANGE Atlantic Ocean
called photophores, set SIZE 8 cm (3 in)
along its length. GROUP Lanternfish
Giant hatchetfish
Argyropelecus gigas
The giant hatchetfish gets its name

from the bladelike shape of its body.
It has eyes on the top of its head that
help it to see prey swimming above it
in the faint sunlight.

SIZE 12 cm (4.5 in)
GROUP Dragonfish and allies
Large jaws that can be

unhinged to grab prey Light-emitting photophores
The midnight zone

Starting at 1,000 m (3,300 ft) below the surface, the midnight
zone is pitch-dark. Food is scarce here: animals either scavenge
on dead matter sinking down from above, or have enormous
jaws or expandable guts (or both) to catch and digest large
prey that they infrequently encounter.
Deep-sea angler Ogrefish

Bufoceratias wedli Anoplogaster cornuta
The most distinctive feature of the

deep-sea angler is a bit of dorsal spine
extending from its head like a fishing pole,
giving the fish its name. Tipped with
bioluminescent flesh, this lures prey
close enough to be snatched by the
angler’s long, curved teeth.
RANGE Atlantic Ocean

SIZE 25 cm (10 in)
GROUP Anglerfish
Glowing lure at The ogrefish has fearsomely large teeth –

the end of the rod the two middle fangs on its lower jaw are
so big that they have to slot into sockets
on either side of its brain when it closes
its mouth. These dagger-like fangs snatch
up prey, which the fish swallows whole.

SIZE 18 cm (7 in)
GROUP Roughies and relatives
THE MIDNIGHT ZONE | 111
Black swallower
Chiasmodon niger
The black swallower has

an expandable stomach
to feed on fish twice its
size. Its jaws can open
wide to swallow large
fish whole, which
sometimes rot before
they can be digested.
Sharp teeth
pointing backwards
RANGE North Atlantic Ocean,

Caribbean
Expandable
SIZE 25 cm (10 in) stomach
GROUP Mackerels and relatives
Gulper eel Dumbo octopus

Eurypharynx pelecanoides Grimpoteuthis plena
Named after a cartoon elephant,
the Atlantic dumbo octopus has large,
earlike fins positioned above its eyes
that help it swim in midwater. It also
Expandable has eight webbed arms.
stomach
The gulper eel is a long, skinny fish with RANGE

an elastic stomach and a slender tail. Northwestern
Its large mouth helps it to scoop up Atlantic Ocean
many small prey at once.
SIZE 19 cm
(7.5 in)
GROUP
SIZE 1 m (3 ft 3 in) Cephalopod
GROUP Eels molluscs
Hydrothermal vents
In some spots in the deep sea, volcanic activity under the ocean
floor heats water in the rocks to more than 400°C (752°F) and
makes it shoot up through holes called hydrothermal vents. This
hot water is rich in minerals, and microbes use them as a source
of energy to make food, which supports an entire food chain of
animals existing away from the energy of the sun.
Life in the dark Giant tube worms

Giant worms growing
Minerals coming from the vents up to 1.8 m (6 ft) long
stick together to make tall live around the bases
of black smokers.
chimneylike pipes, and may The worms use the
spew upwards as clouds of tiny food produced by
black particles. Vents like these, microbes living inside
their stomachs.
called black smokers, support
a variety of life around them.
Giant white clams

Giant white clams survive by
sucking in mineral-rich water Model of
from black smokers to support hydrothermal
microbes living in their gills, then vents at the
use the food produced
bottom of the sea
by the microbes.
HYDROTHERMAL VENTS | 113
White shrimp and crabs

Small shrimp and crabs gather around black
smokers to feed on the large communities of
microbes living on the rocks. These creatures
are often blind or partially sighted.
Deep-sea vent octopus

Some species of dumbo octopus live
around black smokers and feed on the
creatures there. In 2020, a dumbo
octopus was found on the seafloor
7,000 m (22,950 ft) below the surface.
Polar waters
The two polar oceans are the Southern Ocean,
which surrounds Antarctica, and the Arctic Ocean
at the top of the northern hemisphere. These are
the coldest oceans on Earth, and their waters are
covered by thick sea ice for six months of the year.
ORCAS
Also known as killer whales,
these apex predators are
found in the polar oceans.
Highly social, orcas live in
complex family groups led
by breeding females.
116 | POLAR WATERS
Polar oceans
The polar oceans are affected by the seasons like nowhere else
on Earth. During the long winter months, the sun disappears
and the oceans freeze over. During the short summer months,
the ice melts, large icebergs break away, and there is an
explosion of new life.
Polar sunshine
Because of the Earth’s tilted axis,
the sun does not rise for long
Sun
during the polar winter. During the
Earth
polar summer, although the sun
shines almost permanently, it is
not enough to melt all of the ice.
Sea ice
Sea ice is frozen surface water that floats
on liquid water underneath. It includes fast
ice, which is attached to the land, and
pack ice, which drifts and is not attached.
Icebergs
Icebergs are chunks of freshwater ice
that have broken away from ice shelves
or glaciers and are floating in seawater.
They come in all shapes and sizes –
some are as small as an ice cube,
others as big as a country.
POLAR OCEANS | 117
Larsen C
Riiser-Larsen
Wilkins Ronne-Filchner
Amery
Fimbul
Ice
shelves
Ice shelves are
floating sheets
of ice attached to
a landmass. Most
ice shelves are
found off the coast Ross
of Antarctica (right). George VI
Antarctica and its ice shelves Shackleton
Plankton blooms
When nutrient-rich meltwater enters the
oceans in springtime, an explosion of
plankton occurs. This brings with it a
“bloom” visible from space, such as this
one in the Arctic Ocean’s Chukchi Sea.
Arctic sea ice

The winter ice covering most of the Arctic
Ocean melts by more than half every
summer. But global warming is making
Arctic sea ice melt at a faster speed and
in greater quantities than ever before. View of a plankton bloom, Chukchi Sea
118 | POLAR WATERS
Polar life
Large ice sheets on the fringes of the Arctic and Southern
oceans provide feeding, breeding, and birthing places for
seals, walruses, penguins, polar bears, and Arctic foxes.
Beneath the ice, a rich supply of algae, fish, and small
animals is available to the semiaquatic predators above.
Emperor penguin Leopard seal

Aptenodytes forsteri Hydrurga leptonyx
The emperor penguin can dive to A solitary predator, this spotted seal
depths of 600 m (2,000 ft) and stay can use its teeth in two ways. When
underwater for up to 20 minutes. hunting larger prey, such as penguins
In winter, the males stand on the and seals, the teeth are good for biting.
ice to incubate their eggs. They can also be interlocked to strain
out krill from seawater.
RANGE Antarctica
SIZE 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in) RANGE Antarctica
GROUP Penguins SIZE 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) long
GROUP Pinnipeds
POLAR LIFE | 119
Arctic fox Walrus

Vulpes lagopus Odobenus rosmarus
Expert at living in the cold, the A thick layer of blubber beneath

