Chapter I

Introduction
1.1 Definition
Meteorology is generally defined as a branch of physics that deals with the physical
processes in the atmosphere that produces weather and climate. The physical processes in
the atmosphere are influenced by solar radiation, temperature, humidity, wind movement,
atmospheric pressure, precipitation and soil moisture or by atmospheric elements which are
responsible for changing the state of atmosphere.
It is basically abbreviated of two words- agriculture and meteorology & is also referred to as
Agroclimatology. Meteorology is the scientific study of atmosphere, especially its pattern of
climate and weather. Agrometeorology implies that it is the study of those aspects of the
meteorology which have direct relevance to agriculture. It is an applied science which deals
with the relationship between agriculture plants and animals and prevailing conditions of

Introductory Agrometeorology weather and climate. Agrometeorology puts the science of meteorology to the service of
agriculture in its various forms and facets, to help the sensible use of land, accelerate
production of food and to avoid the irreversible abuse of land reservoirs.

(AMT 211) The meeting of the agrometeorologists in Moscow in 1951 defined Agrometeorology as a
science investigating the meteorological, climatologic and hydrologic conditions which are
significant for the agriculture owing to their interaction with the objects and processes of
Full Mark: 50 (2+0) agriculture production.
Weather
It is also called as the fraction of the climate. It is a state or condition of atmosphere at a
given place and at a given time. Weather is the condition of atmosphere in terms of
temperature, humidity, wind movement and atmospheric pressure for a short duration of
time i.e. part of day or complete day of a small area i.e. village, city or even a district. For
example the state of the atmospheric condition of the Gokuleshwor on 15th May 2012 is
denoted as weather condition of the Gokuleshwor at that day. It is thus the short term
assessment of the atmospheric condition.
Climate
Climate is generalized weather or summation of weather conditions over a given region during
a comparatively larger period. Climate is weather conditions related to the larger areas like a
Zone, state, country and a part of continent or whole continent for longer duration of time like
month, season or year. For example the climate of Baitadi district denotes the measurement
of temperature, humidity, wind movement, precipitation, intensity and duration of light at the
specific time in months or greater than a month.
Climate is a structure built with the bricks that are representative of weather over short time
intervals. Therefore, the causes of both weather and climate are the same.
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Objectives of Agrometeorology insecticides and pesticides to control disease and harvesting the crops and Advisory. In
The main objective of Agrometeorology is to discover and define effects of weather and some countries, the migration of locust is informed to their neighbor country.
climate on agriculture plants and animals for practical use. The specific objectives, iii. Weather crop relation: The relationship between weather and selection of crop according
however, are; to the prevailing weather conditions are under the scope of Agrometeorology.
• To increase quantity and quality of agricultural production through selection of iv.Crop Zonation and crop planning: Agrometeorology is used in agrometeorological
crops and crop varieties of best fit to prevailing condition of weather and climate regionalization. The environmental condition is determined by latitude, altitude, day length
etc. Thus, depending upon these factors the entire Nepal is divided into five crop zones:
• To increase or enhance the efficiency of agricultural operations through efficient
Tropical, subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine and alpine. By the knowledge of
use of inputs.
Agrometeorology the time of planting can also been determined. It is considered that the
• To help appropriate use of land, crops are long day or short day or day neutral type and give abnormal growth if the
• To protect crops and livestocks from adverse climatic risks by a incidence and combination is altered.
event of pests and diseases, v. Climatic control: We cannot control climate in huge scale but the microclimate
• To study about soil erosion from wind and water, incidence and effect of the modification is possible. It is achieved by the greenhouse and we can produce offseason
drought, frequency and extent of frosts, crops. The microclimate modification also helps in the research to maintain the
environment of certain places. It also helps in agroclimatic classification and crop
• To provide guidance for short and long term planning. weather modeling.
1.2 Aim and Scope of Agrometeorology 1.3 Role of Agrometeorology in Agriculture with other areas of agricultural sciences
The science has made significant contributions towards increased efficiency of agriculture Agricultural production still depends on weather and climatic condition to a great extent
operations, improving and stabilizing agriculture production and minimizing weather induced despite of considerable advancement in agricultural technology. The success or failure of crop
fluctuations in agricultural production. and livestock production is determined by patterns and extremes of weather conditions. The
Climatic factors alone affect the yield of crops to an extent of about 40%. In Nepal, the knowledge of weather conditions and their expected variations is therefore important in
success of agriculture depends mainly on monsoon rains. Successful crop production several agricultural decisions. Typical examples of agriculture decisions where the knowledge
depends not only upon the total seasonal rainfall but also on the proper distribution. The study of weather and climate play important roles are:
of agricultural meteorology helps the farmers to know when the monsoon rain begins, its • Selection of cropping systems and land use
distribution etc. Apart from this, the farmer will be able to know about the weather
abnormalities and their destructive effect on crops. • Selection of types and breeds of livestocks
The scope of the Agrometeorology is wide and varied. Some of the important areas dealt • Application of agricultural inputs both in terms of time and rate of application
under Agrometeorology are as follows • Scheduling of agricultural operations e.g. date of planting, fertilizer application and
i. Weather monitoring: For weather monitoring, Department of Hydrology and Meteorology harvesting etc.
is established in Nepal. There are 282 Agrometeorological stations located in different a. In protection of crops: The science of Agrometeorology is of great practical utility in
parts of the country to measure weather conditions. In the weather station, temperature, protection against adverse climatic risks. Out of total annual crop losses a great proportion is
humidity, rainfall, direction and velocity of wind and rate of evaporation are monitored. due to direct weather effects such as untimely rains, floods, droughts, hails etc. Losses in
Satellites are also established to know weather and climate of the certain paces. The harvest and storage due to parasites, insects and pests are also influenced by weather.
international agency responsible for worldwide climatic data is World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) located in Geneva, Switzerland. It controls the collection and b. In weather monitoring: Correct monitoring of weather attributes and long term weather
processing of original data. data are key to effective agriculture decisions and short term adjustment in agricultural
operations. This helps to minimize losses resulting from adverse climatic conditions and
ii. Agrometeorological forecasting: Basically there are two types of forecasting in improving the yield and quality of agricultural products.
Agrometeorology. They are a. Forecasting of weather condition and trend and b.
Forecasting of insects and diseases to decide transplanting of crops, spraying of c. In agrometeorological forecast: Another are where the knowledge of Agrometeorology is
vital is Agrometeorological forecasting. The forecasting made in agricultural meteorology are:
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 • Forecast of expected weather condition in Meghdutam- A famous poetric creation of all times. During the early Buddhist period, the
relationship between rainfall and crop production seems to be fairly understood. Rainfall
• Forecast of incidence of insect and disease attach in the crops
measurement and the studies of rainfall characteristics received great attention during this
• Forecast of crop development stages and yield period as expressed in Kautilya’s arthashastha.
• Forecast of agricultural operations and Varahamira in his Sanskrit text ‘brihat sanhita’ stated 125 slokes, outlined for weather
• Forecast of advisory related in crop production and livestock raising. forecasting. The modern times development in Agrometeorology begun with the discovery of
the Reaumurise of the temperature by Rene Reaumur in 1730. In 1735, he expressed the
The usual way of developing the forecast or the advisory system is by reading the insects or temperature relationship by the quantity of heat required to bring a plant up to a given stage of
disease dynamics with the weather regimes. The monitoring of weather conditions on regular maturity by means of the temperature summations.