Arctic fox can withstand temperatures the skin helps the walrus survive the
of -49°C (-57°F). It has fur on its footpads cold. It uses its stiff, facial whiskers
to help it walk on ice. to locate food by touch, and is armed
with a pair of long tusks.
RANGE Arctic
North America, RANGE
Arctic Eurasia Arctic Ocean
SIZE SIZE
1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) 3.5 m
GROUP (11 ft 6 in)
Carnivores GROUP
Pinnipeds
Polar bear
Ursus maritimus
The polar bear is the largest

predator on land. It is protected
from the freezing cold by thick
fur and a layer of fat under its
skin. It also has wide, rough
paws that help it walk on
ice while it hunts seals.
RANGE Arctic Ocean,

northern Canada, Greenland
GROUP Carnivores
Polar bears are strong swimmers. One
female swam for nine days without a
break in Arctic waters, covering
687 km
(427 miles)
in search of floating ice.
LIFE AT THE POLE

Polar bears hunt mainly seals and other prey on land
or floating ice, but must brave the chilly polar waters
to swim between the floes. A thick layer of fat under
the skin traps body heat when submerged, while
broad paws work like paddles for propulsion.
122 | POLAR WATERS
Greenland shark
Somniosus microcephalus
This shark prefers to live in the deepest, RANGE Arctic and

coldest waters of the ocean. It swims North Atlantic oceans
slowly and catches its prey by creeping SIZE 7.3 m (23 ft 11 in)
up on them instead of chasing them. As
well as live prey, it also feeds on dead GROUP Sharks
animals, from whales to reindeer.
Greenland sharks
often have parasites
Unusually
attached to their
small dorsal fin eyes. This makes
them blind
over time.
POLAR LIFE | 123
Crabeater seal
Lobodon carcinophagus
Despite its name, the crabeater

seal eats mainly krill, which it
filters from seawater through
sievelike cusps on its teeth.
Occasionally it also eats
small fish and squid.
The crabeater seal is
nimble both on the
ice and in the water.
RANGE Antarctica
GROUP Pinnipeds
Narwhal Blackfin icefish

Monodon monoceros Chaenocephalus aceratus
The narwhal is an Arctic whale

with a 3-m- (10-ft-) long tusk growing
from its upper lip. The function
of the tusk is unclear – it may
be used in combat or to
show dominance.
While the salt in seawater keeps the
RANGE Arctic Ocean oceans liquid even below 0°C (32°F)
SIZE 5 m (16 ft 5 in) at the poles, this fish has to rely on the
unique antifreeze proteins in its blood to
GROUP Toothed whales and prevent its body from turning into ice.
dolphins
RANGE Southern Ocean

SIZE 72 cm (28.5 in)
GROUP Perches and allies
Humans and
the oceans
Humans depend on the oceans for many vital things,
including food and transport. The oceans help regulate
our climate on land and provide more than half of
our oxygen. But oceans have been under threat
due to human activities, and we now understand
that protecting them is a major priority.
RECREATION
Oceans can be the
focus of leisure activities,
including sailing, surfing,
and snorkelling. Ocean
liners carry thousands of
people around the world.
126 | HUMANS AND THE OCEANS
Sailing the oceans

Ever since the dawn of human civilization, people have
voyaged across the oceans in canoes, boats, and ships.
Advances in maritime technology enabled larger ships to
make longer journeys. This opened up the world to trade
and exploration.
Phoenician ships
The Phoenicians were
great ship builders and
traders of the ancient world.
From 2500 bce they set up
a vast maritime trading
network around the
Mediterranean Sea, and
were the leading seafaring
merchants of their time.
Illustration of a
Phoenician trading ship
The age of
exploration
From the 15th century, European
explorers sailed to different
parts of the world aboard great
ocean-going ships. In 1522,
Ferdinand Magellan began the
first circumnavigation of the
globe, but died en route,
leaving Juan Sebastián Elcano
to complete the expedition.
SAILING THE OCEANS | 127
Telescope
Oceanography
Navigation aids
The first sailors mapped the Oceanography is the
stars to find their way across science of the oceans, and
the oceans. Later, instruments includes everything from
such as sextants improved marine biology and seafloor
navigation by measuring the geology to oceanic storms
angles between the sun and and seawater composition.
Marine sextant the horizon. Oceanographers often
study shallow seabeds,
as shown below.
Steam power
The Industrial Revolution brought steam power to
modern ships. This enabled large Atlantic-crossing
liners to transport people from Europe to the
Americas in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Modern ocean travel

Ocean travel has never been as
comfortable an experience as it is
today. Modern ships have facilities
that were unthinkable in the past,
such as hot running water and
flushing toilets. Cruise ships
provide the service and luxury
expected of 5-star hotels.
Explorers
Most of the early ocean explorers had little interest in the waters
below their ships and boats. Instead, they were simply crossing
the seas in search of promising new lands and potential riches.
However, their journeys often led to the opening up of new sea
routes and an exploration of the oceans themselves.
Viking explorers Maori explorers

A Scandinavian warrior people who Making long journeys across the Pacific
emerged in the 8th century ce, the Vikings Ocean in large canoes, the Maori were
used their formidable longships to raid, the first people to discover New
invade, and trade with lands in Europe Zealand. They settled
and beyond. there around 1350.
COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN Norway, COUNTRY OF

Denmark, Sweden ORIGIN Present-
DATES OF EXPLORATION 793–1066 day New Zealand,
Cook Islands
KNOWN FOR Raiding villages
DATES OF
EXPLORATION
From 1320
KNOWN FOR
Ocean-going
canoes known
as waka
EXPLORERS | 129
Zheng He Vasco da Gama

Using his fleet of more than 300 ships, The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama
Chinese admiral Zheng He explored the established the first direct
Indian Ocean and travelled to India, sea route between Europe
Arabia, and East Africa. and Asia by sailing from
Portugal to India.
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN China
DATES OF EXPLORATION 1405–33 COUNTRY OF
ORIGIN Portugal
KNOWN FOR Largest-ever wooden ships
DATES OF
EXPLORATION
1497–1524
KNOWN FOR
Advancing
navigation
methods
Jacques Cousteau
Cousteau was a French ocean explorer who was
made famous by his television documentaries
about the undersea environment. He also
invented an early underwater breathing
apparatus, known today as scuba.
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
France
DATES OF EXPLORATION
1942–97
KNOWN FOR Books
and documentaries
on ocean conservation
Cousteau in the Diving

saucer submarine
Deep-sea exploration
Exploration of the underwater world was fairly limited until the
invention of the diving suit, which enabled the wearer to stay
underwater for extended periods. Submarines now carry
people underwater, while submersibles – launched from
ships at the surface – take them to even greater depths.
Turtle submarine
Created in 1776 during the Vertical
American Revolution, the propeller
Turtle was a wooden,
one-person submarine.
It was designed to place
mines on the English
warships blockading
New York harbour.
Detachable mine
Lever to
steer rudder
DEPTH 4–5 m
(13–16 ft) Foot pedals
to power the
SPEED 5 km/h propeller
(3 mph)
MATERIAL Wood,
steel, tar
DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION | 131
Standard diving dress Modern diving suit

Invented in the 19th century, The Newtsuit is a
the standard diving dress modern diving suit
featured a rubber and with an aluminium
canvas bodysuit with a shell. This enables
breastplate and helmet the wearer to
made of copper and withstand the
brass. Oxygen was pressure at
pumped into the greater depths
helmet through better than any
a long rubber hose. diving suit before.
DEPTH 900 m
DEPTH 180 m (590 ft) (2,950 ft)
SPEED Walking speed SPEED 2.25 km/h
MATERIAL Copper, (1.4 mph)
brass, canvas, rubber, MATERIAL
wool, leather Aluminium
Nautile submersible
Pressure-resistant Like other modern submersibles,
casing the Nautile can withstand the
pressures experienced at great
depths, including those at the
ocean bottom. It can carry three
people and is equipped with
cameras, lights, and robotic
arms to collect samples.
Window for viewing
Thruster propels DEPTH To 6 km (3.5 miles)

the submersible
SPEED 2.8 km/h (1.7 mph)
MATERIAL Titanium,
buoyancy foam
Modern ships
Humans use modern ships to transport cargo across seas and
between continents. Massive tankers and container ships take
the largest loads. But ships are not only about transporting
goods – ocean travel is also big business, with millions of
people holidaying aboard luxury cruise ships every year.
Cruise ship
Cruise ships are large, luxurious floating SIZE Up to 360 m (1,184 ft) long
hotels that carry passengers around CARRYING CAPACITY 6,680 guests
the world. The largest cruise ships,
such as the Symphony of the Seas, AVERAGE SPEED 41 km/h (25 mph)
have multiple pools, parks, and
restaurants alongside thousands
of cabins.
MODERN SHIPS | 133
Container ship
Enormous container ships
are used to transport heavy
loads between continents.
The cargo is loaded into
rectangular shipping
containers, which are then
lifted onto the ships.
There is a great
SIZE Up to environmental cost
400 m (1,300 ft) to shipping: large ships
long emit pollution and empty
CARRYING CAPACITY their waste into
21,413 containers clean seas.
AVERAGE SPEED
37 km/h (23 mph)
Oil tanker
Oil tankers are huge, ocean-going ships SIZE Up to 458 m (1,500 ft)
specifically designed for carrying crude oil, CARRYING CAPACITY Up to 4.2 million
which is used to make petrol. The largest barrels of oil
tankers carry enough oil to fill over 16,500
tanker trucks on land. AVERAGE SPEED 37 km/h (23 mph)
Ocean recreation
The oceans are a great playground for people, both above and
below the waves. Every year, millions visit the oceans to swim,
snorkel, and scuba dive. Others enjoy skimming across the
surface on sailing boats and surfboards. Many of these ocean
activities, once done only for fun, are now considered sports.
Scuba diving Wind surfing

To explore the depths freely, divers This is a one-person sport that uses a sail
use scuba (self-contained underwater attached to a surfboard to travel across
breathing apparatus) equipment. These the water. It is now an Olympic sport.
are air tanks that attach to their backs.
EQUIPMENT Longboard or shortboard,
EQUIPMENT Compressed-air tanks mast, sail
connected by a hose to a mouthpiece POPULAR IN Brazil, Caribbean, USA,
POPULAR IN Australia, Belize, Thailand New Zealand
DEPTH To 50 m (165 ft) DEPTH Surface
OCEAN RECREATION | 135
Sailing
Sailing is an ancient
mode of travel that is
today enjoyed by many
people for recreation.
Craft vary in size, from
single-sail dinghies to
large, multicrewed
ocean-going ships.
EQUIPMENT Ship
or boat, mast, sails,
rope, anchor
POPULAR IN Worldwide
DEPTH Surface
Snorkelling
Snorkeller holding his Snorkelling is an easy way
breath to dive below the of exploring shallow waters
surface for short periods
by wearing flippers, a face
mask, and a snorkel – a
long breathing tube that
sticks out above the surface
of the water. Snorkellers
breathe though the tube
as they swim face down
in the water.
EQUIPMENT Feet flippers,

mask, snorkel
POPULAR IN Worldwide
DEPTH Surface
Littered across the
seafloor are more than
3 million
shipwrecks, sunk
over thousands
of years.
REMAINS AT SEA
The Aida was an Egyptian ship that survived a
German air attack during World War II. However, in
1957 it crashed into rocks when it met heavy weather
while delivering supplies. The Aida remains where she
sank in the Red Sea, near Brothers Islands, Egypt.
Food from the oceans

Humans have always relied on the oceans as a source of food.
Traditional fishing methods, including spears, lines, and nets,
have given way to modern boats and ships that bring in huge
hauls, causing concern about the impact of large fishing
trawlers on the ocean’s supply of fish.
Traditional methods
Many people still use traditional fishing LOCATION Shoreline
methods to catch enough fish for themselves TARGET FISH Coastal species
and their families. These commonly include
baited lines, hand spears, and simple nets EQUIPMENT Fishing lines, spears, nets
spread out in shallow, coastal waters.
Traditional fishing
tends to be more
sustainable: smaller
hauls mean enough
fish are left in the
oceans to breed.
FOOD FROM THE OCEANS | 139
Fish farms
Fish such as salmon, tuna,
and cod can be farmed for
food in large cages that are
submerged in shallow coastal
waters. The fish have to be
fed, just like any other animal
on a land farm.
Nets suspended from frames

keeping the fish enclosed
LOCATION Coastal seas

TARGET FISH Salmon, tuna,
cod, trout, halibut
EQUIPMENT Cages
Small fishing boats Trawlers

Small fishing boats that provide fish for
their local communities have been around
for thousands of years. Today, most are
equipped with outboard motors in
addition to sails and oars.
LOCATION Coastal seas

TARGET FISH Coastal species Trawlers drag large, bag-shaped nets
through the water to catch fish. While
EQUIPMENT Nets, fishing lines, boat
very effective at the job, trawling can
damage seabed habitats and coral reefs.
LOCATION Coastal seas, open ocean

TARGET FISH Midwater or bottom-living
species
EQUIPMENT Trawl nets, boat
Energy Tidal energy

As the tides rise and fall,
The oceans have been a the energy in the moving
valuable resource for humans water can be used to
drive underwater turbines
for hundreds of years. Oil and to generate electricity.
gas reserves have been taken This is clean energy
because it does not
from the seabed to fuel the involve burning fossil
modern industrial world. In fuels such as oil and gas.
recent decades, the world

has been turning to cleaner ENERGY TYPE Tidal
energy sources, such as DISTRIBUTION Electrical
wind and tidal power. cables
EQUIPMENT Turbines,
dams, generators
Oil and gas rig

Oil and gas on the seabed were produced ENERGY TYPE Oil and gas
from plankton that died millions of years DISTRIBUTION Pipeline or tanker
ago. These fossil fuels are extracted
by drilling rigs, which sit on seabeds EQUIPMENT Drill, pipeline,
or float on the surface. platform, mast
Mast to
house drill
Deck crane
ENERGY | 141
Rance Tidal Power Station, France
Long, dam-like
barrage catching
the water’s energy
France and South

Korea are among
the few countries to
harness tidal energy,
an environmentally
friendly source
of power.
Offshore wind farms

Strong sea winds provide a clean
source of energy that can be
converted to electricity. Wind farms
made up of dozens of large turbines Blades to
harness this energy. catch wind
ENERGY TYPE Wind