basis helps indentifying the most critical weather conditions suitable for the occupancy of
pests and diseases. Knowing such weather conditions, advisory may be issued to take ∑T= Constant
precautions or execute control measures against the insect or disease occupancy. In 1919, Garner and Allard discovered the concept of photoperiodism in the plant which is the
d. Evaluating the agriculture production: The knowledge of agriculture meteorology helps response of the plant to the day or night duration for the flowering induction.
to evaluate agricultural production potential of different locations. In a country like ours, In 1935, Lysenko proposed the theory of the phasic development in the plants and indicated
numerous microclimatic pockets exist due to variations in shape, aspects, altitude and terrain. that the plant respond differently to the physical environment at different stage of their life
It is important to assess the climatic potentials of each of such microclimatic pockets. It gives cycle. This helped in establishing important distinction between growth and development.
rise to concept of crop zonation i.e. selection of most appropriate crops and varieties for a In 1949, Went developed phytotron in which it is possible to control practically the physical
given location depending upon the weather and climatic characteristics of the location environmental variables affecting the growth and development processes in the plants. This
e. In climate Control: The knowledge of Agrometeorology is also useful in climatic control if led an important concept of climatic farming in controlled environment in the temperate
the available weather conditions are not suitable for crops and livestocks. The utility of climatic regions. The invention of the Phytotron was proved to be a milestone in laboratory study of
control is more in the area of animal husbandry. If the outside conditions impose stress due to plant responses to differential environmental regimes. Considering the importance of the
extreme temperature, humidity, wind movement, the animals must be kept in controlled weather and climate in agriculture, the Western European countries and US officially
environment. The knowledge of agriculture meteorology in this case helps developing suitable recognized the need of weather service for agriculture. Global exchange of the weather and
environment control system. climate information today is coordinated through the World Meteorological Organization
1.4 Relationship of Agrometeorology with other areas of agricultural science (WMO) with headquarter in Geneva, Switzerland. Of the importance in the recent years is the
development of satellite imagery to derive the climatic data. Remote sensing provides
Agrometeorology is an interdisciplinary science in which the main scientific disciplines quantitative values for temperature, humidity and wind. It is also important in the study of the
involved are atmospheric sciences and soil sciences which are concerned with the physical distribution and variation in clouds and land cover.
and chemical environment and plant sciences and animal sciences (including their pathology,
entomology and parasitological etc.) which dealt with the contents of the biosphere. Though Significant events in the development of Meteorology
interdisciplinary in nature, Agrometeorology is now a well science. Its subject matter links Year Events
together the physical environment and biological responses under natural conditions. 350 BC Weather Science is discussed in Aristotle’s Meteorologica
1593 Galileo described thermoscope (the 1st thermometer is most likely attributed to Santorre, 1612)
1.5 Historical development and recent advancements in Agrometeorology 1643 Evangelista Torricelli invents the barometer
1664 Weather observations begin in Paris
The knowledge of Agrometerology has always been existing in our society. We have
1714 The Ferrenheit Scale for temperature measurement was introduced
evidences in the forms of ancient civilization with fairly good assessments of dependence of 1736 The Centigrade scale was introduced (it was first formally proposed by du Crest in 1641)
agriculture on climatic conditions. The knowledge of the people relating the agriculture 1783 The Hair hygrometer was invented
dependence on climate is often available in the forms of folk songs, and poems. The relation 1825 August devised the psychrometer
of climate to men and vegetation has been recognized ever since the Vedic and prehistoric 1837 Pyrheliometer for measuring Insolation was constructed
time. Weather forecasting has developed as a part of astrology. Many references to climatic 1892 Beginning of the systematic use of balance to monitor free air
1925 Beginning of the systematic data in collection using aircraft
elements related to soil productivity, cultural practices and crop production are observed in
1928 Radiosondes (ballon carried instruments) was first used
Rig-Veda and Atharva-veda and in post Vedic literatures. In Hindu culture, the cultivation of 1960 United State launched the first meteorological satellite, Tyros I
crops begins with a prayer to Indra –the rain god. Kalidas has described the cloud condition 1990 Doppler radar network introduced in the US
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 Chapter II Principal gases comprising dry air in the lower atmosphere
Earth Atmosphere Constituents %by volume Constituents %by volume
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 Ozone (O3) 0.00006
Oxygen (O2) 20.94 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
Earth is considered as only one living planet of this universe. Life is possible over here and
*Argon (Ar) 0.93 *Krypton (Kr) Trace
the basic units of life such as air, water etc. gives a distinct feature for this planet. Earth is
Carbondioxide(CO2) 0.03 *Xenon (Xe) Trace
made up of closely interrelated features both organic and inorganic materials. The terrestrial
*Neon (Ne) 0.0018 Methane(CH4) Trace
system is composed of 4 naturally interacting system i.e.,
*Helium (He) 0.00005
i. Lithosphere (about solid substances or masses) *Inert chemically never found in any chemical compounds
ii. Hydrosphere (about liquid or water)
Constant gases: N, O and Ar
iii. Atmosphere (about gaseous) Variable gases: carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapor, and particulates among others
iv. Biosphere (about organic system/life) But at higher altitudes, the chemical constituents of air changes considerably. The layer is
The atmosphere is a mixture of numerous gases. It envelops the earth and extends as far as known as the heterosphere.
9600 km above the earth’s surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is held around it by
gravitational attraction. Like the lithosphere and hydrosphere, the atmosphere too is an Gases
integral part of the planet earth and is inseparable from it. However, the density of the a. Oxygen
atmosphere decreases rapidly with the altitude. About 97% of air is concentrated in the lower
• It alone contributes about 1/5th of dry air,
29 km.
• No life without oxygen; plays important role in oxidation (respiration, soil
2.1 General characteristic
mineralization, soil formation etc.),
The atmosphere differs from the lithosphere and hydrosphere in many aspects. Air is
colorless, odorless and tasteless substances. It is mobile, elastic and compressible. The most • Capable of being combining with other elements to form different compounds,
interesting fact about air is that we do not feel its presence unless there is horizontal motion • Essential for combustion so called combustible gas.
on it. Air in horizontal motion is known as wind. Although air is not as dense as land or water, b. Nitrogen
it has weight, and the pressure it exerts on the surface is called atmospheric pressure. Air
pressure is the most important climatic element. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is • Contribute major component of the atmosphere and attribute more than 78%,
1034 gm/cm2. • An important constituent of many organic compounds,
2.2 Composition of the atmosphere • It is relatively inactive chemically, though many of its compounds are very active (why N
The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of many gases, not a chemical compound. In is most limiting nutrients for plants tough it is the major constitute of the
addition, it contains water vapor and huge number of solid particles (both inorganic and atmosphere??????)
organic impurities as dust, smoke, pollen etc.), called aerosols. Some of the gases (N, O, Ar) • Its main function in the atmosphere is to regulate combustion by diluting oxygen.
may be regarded as permanent atmospheric components that remain in fixed proportions
to the total gas volume. Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and from time c. Carbondioxide
to time. If the suspended particles, water vapour and other variable gases were excluded from • It contribute only about 0.03% of the dry air,
the atmospheres, we would find that the dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an
altitude of about 80 kilometers. Two gases-nitrogen and oxygen- make up about 99 per cent • Green plants, in the process of photosynthesis, consume CO2 and in the process of
of the clean, dry air. The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1 percent of respiration, CO2 is evolved into the atmosphere,
the atmosphere. In short, the lower atmosphere is usually homogenous and called • It is the product of combustion,
homosphere.