DISTRIBUTION Undersea cables
EQUIPMENT Turbines and generators
Tower housing cables

Oceans in peril
FOCUS ON… Human activities – such as overfishing
OVERFISHING and pollution – can badly harm the
Overfishing happens when
more fish are caught oceans and the organisms that live
than can be replaced by
breeding, resulting in there. Habitats can take years to recover,
declining numbers. and species can be driven to extinction.
Oil spills
Oil is carried around the world on container ships, but
▲ Nets used by fishing accidents can end up spilling this oil into the ocean. Oil
trawlers can cause damage floats on the surface and washes ashore, sticking to
to the seabed and reefs. animals that live there.
CAUSE Damaged oil tankers

HABITAT DAMAGE Pollutes seawater and coastlines
MARINE LIFE AFFECTED Seabirds, seals, penguins
▲ Fishing nets can also

accidentally kill creatures
such as dolphins, seals,
and sea turtles.
The 1979 Atlantic

Empress disaster spilt
340,000 metric tonnes
(90 million US gallons)
of oil into the sea –
the world’s worst
▲ Sometimes trawlers can tanker spill.
catch an entire school of fish,
leaving none behind to breed.
OCEANS IN PERIL | 143
Plastic Chemicals in water

Plastic rubbish not only gathers on Poisonous chemicals enter the ocean
beaches, but also breaks down into tiny from industry, underwater mining, or
particles that get eaten by ocean animals when pesticides and fertilizers used in
and thereby enter the food chain. agriculture run into the sea from the land.
CAUSE Discarded plastic CAUSE Waste and run-off from industry,

HABITAT DAMAGE Pollutes seawater agriculture, mining
and coastlines HABITAT DAMAGE Pollutes seawater
MARINE LIFE AFFECTED Ocean food MARINE LIFE AFFECTED Ocean food
chains, animals chains
trapped in rubbish
Warming oceans
Rising levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere
are causing the global
warming of the oceans,
which also melts polar
ice, making sea levels
rise across the world.
CAUSE Rising carbon

dioxide levels
HABITAT DAMAGE
Flooding coastlines,
warmer seawater
MARINE LIFE AFFECTED
Corals, coastal life
Saving the oceans

When it comes to the effects of climate change and the health
of our oceans, it’s easy to feel like we have reached the point
of no return. But many groups and people are dedicated to
conserving these precious natural ocean environments that
are so vital to the future of our life on land.
Stopping pollution
Many conservation groups are trying to
stop harmful pollution flowing into the
oceans. Some countries have subsequently
adopted rules to prevent chemicals and
sewage being dumped into their rivers.
Marine reserves
Marine reserves are large areas of
ocean that are protected from human
interference. They are a safe haven for
endangered species and places where
animals targeted by fishing can breed Sewage plant for treating waste water
and recover. before dumping to prevent pollution
Protecting coasts
Coastal developments – such as
holiday resorts – destroy important
habitats such as mudflats and
mangrove forests. Some governments
are recognizing the harm these
developments cause and are taking
steps to reduce their numbers.
SAVING THE OCEANS | 145
Cleaning up
The regular cleaning up of
beaches helps prevent waste
from reentering the marine
environment. Many groups
organize beach cleaning days
for people willing to volunteer
their time.
Volunteers cleaning a beach
About 9.1 million

Sustainable fishing tonnes of bycatch
Fishing is sustainable when the catch is never (unintentional catch)
bigger than the number of babies produced is thrown back dead
when fish breed. Countries achieve this by into the ocean
having laws that set quotas, which are limits every year.
on the number of fish that can be caught.
They can also stop methods that harm
habitats, such as bottom trawling.
146 | OCEAN
Fascinating facts
MARINE LIFE every year. They also produce more than
half the oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere.
• To reach their maximum height of
around 30 m (98 ft) tall, giant kelp can • Most creatures that live on the deep
grow at speeds of 61 cm (24 in) per day. seafloor are scavengers that wait for pieces
of food to drift down from above. It can take
• Fish living in cold Antarctic waters have decades for a whole whale carcass to be
a natural antifreeze in their blood to keep devoured by these creatures.
it flowing and prevent it from freezing.
• Around 90 per cent of life in the ocean
• Cleaner wrasses are small fish that lives in the shallows of the sunlit zone.
survive by feeding on parasites that
live on large fish. They even swim into • Penguins use their flippers to “fly”
the mouth of the larger fish to underwater at speeds of up to
feed on the parasites. 40 km/h (25 mph).
• Many fish can change The oldest ocean • Billions of creatures make
from male to female, or floor is thought to be the journey from their hiding
vice versa, during their more than 200 million place in the twilight and
lifetimes. Other fish have years old. midnight zones to feed in the
both male and female sunlit zone at night. They then
sex organs.
return to the deep by the day.
• The porcupine fish protects
• Green sea turtles can migrate for
itself by quickly taking on water if
more than 2,250 km (1,400 miles) across
threatened. The water makes the fish
swell to over twice its normal size – the ocean to lay their eggs. Some juveniles
usually too big for a predator to swallow. have been recorded travelling more than
9,000 km (5,600 miles) across the oceans.
• Parrotfish protect themselves while
sleeping by first excreting a mucus-like
substance from their mouths, which GEOGRAPHY
covers them like a cocoon.
• The name “Pacific Ocean” comes
• Approximately 45 billion tonnes of from the Latin Tepre Pacificum, meaning
phytoplankton grow in the sunlit zone “peaceful sea”.
FASCINATING FACTS | 147
• More than 90 per cent of the RECORD BREAKERS

planet’s volcanic activity occurs
in undersea volcanoes. • The deepest region in the world’s
oceans is the Mariana Trench – its
• Between 10,000 and 50,000 icebergs deepest point is around 11 km (7 miles)
form every year in the Arctic Ocean.
below the surface. If Mount Everest
Icebergs normally have a lifespan
were placed in the trench, its peak
of three or four years before they
would lie about 2.5 km (1.5 miles)
break away and melt.
below the surface of the ocean.
Some male anglerfish
• Waves occur under the
stay attached to the • Earth’s longest mountain
ocean’s surface at places female after they mate. range, the mid-ocean ridge,
with different water densities. Over time, the male is lies deep beneath the world’s
They can reach nearly absorbed into the oceans. It stretches for
200 m (655 ft) in height. female’s body. 65,000 km (40,400 miles)
• If all the ice in the world around the globe and about
melted, sea levels would rise by 90 per cent of it is underwater.
70 m (230 ft). That’s almost the height
of a 26-storey building. • The Pacific Ocean is home to the
world’s largest structure built by living
• According to a 2011 study, more than organisms – the Great Barrier Reef.
91 per cent of the total marine species Measuring around 350,000 sq km
that live in the world’s oceans are yet (135,000 sq miles), the reef can even
to be discovered. be seen from space.
• Ocean water absorbs all wavelengths • The bristlemouth fish is thought to

of sunlight. The blue wavelength can be the most common vertebrate in
penetrate the farthest depths, so the world, with hundreds of trillions to
the ocean appears blue. quadrillions living in the oceans.
• More than 90 per cent of an iceberg • Cold water from the Arctic seas sinking
lies hidden, submerged beneath the to the ocean bottom creates the Denmark
surface of the water. Strait cataract, the largest waterfall on
Earth. It lies beneath the ocean, between
• The Gulf Stream is a current of warm Greenland and Iceland. At 3,505 m
water in the Atlantic Ocean. It moves at (11,500 ft) high, it is much taller than the
6.4 km/h (4 mph) and influences the climate Angel Falls in Venezuela, the highest
of places that border the ocean. waterfall on land.
148 | OCEAN
Did you know?

SEAS AND OCEANS • There are 80 seas in the world.
• There are five oceans in the world: • The oceans provide the largest habitat
the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, for life on Earth; over 94 per cent of
and Arctic. the world’s creatures are aquatic.
• Around 70 per cent of the planet’s • The South China Sea is the biggest sea
surface is covered by oceans, which in the world. It covers an area of about
hold around 97 per cent of all the water on 2.6 million sq km (1 million sq miles).
Earth. The other 3 per cent is freshwater:
2 per cent stored in glaciers, ice caps, • The coldest temperature of any
and snowy mountain ranges, and 1 per ocean on Earth, at -1.92°C (28.54°F),
cent stored either in aquifers or bedrock is under polar sea ice.
(ground water) or in lakes, rivers, and
streams (surface water). • The shallow parts of the Persian Gulf
in the Indian Ocean have the warmest
• Sound travels 4.5 times faster surface temperature, at 35.6°C (96°F).
through seawater than through air.
• The Dead Sea, situated between Jordan
• The temperature in the deepest and Israel, is nearly ten times saltier than
ocean water is between 0°C and the ocean. This makes swimming in the sea
4°C (32°F and 39°F). feel more like floating.
• The largest ocean on Earth is the • Tsunamis – giant waves tiggered by

Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of undersea earthquakes – can travel at
about 166 million sq km (64 million speeds of 800 km/h (500 mph).
sq miles) and covers around 30 per
cent of the Earth’s surface.
MARINE LIFE
• The amount of salt in seawater
makes it toxic for humans. A single • Blue whales are the largest creatures
bath of seawater would contain up on Earth, weighing around 3 metric tonnes
to 2.8 kg (6 lb) salt. at birth. Babies can drink 100 litres (25 US
gallons) of milk a day and grow at 5 kg
• Less than 5 per cent of the world’s (11 lb) an hour. Blue whales can measure
oceans have been explored by humans. over 30 m (98 ft) long in adulthood.
DID YOU KNOW? | 149
• The heaviest boned ocean fish, the • The fastest fish in the world is the
ocean sunfish, or Mola mola, can weigh sailfish, which can reach speeds of up
up to 2 metric tonnes. Mola is Latin for to 30 km/h (19 mph).
“millstone”, which the fish is said to
resemble due to its rounded body, • The largest predatory fish in the world’s
rough texture, and grey colour. ocean is the great white shark. It can grow
up to 6 m (20 ft) long and weigh up to
• The smallest ocean organisms are 770 kg (1,700 lb).
bacteria. There can be about
1 billion bacteria in a litre • The six-eyed spookfish is
(2 pints) of seawater. thought to be the fish with
Flying fish can the most eyes. Two large
• To date, just over 35,700 leap 2 m (6 ft) out of primary eyes point forwards;
species of fish have been the water and fly for it has two other pairs of
recorded in the world. 100 m (328 ft) on their “accessory eyes” that help
About half live in the sea. outstretched fins. collect more light.
• There are more than one • Found in the Red Sea and
billion different types of Indo-Pacific region, the pufferfish
microbe in the ocean. is considered to be one of the most
poisonous fish in the world. Just 1–4 mg
• Found in the Atlantic, the 6.35-cm- (2.5-in-) (less than 0.00014 oz) of its neurotoxin can
long hairy frogfish is covered in hairlike be fatal to humans, and there is currently
skin extensions that look just like fur. no known antidote.
DEEP-SEA FACTS • One of the strangest creatures in the

ocean, the Venus’ flower basket lives deep
• The deeper humans go in the ocean, on the seafloor and has a skeleton made
the more the pressure increases. If we from strands of silica, a type of glass.
were to step outside our submersible at the
bottom of the deep ocean, this immense • Water deeper than 1 km (0.6 miles) is
pressure would squash us flat! completely dark. The only light comes
from luminous animals.
• The remains of all sea creatures either
get eaten by other creatures or eventually • The Atlantic hagfish lives on the deep
drift all the way down to the seabed where seafloor and eats by burrowing into the
they eventually decompose and combine bodies of dead animals and eating its way
to form a muddy ooze. out through their insides.
150 | OCEAN
Glossary Copepod A small