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 • It is one of the greatest contributing gas on atmospheric phenomenon i.e. on climate • The industrial regions, forest fires and volcanoes constitute the main source of soot.
change, • During evaporation from the ocean, the salt remains in the air in the form of minute
• % CO2 is increasing in atmosphere, which contribute a vital role in global warming. particles.
d. Ozone • The presence of dust particles in the atmosphere is important since when the air is
• Contribute a small percentage of about 0.00006%, found in upper atmosphere and it is cooled to its saturate temperature, condensation takes place on certain active nuclei.
not uniformly distributed. • The salt particles from the oceans are most active as condensation nuclei on which
• Mostly concentrates on 30-60 km from earth surface called ozonosphere. the water vapour condenses to form fog or rain.

• O3 is an efficient absorber of ultraviolet radiation and help to protect the biosphere. • They are the cause for twilight
Chemical compounds • Absorb short wave solar radiation

• Ar, Ne, He, Kr, Xe are so inert chemically that they are never found in any chemical • Determine blue color of sky by absorbing short wave blue color and red & orange color
compounds. in sun rise and sun set.

• Ar is used extensively in electric lamp bulbs because of its inertness. It is also used 2.3 Structure of the atmosphere
inflorescent tubes. It flows with blue light. The study about Lithosphere and hydrosphere has a large and long history. But from the
beginning of the 20th century, when airplanes and radio were invented, the knowledge
• Ne is used to fill florescent tubes. It flows with distinctive orange red colour.
about the upper part of atmosphere became essential, however, the lower part of the
• He is the second highest element with a density of 0.177 gm per liter (Hydrogen atmosphere able to draw the attention of human being in earlier history also. It is very difficult
0,08988gms /liter). It is used to inflate balloons because it will not burn. to explore the upper part of atmosphere. So many scientists did then investigation and gave
• Kr glows with brilliant green and yellow colour. their different theories.
• Xe is chemically inert and glows with a blue green colour. The earth atmosphere consists of zones or layers arranged like spherical shells according
to altitude above the earth’s surface. Each zone has a unique set of characteristics. For the
Water vapor most part of the layers are not at all sharply defined
• Air contains variable of water vapor ( i.e. 0.2% by volume in cold dry climate to 4% in and their boundaries are arbitrarily established.
humid tropics) However, it is convenient to distinguish about them
and to assign a name to each. Since various
• Absorb long wave length terrestrial radiation and solar radiation physical and chemical properties are assigned in
• Source of all clouds & precipitation altitude zones, these system of layering and
nomenclature applied to different layers are based
• 90% of water vapor lies below 6 km of atmosphere and only1% is above 10 km.
upon the class of properties selected. The
Solid particles properties consist of density, pressure, chemical
• The air also contains a variable amount of both organic and inorganic impurities such as and electrical properties and temperature etc.
dust, soot, salts, fungal spores, bacteria and pollen. According to Peterson, the atmosphere is divided
into the following most significant spheres;
• Over a city it is estimated to contain, 100,000 dust particles per cc of air. A cigarette puff
sends about 400 crores of dust particles. i. Troposphere iv. Ionosphere
ii. Stratosphere v. Exosphere
• The main source of dust is the arid regions such as deserts and steppes (grassland). iii. Ozonosphere
• The minute dust particles are readily distributed throughout the lower atmosphere and Figure: Layer structure of the atmosphere
carried far from the source.

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i. Troposphere (0-16km) • The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called the stratopause. It is the transitional
• Lowermost part of atmosphere zone of maximum temperature between the stratosphere and the mesosphere

• It is derived from Latin word tropos meaning mixing or turbulence • Above this level, there is a steep rise in temperature.

• It contains about 75% of the total gases mass of atmosphere and practically all the iii. Ozonosphere (Mesosphere) (30-60km)
moisture and dust particles.
• There is maximum concentration of ozone, a vital gas, between 30 and 60 km above
• The average height of this lowermost layer of the atmosphere is placed at about 14 km the surface of the earth.
above sea level. Under normal conditions, the height of the troposphere at the poles is
about 8 kilometers, while at the equator it is about 16 kilometers • The formation of ozone takes place in the upper stratosphere when an oxygen molecule
is broken into two atoms by UV radiation and that free unstable atoms combine with
• Troposphere is marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also called connective region. oxygen molecules to form ozone.
Various types of clouds, thunderstorms as well as cyclones and anticyclones occur in
this sphere because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour & aerosols in it. • Ozone layer acts as a filter for the UV rays of sun which is harmful to the flora and
fauna on earth.
• Wind velocities increase with height and attain maximum at the top.
• However, the emission of nitrogen oxide causes deterioration of ozone layer with
• The most important feature is decrease in temperature with increasing elevation up the resultant serious damage to flora and fauna.
to 14km, at the mean lapse rate of about 6.5oc per km.
• Here, temperature increases with height at the rate of 5oC/km.
• An interesting note to be made is that lowest temperature in the entire troposphere is
found directly over the equator and not at poles. • Because of the preponderance of chemical process, this layer is also called
chemosphere.
• Most flight operations occur in the troposphere.
• There are some weather scientists who regard the ozonosphere as the upper part of the
• Tropopause is a shallow layer separating troposphere from the next thermal layer stratosphere. And height of stratosphere is up to 50 km above earth surface.
of the atmosphere i.e., stratosphere.
iv. Ionosphere
• Tropopause (Greek word) means where the mixing stops. The temperature remains
constant throughout the tropopause. The height of the tropopause is about 1 to 2 km • Regions of Earth’s atmosphere in which the number of electrically charged particles—
ions and electrons—are large enough to affect the propagation of radio waves.
• Tropopause is a transition zone, and above which the temperature increases slightly • Ionosphere, according to Peterson, lies beyond the ozonosphere at a height of about 60
with increasing elevation. This is the isothermal layer forming a barrier between the km above the earth’s surface.
troposphere and stratosphere.
• In this layer, ionization of molecules and atoms occurs mainly as a result of
ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma radiation.
ii. Stratosphere (16-30 km)
• Above ozonosphere, the temperature falls again reaching a minimum of about -
• Extend from tropopause to 30 km (i.e. 16-30 km).
1000C at a height 80 km above earth’s surface. Beyond this level, the temperature
• Lower stratosphere is isothermal in character, however, there is a gradual increases again due to the absorption of short wave solar radiator by the atoms of O &
temperature increase with height beyond 20 km ( i.e. upper stratosphere) (temperature N in this ionosphere and temperature could reach more than 1000oC.
inversion)
Ionosphere consists of many layers
• Above tropopause, no visible weather phenomenon occurs, however, cirrus clouds,
• D-layer (60-89km) reflects low frequency radio wave but absorb medium & high
called the mother of pearl clouds (high speed circulating cloud) occasionally form in
frequency radio waves.
lower stratosphere.
• E-layer (90-130km) is also called Kennelly- Heaviside layer which reflects medium
• Thickness of stratosphere is highest at the poles
and high frequency waves. It does not exist at night.

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 • E1 Sporadic –layer (110 km) occurs under special circumstances. This affects very b) Oxygen layer: Average ht. 1120km (atomic oxygen)
high frequency radio waves. c) Helium layer: Average ht. 3520km (atomic oxygen)
• E2-layer (150km) appears at day time and vanish at the sunset, produce by UV-photon d) Hydrogen layer: This layer is arranged according to the weight of the gases.
acting on oxygen molecule.
• F1-layer play important role in long distance radio communication. It reflects medium
and high frequency radio waves. And it disappears at night.
• F2- layer (150-380km) also play important role in long distance radio transmission and
characterized by diurnal as well as seasonal variability. It appears as directly related to
sunspot activity. Its maximum development occurs shortly after local noon and during
the middle of the winter.
Figure: Modern structural view of earth
• G-Layer (400 km and above) is explored recently, functioning or showing same atmosphere.
characteristics as F-layer but interaction of UV photon with nitrogen atoms results free
electron in this layer.
v. Exosphere (400-1000 km)
• The atmosphere in this region is so rarefied that it resembles a nebula. http://www.scribd.com/doc/17128159/Agricultural-Meteorology-Part-I
• Hydrogen and helium gas are predominant in this outermost region.
• At outermost boundary of our atmosphere, the kinetic temperature may reach around
5,680oC. However, temperature in its real sense is entirely different from the
temperature on earth surface.