crustacean that darts
about in open water and
as krill, that is part of
the plankton.
Alga (algae) A living Cartilaginous fish is part of the plankton. Exoskeleton The hard
thing that uses light A fish with a skeleton outer covering of some
energy to make food made from rubbery Crust The outer rocky invertebrates.
by photosynthesis. cartilage instead of layer of the Earth.
Many algae are hard bone, such as Extinct When every
microscopic and sharks and rays. Other Crustacean An member of a species
single-celled; others backboned animals invertebrate with jointed is dead.
are big seaweeds. have a bony skeleton. legs and a usually
hard, armour-like Fin A flattened part
Amphipod A shrimp- Cephalopod A mollusc exoskeleton, such as that sticks out from the
like crustacean with with long arms and shrimp and crabs. body of an underwater
seven pairs of limbs, tentacles, such as animal and helps with
such as sand hoppers. squid, octopuses, Decapod A crustacean swimming. A dorsal fin
and cuttlefish. with five pairs of limbs projects from the back
Antenna A long, thin (with front ones often of fish, whales, and
“feeler” found on Cetacean A swimming shaped as claws), such dolphins.
the head of some mammal with flippers as crabs and lobsters.
invertebrates. that spends all its life Fossil The remains
in water and breathes Echinoderm An or impression of a
Baleen whale A air through a blow- invertebrate with spiny once-living thing
whale that has hairy hole, including whales skin and a usually preserved in rocks.
strips called baleen and dolphins. star-shaped body,
instead of teeth, used such as sea urchins Gastropod A mollusc
to strain small animals Climate The average and starfish. with a large creeping
from the water. weather conditions of a foot, such as snails.
place over many years. Ecosystem Living
Bioluminescence Climate change due things and their Gill rakers The stiff,
The production of to global warming is physical environment. comb-like edges of fish
light by living things. caused by humans gills, used to help strain
burning fossil fuels. Erosion When particles food from water.
Bivalve A mollusc that are worn away
with a hinged shell, Cnidarian An (weathered) from rock Glacier A large mass
such as scallops, invertebrate with get carried away, such of compressed ice
clams, and mussels. stinging tentacles, as by wind and rain. that moves downhill
including anemones, extremely slowly.
Camouflage A colour, jellyfish, and corals. Estuary The tidal
pattern, or shape that mouth of a large river, Global warming An
some creatures use to Continental shelf Part where seawater meets increase in the Earth’s
hide themselves. of a continent that is freshwater. temperatures caused
submerged under by greenhouses gases
Carnivore An animal shallow seas around Euphausid A shrimp- trapping the sun’s
that eats only meat. the edge of the land. like crustacean, such warmth. Greenhouse
GLOSSARY | 151
gases include carbon Migration The regular, Polyp The body of a Sponge An
dioxide, produced by usually yearly, journey cnidarian attached to invertebrate with a
burning fossil fuels. of an animal to and the seabed at one end, simple, often shape-
from different places with extensible ten- less, body that feeds
Gyre The spiralling to feed and breed. tacles at the other end, by filtering food from
pattern of the ocean’s including anemones surrounding water.
surface currents. Mollusc An invertebrate and tiny coral polyps.
with a soft body. Most Stomatopod A
Habitat A place where molluscs, such as Predator An animal crustacean, such as
a living thing lives. snails, have hard shells; that hunts and eats a mantis shrimp, with
others, like octopuses, other animals (its prey). spear- or club-like
Hurricane A severe, lack a shell. front limbs used for
potentially destructive Protozoan A hunting prey.
tropical storm with Oceanography The microscopic, single-
winds that can reach study of the seas and celled living thing that Tide The regular rise
over 120 km/h (75 mph). the oceans. usually consumes food. and fall of the ocean’s
water caused by the
Hydrothermal vent An Pelagic Relating to the Radula A mollusc’s gravitational pull of
opening in the seafloor, open ocean. tongue, usually covered the moon and sun.
spewing water heated in tiny teeth for scrap-
by volcanic activity. Photophore A part of ing food (such as algae) Tube-nosed
the body that produces growing on a surface. swimmer A seabird
Iceberg A large mass light in bioluminescent with tubular nostrils
of ice that breaks off animals. Reef A rocky ridge that spends much
from the end of a produced by coral, of its time at sea,
glacier and floats away. Photosynthesis The usually growing in including albatrosses
way plants and algae shallow, sunlit waters. and shearwaters.
Mammal A warm- use the energy of
blooded vertebrate that sunlight to make food Reptile Cold-blooded Upwelling When
produces milk to feed from carbon dioxide vertebrate with scaly water rises up to the
young. Most mammals and water. skin; usually lays hard- ocean’s surface from
are covered in furry shelled eggs on land. the deep (often near
skin, but many aquatic Pinniped A swimming coastlines). A down-
mammals, such as mammal with flippers Sirenian (sea cow) welling is when the
whales, are not. that also moves on A swimming mammal ocean’s surface water
land, such as sea lions, with flippers, including sinks deeper.
Marine Relating to seals, and walruses. manatees. It spends its
oceans and seas. life in water but breathes Vertebrate An animal
Plankton The air through its nostrils. with a backbone.
Microbe A tiny living community of living
thing that can only things that drift with Species A group of Zooxanthella
be seen through a currents in open water. living things that share (zooxanthellae) A
microscope, including Most plankton are common features and microscopic alga that
bacteria, many algae, small, such as algae can only breed with lives inside coral and
and protozoans. and krill. each other. helps nourish it.
152 | OCEAN
Index
Page numbers in bold bigfin reef squid 60 coconut octopus 61
show the most information. billfish 89, 90–91 comets 9
birds 42–45, 106–107 common thresher 93
blackfin icefish 123 conches 53
black swallower 111 consumers (food chains)
A blue-footed booby 44 84–85
abyssal plains 11 blue shark 93 container ships 133, 142
abyssal zone 81 bluestripe snapper 46 continental shelves 10, 50
Aida shipwreck 136–137 blue whale 105, 148 copepods 83
air circulation 12–13
boobies 44 coralline seaweed 33
albatrosses 106, 107
Bora Bora 51 coral reefs 7, 19, 50, 51, 72–73
algae 73, 74, 83, 84
brachiopods 22 Great Barrier Reef, Australia
American lobster 62
brown pelican 45 70–71, 148
ammonites 23
Bryde’s whale 99, 102 reef life 74–77
angelfish 76
bull shark 68 cormorants 42, 43, 44
anglerfish 110, 147
butterfly fish 76 Cousteau, Jacques 129
antifreeze 146
crabeater seal 123
archerfish 41
crabs 27, 36, 63, 113
arches 29
Arctic fox 119 C ghost crab 38–39
crowned jellyfish 87
Arctic Ocean 7, 21, 115, 117 California sea lion 54–55
Arctic tern 106 candy-cane sea cucumber 64 cruise ships 127, 132
arthropods 27, 36, 38–39, Cape gannet 42 crust, ocean 8–9, 81
62–63, 108, 113 Caribbean reef shark 68–69 crustaceans 36–39, 62–63,
Atlantic mackerel 47 Caribbean reef squid 56 83, 108, 113
Atlantic Ocean 6, 7, 9 cartilaginous fish 68–69, 92–95 curlews 45
Atlantic puffin 42, 43 Caspian Sea 7 currents 16–17
atolls 72, 80 caves 29 cuttlefish 58–59
auks 43, 45, 106, 107 cetaceans 88, 98–105, 115 cyanobacteria 84
Australian giant cuttlefish chemical waste 25, 73, 143, 144 cyclones 13
58–59 Christmas Island red crab 36
Australian pelican 45 Christmas tree worm 74
Chukchi Sea 117 D
clams 37, 56, 57, 112 da Gama, Vasco 129
B climate change 5, 13, 25, 144 Dall’s porpoise 98
baleen whales 96, 99, 100–105 see also global warming damselfish 77
barracudas 66, 89 clownfish 77 day octopus 75
barrel jellyfish 87 clown mantis shrimp 63 deep-sea angler 110
barrier reefs 70–71, 72 clown triggerfish 77 deep-sea exploration
basking shark 96, 97 cnidarians 79, 86–87 130–131
bays 51 coastlines 25, 27, 28–29, 144 deep-sea vents 4, 112–113
beaches 28, 34, 145 see also seashores deep-water currents 17
INDEX | 153
depth zones 81 flamingo tongue snail 57 Günther’s lanternfish 109