Modern View regarding the structure of Atmosphere

On the basis of composition, atmosphere is divided into two broad spheres.
a. Homosphere
This is the lower part of the atmosphere which extends to a height of about 88 km. It is
characterized by uniformity in composition. In fact, the term homosphere means the zone
of homogenous composition. It is further subdivided into 3 sub-layers a. troposphere b.
stratosphere and c. mesosphere with some transition zones such as tropopause,
stratopause and mesopause.
b. Heterosphere
The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in its composition, so called
heterosphere. And this different layers show different physical and chimerical properties. The
heterosphere is also referred as the thermosphere as the temperature goes on increasing on
outermost boundary of this layer due to the photochemical action of the ultraviolet solar
radiation on rarefied air mass. In this sphere, the gases are said to be arranged into following
four roughly spherical shells having its own distinctive composition.
a) Nitrogen layer: 200 km above earth’s surface molecular N.
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 Chapter III Kirchoff’s Law
Solar Radiation It states that Absorptivity (α) of an object for radiation of a specific wavelength is equal to its
emissivity (e) for the same wave length (λ).
3.1 Radiation α (λ)=e(λ)
Every object at temperature above absolute zero emits and imparts energy to the Absorptivity (α)
surrounding. This transfer of energy and mode of transfer is called radiation. Radiation means It is defined as the ratio of amount of total radiation absorbed by the surface (Ia) to the amount
emission of rays. It refers to energy transfer or transmission in electromagnetic waves band of incident on the surface (I).
which is characterized by wavelength and frequency.
Thus, α=Ia/I.
Radiation is temperature dependent. The relation is as: Higher the temperature, the greater
For white body, α=nil and
will be the radiation. The wave length at which energy is emitted also depends upon the
temperature but higher the temperature, short is the wavelength of emission. And substances For a perfect black body, α=1
which emit the maximum amount of radiation in all wave length are known as black bodies. Reflectivity or albedo (r)
Such bodies will absorb completely all the radiation incident upon them.
It is the ratio of the amount of energy reflected from the surface to the total amount incident on
Wavelength: Wavelength is the shortest distance between the surface; and also referred as albedo.
two consecutive similar points on a wave train
r=Ir/I
λ= C/D
Hard polished surfaces reflect light differently from rough textured surfaces. The amount of
Where, λ=Wavelength (nm); radiation reflected also depends on the angle of the incident light, with low angles of incidence
C= velocity of the light, typically reflecting more light than high angles of incidence. Radiation can reflect off a surface
more or less equally in all directions at once or in only one direction as light reflects off a
D= Frequency or vibration/sec
mirror. Radiation reflected in all directions is called ―diffuse reflection and radiation
reflected as occurs off a mirror is called ―specular reflection.
Radiation flux density This albedo varies with color and composition of earth’s surface. Albedo varies with season
The amount of solar energy received on a unit surface area per unit of time is called radiation and angle of sunrays (highest in winter and at sunrise and sunset. It also varies with the
flux density. It is generally expressed in cal/cm2-min. wavelength of incident radiation. According to the nature of surface value of albedo varies. As
far;
Planck’s Law
Fresh snow 0.80
According to electromagnetic theory, whenever a body emits or absorbs energy, it does Sand 0.40
continuously. But according to quantum theory, the body emits or absorbs energy in discreet Wet earth 0.10
bundle of units, which Plank called quanta of energy. Energy contents of the quantum are
directly proportional to the frequency of radiation. Transmissibility (t)

E=h D It is the ration of amount of radiation transmitted to the amount of radiation incident on the
surface
Where, E=Energy content
t=It/I
h=Plank’s constant
On a given surface, if the total incident radiation is I and Ia is the radiation absorbed by the
D=Frequency of radiation surface, Ir be the radiation reflected by surface and It is the radiation transmitted by surface
This law illustrates that greater is the frequency of wave (i.e. shorter is the wave length), I=Ia+Ir+It
greater will be the energy content of the quantum.
Dividing both sides by I, We get
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 I/I=Ia/I+Ir/I+It/I transferred into Helium. During the fusion process, some mass is converted into energy; this
1= α+r+t energy is continuously shedding part of sun’s mass by radiating waves of electromagnetic
energy and high energy particles into space. This emission represents all the energy available
Stefan Bolzman’s Law to earth (except for a small amount emitting from the radioactive decay of earth minerals). In
other word, solar radiation provides more than 99%t of the energy that heats the earth and
This law states that radiation flux (E) emitted by a radiating body is directly proportional to the does not change appreciably from year to year and varies only with latitude and season.
fourth power of its temperature i.e.,
The most astonishing fact about the incoming solar radiation (insolation) that strikes the
E= σT4 earth’s surface is that it is equal to about 23-billion horsepower. Actually it is this amount of
Where, E= Radiation flux energy received from the sun that acts as the driving force for all the atmospheric (weather
and climate) as well as biological processes on the earth.
σ= Stefan Bolzman’s constant=5.6x10-5 erg cm-2/sec-1 k4 (=8.14 x 10-11 langley min-1 K4)
Solar radiation spectrum is illustrated in color bands, including different colors of wave
T=Absolute temperature (0K)
bands commonly referred to as color spectrum. The color spectrum of solar radiation and
Above law is for the black body, if the body is not black body then wavelength of respective energy band is as follows;
E = σ e T4 …………………….Where, e=emissivity. Value of e lies between 0 to 1. For a perfect About 99% of the sun’s radiation is contained between 0.15 µm to 4.0 µm and is referred to
black body, it is one as short wave radiation. About 9% of this radiation occurs in ultraviolet range (λ<0.4µ),
This law illustrates that higher the temperature of the radiating body, the higher will be the about 45% in the visible range (λ:0.4-0.74 µ) and about 46% infrared range (λ >0.74 µ). On
amount of the radiation emitted. Since the amount of the radiation is proportional to the fourth contrary after absorption of solar energy, earth emits its energy between 4 to 100 u and is
power f the temperature, even a small variation in temperature could cause greater categorized as long wave length.
changes in radiation emitted. Spectrum Wavelength (u)
Wein’s law Gamma rays & X-rays 0.005-0.20
This law states that the wavelength of maximum intensity of emission from a radiating is Ultraviolet rays 0.2-0.40
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the body. Violet rays 0.4-0.43(400-430 nm)
λ α1/T Indigo 0.43-0.46 (430-460 nm)
i.e. Wavelength of maximum intensity of emission=2897 T-1 Blue 0.46-0.49 (435-490 nm)
Wien's Law tells us that objects of different temperature emit spectra that peak at different Green 0.49-0.53 (490-574nm)
wavelengths. Yellow 0.53-0.58 (574-594nm)
• Hotter objects emit most of their radiation at shorter wavelengths; hence they will appear to Orange 0.58-0.63 (594-626nm)
be bluer,
Red 0.63-0.74 (626-750 nm)
• Cooler objects emit most of their radiation at longer wavelengths; hence they will appear to
be redder. Infrared rays 0.74-4.0(750-400 nm)