midnight zone 110–111 floor, ocean 9, 10–11, 50, 112–113 gyres 16
sunlit zone 82–83 see also seabed
twilight zone 108–109 flowering plants 40, 52
diving suits 131
dolphins 88, 99, 115
fluted giant clam 56
food chains 84–85
H
habitats 4, 20–21, 25, 40, 41, 50,
downwelling 17 fossils 9, 22–23 52, 54, 72, 74, 82, 148
dragonets 76 foxes 119 damage 25, 142–143, 144–145
dragonfish 108, 109 frigatebird 43 hadal zone 81
dumbo octopus 111, 113 frilled shark 95 Ha Long Bay, China 51
Dundee Beach, Australia 34–35 fringing reefs 72 hammerhead shark 94
harlequin shrimp 62
herons 44, 45
E G herrings 47
echinoderms 54, 64–65 gannets 42 Hong Island, Thailand 34
starfish 33, 49, 64, 65 gas rigs 140 humans 24–25, 125
eels 67, 111 ghost crab 38–39 Humboldt squid 61
emperor angelfish 76 giant clams 56, 57 humpback whale 100–101,
emperor penguin 118 giant cuttlefish 58–59 103
energy resources 140–141 giant hatchetfish 109 hurricanes 13, 14–15
estuaries 34–35, 40 giant hermit crab 63 hydrothermal vents 4, 112–113
Eurasian curlew 45 giant manta ray 97
European pilchard 47 giant Pacific octopus 60
evolution 9, 22–23
explorers 126, 128–129
giant red shrimp 108 I
Giant’s Causeway, Northern ice 5, 7, 18, 116–117
deep-sea 130–131 Ireland 28 icebergs 116
extinction 23, 24, 142 giant tube worm 112 ice shelves 117
giant white clam 112 ichthyosaurs 9
gill rakers 96 Indian Ocean 7
F glaciers 5, 116 invertebrates 62
feeding 42, 56, 106 glasswort 40 islands 6, 11, 51, 80
filter feeding 96–97 global warming 5, 7, 73, 117
fin whale 104–105 great barracuda 66
fish
cartilaginous 68–69, 92–95
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
70–71, 147
JK
open ocean 90–91, 92–97, greater blue-riged octopus 61 jellyfish 79, 86–87
108–111 great shearwater 107 kelp forests 54–55
polar waters 21, 123 great white shark 23, 85, 92, 149 killer whales (orcas) 88, 115
prehistoric 22 Greenland shark 122 krill 83, 84
shallow seas 55, 66–69, green sea turtle 53
76–77 grunt sculpin 32
shore and coastal 46–47 Gulf Stream 17, 147 L
fish farms 139 gulls 43, 45, 106, 107 lagoons 51
fishing 24, 138–139, 145 gulper eel 111 lanternfish 85, 109
overfishing 24, 73, 142, 145 gunnels 33 leopard seal 118
154 | OCEAN
lesser electric ray 69

lion’s mane jellyfish 79, 86
O polar waters 7, 21, 115, 116–117
polar water life 118–123
oceanic whitetip shark 93
lobsters 62 pollution 25, 73, 133, 142–143, 144
oceanography 127
lugworm 37 polyps 72–73, 74
oceans 4–11, 18–19, 148
porpoises 98
currents 16–17
predators 85, 88–91
environments 20–21
M habitats 20–21
producers (food chains) 84
protozoans 83
mackerels 47, 111 health of 142–143, 144–145
pufferfish 77, 149
mail-cheeked fish 32, 33, 67 winds and storms 12–13, 14–15
puffins 42, 43
manatees 52 see also water
purple sea urchin 54, 55
mandarin fish 76 octopuses 60–61, 75, 111, 113
purple starfish 33
mangroves 40–41, 144 offshore wind farms 141
pygmy seahorse 75
Maori 128 ogrefish 110
marbled stargazer 67 oil rigs 140
Mariana Trench 6, 11, 79, 147 oil spills 25, 142
marine reserves 144 oil tankers 133 QR
marlin 89 open ocean 21, 79, 80–81 queen conch 53
marshes 40 orange clownfish 77 queen scallop 57
orca (killer whale) 88, 115 rays 69, 94, 95, 97
mauve stinger 87
otters 55 red gurnard 67
Mediterranean Sea 7, 126
overfishing 24, 73, 142, 145 red knob starfish 65
megalodons 23
oxygen levels 19 reefs 7, 19, 50, 51, 72–73
megamouth shark 96
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
microplastics 25, 73, 84, 143
70–71, 148
midnight zone 81, 110–111
minke whale 104 P reef life 74–77
reef sharks 68–69
mole crab 36 Pacific Ocean 6, 146, 147, 148
reef squid 75
molluscs 37, 53, 56–61 Pacific razor clam 37
reptiles 9, 23, 53
octopuses 60–61, 75, 111, Pacific spookfish 95
ridges 10, 117, 147
113 Panamic cushion star 49
rock gunnel 33
squid 56, 60–61, 75, 89 pelagic stingray 94
rock pools 30–31
moon jellyfish 87 pelicans 45
rocky seabeds 50
mudflats 34–35, 144 penguins 118, 142, 146
rocky shores 28, 30–31
mudskippers 35 perches 46, 47, 76, 123
sea life 32–33
Muir Glacier, Alaska 5 Phoenicians 126
roseate spoonbill 42, 44
phytoplankton 17, 83, 84, 146
murres 43 roughies 110
pilchards 47
mussels 31
pinnipeds 55, 118, 119, 123
pipefish 53, 75
plankton S
N phytoplankton 17, 83, 84, 146 sailfish 90–91, 149
narwhal 123 zooplankton 83, 84 sailing 126–127, 128–129, 135
Nautile submersible 131 plastics 25, 73, 84, 143 Sally Lightfoot crab 27
navigation 127 Plesiosaurus 23 salt marshes 40
North Atlantic giant squid 89 polar bears 24–25, 119, 120–121 salt water 18, 148
North Atlantic right whale 102 polar summer 116 sand 29
INDEX | 155
sand hopper 37 single-celled algae 83 triggerfish 77

sandy seabeds 50 sirenians 52 tropical starfish 49
sardines 46, 47 skates 69, 94, 95, 97 trunkfish 77
Sargasso Sea 16, 82 Sloane’s viperfish 108–109 tube-nosed swimmers 107
sargassum seaweed 16, 82 small giant clam 57 tuna 85
scalloped hammerhead shark 94 snails 53, 57 turtles 53
scallops 57 snappers 46 Turtle submarine 130
schools 46 snorkelling 135 twilight zone 81, 108–109, 146
scuba diving 129, 134 snowflake eel 67
sculpins 32 soft shores 28, 34–35
sea anemones 31, 32
seabed 9, 10–11, 50, 112–113
sea life 36–37, 38–39
sooty tern 107
UV
urchins 54, 55
see also floor, ocean sound, in water 19, 101, 148
seabirds 42–45, 106–107 variable bushy feather star 65
Southern Ocean 7, 21, 115, 118
sea cucumbers 64 Vikings 128
South Island, New Zealand 35
seagrass meadows 52 viperfish 108–109
sperm whale 98–99
seahorses 53, 75 volcanic islands 11
spiny seahorse 53
sea ice 25, 116, 117, 148 spookfish 95, 149
sea levels 5, 143, 147 spoonbills 42, 44
sea lions 54–55 spotted eagle ray 95 W
seals 118, 123 spotted trunkfish 77 waders 43, 45, 106, 107
seamounts 11 squid 56, 60, 61, 75, 89 walrus 119
sea otters 55 starfish 33, 49, 64, 65 water 4–7, 12, 16–17, 18–19, 148
seashores 20, 25, 27, 28–29, 144 stargazers 67 temperatures 18, 73, 143, 148
rocky 28, 30–31 stingrays 94 waved albatross 107
salt marshes and mangroves stones 29, 34 waves 29, 147
40–41 storms 12–13 weeverfish 67
soft 28, 34–35 striped dolphin 99 West Indian manatee 52
sea urchins 54, 55 submarines 19, 129, 130 whales 98–105
seaweed 16, 30, 31, 33, 82 whale shark 97
submersibles 19, 131
kelp 54–55, 146 whaling 24, 103
sunflower starfish 65
sei whale 105 white shrimp 113
sunlight 18, 82–83, 116
senorita fish 55 wind farms 141
sunlit zone 81, 82–83, 146
shallow seas 20, 49, 50–51 winds 12–13, 16
surfing 134
sharks 85
hurricanes 13, 14–15
open ocean 92–97
wind surfing 134
polar 122
shallow sea 68–69 T worms 37, 74, 112
wrasses 55, 146
shearwaters 107 terns 106, 107
shelves thick-billed murre 43
continental 10, 50 tidal energy 140–141
ice 117 tidal pools 30–31 YZ
ships 126–127, 132–133 tides 30, 140 yellowback fusilier 47
wrecks 136–137 tiger shark 69 Zheng He 129
shorebirds 42–45 toothed whales 98–99 zooplankton 83, 84
shrimp 62, 63, 108, 113 trenches 6, 11, 20, 79, 147 zooxanthellae 73, 74
156 | OCEAN
Acknowledgments
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SeaTops 75tr,/ Michael Szönyi 72br,/ T. Kozhemyakina 36br; Lakhesis 51cr; Fabio Front: 123RF.com: Visarute Angkatavanich
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98-99bc; Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH / 140b; Puripat Lertpunyaroj 28cl; Harry rawangtak (Red Gorgonian); Dorling
Poelzer, W. / juniors@wildlife 85tr; Matt Liang 145b; Luckyphotographer 28cr; Gavril Kindersley: Colin Keates / Natural History
May 53cra; Jens Metschurat 143cla; Jeff Margittai 4bl; Ruslan Minakryn 79cb; Mirecca Museum, London (Mussel Shell), Oxford
Mondragon 52b; Nature Picture Library / 76br; Mtilghma 20cl; Natador 107cra; Kim University Museum of Natural History
Franco Banfi 122,/ Sue Daly 67b,/ Jurgen Nelson 37cra; Paul Nguyen 40bl; Noomhh (Ammonite), Linda Pitkin (Bumphead
Freund 36cl,/ Danny Green 119cra,/ Nick 138b; Siarhei Nosyreu 47bl; Krzysztof parrotfish), (Bluestripe snapper),
Hawkins 104t,/ Alex Mustard 33br,/ Doug Odziomek 85cb; Oksanavg 64br; Boris (Parrotfish), Sedgwick Museum of Geology,
Perrine 102tl,/ David Shale 109br,/ Onne Pamikov 60bl; Lefteris Papaulakis 23t; Cambridge (brachiopod); Dreamstime.
van der Wal 135bl; NG Images 14-15; Parin Parmar 30cl; Lesia Pavlenko 40crb; com: Corey A. Ford / Coreyford (Blue
NOAA 111br; Michael Patrick O’Neill Sean Pavone 11cr; Peterclark1985 77crb; Marlin ), Digitalbalance (jellyfish), Isselee
63ca; Paulo Oliveira 94br, 108bl, 110cr, Planetfelicity 123bl; R. Gino Santa Maria / (Hermit crab), (Clown triggerfish),
123crb; Papilio / Steve Jones 118br; Sean Shutterfree,LLC / Ginosphotos / Kotomiti_okuma (Emperor penguins ),
Pavone 18bl; Pictorial Press Ltd 129cra; Shutterfree,Llc 87ca; Radub85 13cr; Sergey Uryadnikov / Surz01 (Polar Bear);
Premaphotos 33cla; Prisma by Dukas Robert Randall 103; Robertlasalle 72cl,
Presseagentur GmbH / Gerth Roland 26; Fotolia: uwimages (anemonefish); Getty
86b; Andrew Roland 17bl; Sarkao 9br; Images / iStock: CoreyFord (Megalodon),
Niels Quist 2 141b; RKive 17tl; Roberto La Scanrail 127bl; Seadam 19b, 73bl, 87bc,
Rosa 32cl; Science History Images 113tr; Choi Ka Kwan (Pygmy seahorse ), marrio31
87br, 144cla; Seanothon 97cra; Vaclav (Butterflyfish), Marat Musabirov (Main);
Martin Shields 72bc; Martin Strmiska 78, Sebek 119bl; Vladimir Seliverstov 118bl;
90-91; Samantha Taykor 67tl; Travelscape Alexander Shapovalov 73tr; Silasfirth 55tc; Photolibrary: Photodisc / White (Green
Images 134bl; Morgan Trimble 85cla; Slowmotiongli 45cra, 46bl, 88b, 115cb; Sea Turtle).
Tsado 117br; Universal Art Archive Smitty411 55cr; Solarseven 9tr; Jens Stolt Spine: Getty Images / iStock: Marat
126bl, Mike Veitch 61bc; WaterFrame_dpr 37clb; Subsurface 53bl; Taiga 135cra; Tamas Musabirov
77tr; WaterFrame_fba 105t, 142cla; 80clb; Tarpan 83bl; Baramee Temboonkiat
WaterFrame_mus 75b, 89t, 93cra; 21b; Tignogartnahc 87cra; Tupungato All other images © Dorling Kindersley
WaterFrame_tfr 136-137; Stuart Yates 34-35bc, 35br, Sergey Uryadnikov 92br;
24-25br; Solvin Zankl 108-109bc, 109tc. Valentyn75 20br; Aleksandar Varbenov For further information see: www.
Dorling Kindersley: NASA / Arran Lewis 29tl; Victortyakht 45bl; Leon Viti 131cra; dkimages.com

Ocean - Facts at Your Fingertips by DK

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Ocean - Facts at Your Fingertips by DK

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POCKET EYEWITNESS

FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

For the curious

This book was made with

26 SEASHORES 124 HUMANS AND

28 The coast 126 Sailing the oceans

The blue planet

Muir Glacier, Alaska, USA, 1941

The five oceans

A rocky outcrop off the coast of

The Indian Ocean

The polar oceans Arctic

Sea and land

How the oceans

Clouds in the Earth’s

Crust lying Ocean crust

Oceanic Flat plain

Circulation and spin

The water cycle Rising

Earth’s trade winds

Air returning Storm surge

120 km/h (75 mph)

Deep-water 1-km- (0.6-mile-)

Currents and climate

Light and temperature

Sound Water pressure

The open ocean

History of ocean life

Humans and the oceans

Overharvesting Their fur’s incredible

The loss of their

Rocky shores Soft shores

Sea caves and arches

Living on the rocks

Tidal pool life

Rocky shore life

The bottom-living grunt sculpin uses its fins to

RANGE North Pacific Ocean

Coralline seaweed Purple starfish

RANGE Eastern Pacific Ocean

RANGE Atlantic and Pacific oceans

Estuary near Dundee

Soft shore life

RANGE Western Atlantic Ocean

▲ Once on the beach, the

Pacific razor clam

Lugworm Sand hopper

RANGE Northeastern Atlantic Ocean,

Salt marshes and

Shorebirds and seabirds

▲ Roseate spoonbills have

▲ Atlantic puffins dive and

RANGE Eastern North America,

Thick-billed murre Great frigatebird

RANGE Tropical islands and oceans

RANGE Northern North America,

RANGE Western Central

With its pink feathers

Spoon-shaped bill RANGE Central and South

RANGE North and Central

Eurasian curlew Australian pelican

RANGE Indian and western Pacific oceans, Red Sea

▲ The large groups of