Furthermore, at any wavelength, a hotter object radiates more (is more luminous) than a
cooler Light is the Visible rays 390-760 nm;
[Note: C/100 = (F-32)/180 = (K-273)/100]; 1 micrometer (µm) = 1000 nanometer (nm);1
3.2 Nature and properties of solar radiation micron=1/1000000 meter or 10-6 meter or 10-3 mm, 1 nanometer=10-9 meter.
The surface temperature of the sun is estimated between 55000C and 61000C (average * A blackbody refers to an opaque object that emits thermal radiation. A perfect blackbody is
5762ok). The interior temperature ranges from 8*106 to 40*1006 0K. Though sun is not a one that absorbs all incoming light and does not reflect any. The light coming from the
perfect black body but to some extent it act like so in case of emission. The enormous energy photosphere (the "surface" of the sun) is approximately a black body but the atoms/ions in the
of the sun is produced through the process of nuclear fusion, in which hydrogen is
16 17
thinner outer layers of the sun (ie. the chromosphere) absorb and re-emit certain wavelengths Scattering: Scattering is selective; it is more in short wavelength (blue) than that in longer
of light. That's what gives us the sun's absorption lines in its spectrum and causes it to not be wavelength (red), especially when the sky is clear. If the circumference of scattering particles
a perfect black body is less about 1/10th of the wavelength of the incident radiation, the scattering coefficient is
3.3 Extra terrestrial radiation inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of the incident radiation. This is
called Rayleigh scattering and its effect is the blue color of sky. For larger size of particle
Solar radiation continuously strikes the earth’s outer atmosphere at the rate of 1.7 x 1017 with circumference of more than 30 times of wavelength of incident radiation, scattering is
watts. This is referred to as extraterrestrial radiation. Expressed on a per unit area basis, the independent of the wavelength i.e. white light is scattered. This phenomenon is known as Mie
yearly average rate of solar radiation striking a surface normal to the rays of the sun outside scattering. (Note: particles means molecules of air, water vapor, dust particles, inert materials
the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar constant. There is a seasonal variation in the etc.).
extraterrestrial radiation rate due to the variation in distance between the earth and the sun
over a year’s cycle. Reflection
3.4 Solar constant A part of the radiation falling on any surface or particles-5%- is reflected back to the outer
space of earth. Thus a certain amount of energy is lost.
The rate at which solar radiation is received outside the earth’s atmosphere on a per unit area
basis is called solar constant. It is the flux of the solar radiation at the outer boundary of the About 30% of the energy falling on the outer surface of the atmosphere is scattered and
earth atmosphere on a surface held perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance reflected.
between the earth and sun (1.5x1013 cm). Every minute the sun radiates approximately Diffusion: When diameter of the particles is larger than the wavelength of incident beam of
56x1026 calories of energy. The energy per unit area and per unit time incident on the light, the scattering does not occur and the effect of the particles is of the nature of diffuse
spherical shell of earth concentric with sun with this radius is reflection or diffusion.
QS=Total radiation/Total area of spherical shell=π r2S/4π r2= S/4 Absorption: About 17% of the solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. The constituent
of atmosphere that absorb the solar radiation significantly are oxygen, ozone, CO2 and water
=56*10 cal cm min / 4 π (1.5x10 cm)
26 -2 -1 13 2
vapor.
=2.0 gram calories cm-2min-1 or 2.0 langely min-1 or (0.5 langely min-1 =263 kly/yr
Oxygen atoms in the upper part of the atmosphere absorb the extreme ultraviolet wavelengths
Thus, solar constant value is around 2 cal cm-2 min-1 or 2 Langley min-1 or 1390 watt m-2) (0.12 to 0.16µ). Ozone absorbs the ultraviolet part of spectrum in the wave lengths 0.20 to
(Langley =gram calories cm-2). In fact, this solar constant is not a true constant and varies by 0.32µ. And also absorb some quantities of radiation in visible portion of 0.44 to 0.70µ. Water
±1.5% about its mean value depending upon the distance of the earth from the sun (latitude, vapor absorbs the near infrared bands at 0.93, 1.12, 1.42 µ. CO2 absorbs the infrared bands at
season and day time hour). 2.7 µ. Thus, the solar radiation reaches the earth’s surface in depleted form. Practically all the
The total radiation flux measured at a height of 82 km is 1.95 ly/min as directly measured by radiation in ultraviolet part at wavelengths smaller than 0.33 µ is absorbed by oxygen
satellites. This value is contributed by ultraviolet rays and visible rays (35%) and infrared and ozone in the upper atmosphere. Thus absorption is of great significance to life of the
rays (65%). earth surface, because very little of this radiation can be tolerated by living organisms.
3.5 Isolation(Incoming Solar Radiation) Mathematically, disposition of solar radiation is given by the equation;
It is defined as the flux of solar radiation incident upon the earth surface. Its value depend Qs=Cr+Ar+Ca+Aa+(Q+q)(1-a)+(Q+q)a
upon the geographic location, orientation of the surface, orientation of the surface, time of the Where;
day, time of the year and atmospheric condition.
Solar energy incident on the top of the atmposhere (Qs)= 263 kly/year (0.5
3.6 Effect of atmosphere on incoming solar radiation ly/min)
All the radiation received on the outer boundary of the earth atmosphere is not received on Reflection & scattering back to the space by clouds (Cr)= 63kly/year (24%)
the earth’s surface. The loss of solar energy in the process of passing through the Reflection & scattering back to the space by air dust & 15 lky/year (6%)
atmospheric layer is called atmospheric depletion. Various processes whereby the heat vapor (Ar)=
Total reflection by atmposhere (Cr+Ar)= 78 kly/year (30%)
energy is lost through the atmosphere are scattering, diffusion, absorption and reflection.
Reflection from earth surface (Q+q)a= 16 kly/year (6%)
Total reflection from earth atmosphere system= 94 kly/year (36%)
18 19
 Absorbed by clouds (Ca)= 7 kly/year (3%) i. Pyranometer or solarimeter
Absorbed by air, dust & H2O vapor (Aa)= 38k ly/year (14%)
Among the instruments used for measuring solar radiation
Total absorbed by atmosphere (Ca+Aa)= 45kly/year (17%)
Absorbed by earth surface(Q+q)(1-a)= 124 kly/year (47%) intensity, solarimeter are most costly and not usually for
Total absorbed by earth atmosphere system (Ca+Aa)+ 169 kly/year (64%) regular measurement. This instrument measures the electric
(Q+q)(1-a)= current generated by a series of thermocouple when
And, Q= Direct solar beam; q= Diffuse solar radiation; a= Albedo exposed to solar radiation. The instrument is calibrated to
give the intensity of solar radiation on the basis of voltage
For convenience recorded by the instrument when exposed to solar radiation.
Usually a millivolt recorder or a digital integrator is
i. Total energy incident on the Atmosphere= 263 kly/year
connected to the instrument which records the voltage generated by the instrument.
ii. Total energy scattered and reflected by Atmosphere= 30%
iii. Total energy absorbed by atmosphere= 17% With the solarimeter, both instantaneous and time records of radiation can be obtained.
iv. Total energy incident on the earth surface= 53%
v. Total energy reflected by earth surface= 6% ii. Bimetallic Actinometer
vi. Total energy absorbed by the earth surface = 47%
This instrument provides a measure of total solar radiation by recording temperature
Net radiation difference between black and white coated metallic strips. The
temperature difference is a function of total solar radiation received.
Net radiation (Rn) is the difference between all radiation received at the surface of the As the bimetallic strip is exposed to radiation, the curvature of strip
earth and all radiation emitted by that surface accounting both short wave (Rs) and long changes due to difference in temperature between white and black
wave length (Rl) strips. The change in curvature actuates a pen arm and pen arm
Rn=Received-remitted=Rns-Rnl prepare a graph of variation of solar radiation on chart fitted to clock
driven drum. The horizontal axis of the chart has a time scale and
i. Net short wave radiation (Rns)= Rs-rRs=Rs(1-r)
the vertical axis has the scale for solar radiation intensity. With this
Where, r=reflectivity of the surface (For vegetative cover r=0.23; For water r=0.06) instrument, it is possible to obtain both variations in the solar radiation intensity for
ii. Net Long wave length (Rnl)=Rlo-Rli different times of the day as well as total radiation received. The area under the curved
prepared on the chart gives the total solar radiation.
Where, Rlo= Outgoing long wave & Rli=incoming wavelength
iii. Bellani pyranometer
Hence net radiation (Rn) can be expressed as;
This instrument gives a measure of total solar radiation. The instrument consists of a glass
Rn=Rns-Rnl=Rs(1-r)- (Rlo-Rli) sphere with a blackened copper sphere placed inside. Usually alcohol
is kept inside the blackened copper sphere. The sphere is mounted on
3.7 Measurement of solar radiation the top of a graduated glass tube, which protrudes into the sphere
Intensity, duration and quality of solar radiation are three properties which need to measure to above the level of the liquid. The solar radiation falling on the outer
analyze the solar radiation. surface of the glass sphere passes to the black copper sphere, which
causes the alcohol to evaporate. The evaporated liquid upon
The instruments used to measure the intensity are;
condensation is collected in a graduated glass tube. The amount of
i. Pyranometer or solarimeter ii. Bellani pyranometer liquid which condenses in the tube gives the measure of the amount of
iii. Bimetallic actinometer radiation received. Resetting of the instrument is done by simply
inverting the instrument upside down so that the liquid which has
condensed in the glass tube enter into the copper sphere.
The instrument is usually calibrated with solarimeter to establish a relationship between
amount of liquid condensed in the glass tube and the radiation received. Once this
20 21
relationship is established, Bellani pyranometer is then used to measure the solar radiation at 3.8 Significance of solar radiation in crop production
any location. i. Effect of light Duration
In all the radiation measuring instruments, the glass sphere used to cover the sensor, are Photoperiodic effect
made of quartz glass, to insure that all the waves in solar radiation spectrum must reach the
sensor for accurate measurement. As quartz glass has wide range of transparency to wave of Day length is called photoperiod or light period. Day length is defined as the duration from the
0.2 to 4.5 µ. sunshine to sunset, which also includes the morning and evening twilights. The duration
between sunrise and sunset and period of morning and evening twilight vary with the latitude
iv. Campbell Stroke’s Sunshine Recorder and time of the year, thus producing different photoperiods/light periods at different time of the
year. Photperiodism is the response of the plant to photoperiod or light period for the induction
It consists of a solid glass globe of about 10 cm in diameter concentrically within a section of of the flower. Actually, it is the length of the night, rather than the night length, that affect the
hollow metal bowl. The globe acts as lens, which concentrates flowering. It means the plant which is called short day plant (eg rice) is actually long night
the rays of the sun into a specially treated card inserting in plant.
guides on a metal bowl. The heat of the sun burns the trace on
the card. The movement of the sun changes the spot focus Based on the duration of light period required, plants are classified as a. long day plants b.
throughout the day and the length of the trace burnt on the card short day plant and c. day neutral plants. It has been observed that the initiation of
is measured as duration of bright sunshine. reproductive phase in plant is initiated when certain duration of light period is obtained. Short
day plants are those whose reproductive phase is initiated when period of shorter light
Three types of cards are used for recording the sunshine duration (<12 hours) are provided. Rice, maize, soybean etc. are the short day plants. If
duration during different times of the year. They are; longer day duration (>12 hours) for the initiation of reproductive phase is required, it is long
i. Long curved card day plant. Wheat, barley, oat etc. belong to long day plants; and those plants which don’t
ii. Short curved card have any specific requirement of duration of light period for the initiation of reproductive phase
iii. Straight card are day neutral plants.
Three pairs of flanges are provided on the bowl for inserting the card. The central pair is used Photoperiodism in the plant has also been found to be influenced by temperature conditions.
for straight card for a period of three weeks before and after the days when the day and night This effect is referred as thermophotoperiodism (response of the plants to both temperature
lengths are equal (i.e. equinox). Long curved card used in summer and short curved card are and day length for flowering). The occurrence of phonological events particularly the
used in winter. reproductive phase in the plants, at the location of higher altitudes has been found to be
The length of the charred line produced on the card depends on the sensitivity of the card and delayed due to lower environmental temperature.
transparency of glass sphere. In terms of radiation value, the intensity of radiation required Not only the duration of the day length, but also the duration of darkness is equally important
to burn the card is normally 0.2 to 0.4 cal/cm2/min below which no record is obtained. in the occurrence of the reproductive phase in the plants. It has been observed that even if
The site for installation should be free from any shaded obstruction throughout the period of light is induced momentarily during the period of darkness, the phasic development in the
year and should be installed on the ground, placing the instrument in concrete pillar at a plants is altered.
height of 1.5 m above the ground level. ii. Effect of solar radiation intensity
v. Spectrobolometer A standard unit called candle measures the intensity of light. The amount of light received at
Spectrobolometer is used to measure the quality of solar radiation. It is, in fact, an a distance of one foot from a standard candle is known as foot candle and amount received
arrangement of different instruments that produces color bands in the solar radiation and at a distance of one foot from a standard candle is known as Meter candle or lux (1 foot
provides a mechanism to measure the energy content of various color bands of solar radiation candle =10.764 luxes and the instrument used to measure light intensity is called as Lux
spectrum. The spectrobolometer essentially consists of a spectrograph combined with a meter.
coelostat(a mirror that follows the moving sun). By means of coelostat, the solar radiation Solar radiation intensity affects physiological processes in plants as photosynthesis,
beam is passes through a prism. The prism disperses the beam into different color bands. A respiration, and transpiration. The response of photosynthesis to light intensity is referred as
bolometer, which is essentially a solarimeter, is then used to measure the energy content of the light response curve. Very low light intensity reduces the rate of photosynthesis and may
required color band.
22 23
even results in result in the closing of the stomata detrimental to plants in many ways. This wavelength ranging from 0.36 to 0.76 micron known as photosynthetically active
results in reduced plant growth. radiation (PAR). Chlorophyll absorption is highest in the blue (0.46µ) and in the red region
As we know that the rate of photosynthesis increases with the increase in solar radiation (0.65µ). Infrared radiation more than 3µ is completely absorbed by the plant though most of
intensity until a limit and then further increase in intensity has no contribution on the rate of infrared are absorbed by plant. So, plant bodies are called black bodies for infrared radiation.
photosynthesis. The limit of solar radiation intensity is called light saturation point. The Principal wavelengths absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet-blue
region (400 to 510 nm) and the orange-red regions (610 to 700 nm). Among this, red light
When the plants are gradually exposed to the increasing light, from darkness to sunlight, a is the most favorable light for growth followed by violet-blue.
minimum light threshold is reached, where the amount of the CO2 taken up in photosynthesis
exactly equals the amount given off in the respiration. This is light compensation point. Light The quality of solar radiation affects flowering, germination and elongation. It is observed that
compensation point is lower for the shade loving plants. As light intensities are increased red light with wavelength of 0.66µ is by far the most effective inhibitor of flowering in the case
beyond the light compensation point, rate of photosynthesis of well-exposed leaves increased. of long day plants. The red light helps mature apples to turn red. The germination of seed is
A point is reached at which further increase in light intensities provides no further increase in inhibited when they are exposed to green blue and other short wavelength color and
net photosynthesis-light compensation point. Thus, Very high light intensity increases the again in the infrared part of spectrum. Germination is however induced when the seeds
rate of respiration. It causes rapid loss of water, i.e., it increases the transpiration rate of are exposed to the red portion of the spectrum. Stem elongation is promoted by the
water from the plants resulting in closure of stomata. The most harmful effect of high intensity exposure to infrared wavelengths where as the red part of the spectrum suppresses the
light is photooxidation (oxidation of the cell contents). elongation. If UV ray is present in spectrum, it leads biological effects i.e. kill microorganisms,
Ultra violet and shorter wavelengths kill bacteria and many fungi, disinfect the soil and
High light intensity has dwarfing effect on plants whereas low light intensity causes etiolation eradicate diseases. And, these rays may lead to many irregularities in the growth and
of the plants. development of plant. Infrared radiation has thermal effects on plants. In the presence of
Normally, higher light intensity is suitable for most of the crop plants but the requirement water vapor, this radiation does not harm plants; rather, it supplies the necessary thermal
varies with plant to plant, with their varieties and their stages of growth. Plants have been energy to the plant environment.
divided into sun loving (heliophytes) and shade loving species (Sciophytes) due to their According to the Dutch Committee (1953) the following are the solar spectrum bands and their
differences in the level of the light saturation intensity. significance to plant growth.
Crop species differ in their response to the level of light intensity. C4 plants like maize, Wavelength Significant effect on plants
sugarcane, sorghum etc. are able to increase photosynthesis even at light level equal to full (µm)
sunlight whereas most C3 crops such as rice, wheat and soybean etc. reach light saturation >1.0 No specific effect, radiation is absorbed by plants & transformed into heat
point before full sunlight. 1 to 0.72 Help in plant elongation, far red region (0.7 to 0.92µ) has important role on
The level of light saturation intensity of some of the crop species is given in the table below. photoperiodism, germination, flowering and coloration of fruits.
0.72 to 0.61 It this region, light is strongly absorbed by chlorophyll. In generates strong
Most of the field crops (Rice, cotton, jute, sugarcane) belong to sun loving species where the
photosynthetic and photoperiodic activity.
crops like coffee, tea, cardamom, turmeric etc, belong to shade loving species. The light 0.61 to 0.51 Green yellow region. Absorption in this region has low photosynthetic
intensity of the mid day sun may reach to as high as 14,000 foot candles, therefore light effectiveness and weak formative activity
intensity suitable for photosynthesis is only for a few hours in the morning and afternoon. 0.51 to 0.40 It is strong chlorophyll and yellow pigment absorption region. In this blue violet
Crop species Saturation light intensity (foot candles) range, photosynthetic activity become very strong, this region has very strong
Sugarcane 6000 effect on formation of tissue
0.40 to 0.315 Radiation in this band produces formative effects. It has dwarfing effect on
Rice 5000-6000
plants and thickening effect on leaves
Wheat 5300
0.315 to 0.28 Radiation in this band has detrimental effect.
Maize 2500-3000 <0.28 Lethal effect, plants gets killed. It has germicidal action. Practically no radiation
Potato 3000 of wavelength <0.28 reaches the earth surface.
iii. Effect or solar radiation quality/light quality
References
Light quality refers to the relative proportions of the different colors and wavelength
contained in sunlight. The radiation utilized in the photosynthesis process includes the
24 25
 Chapter IV
Shrestha, G.K., D.R.Baral, S.M.Shakya, D.M. Goutam. 2001. Fundamentals of Horticulture. Atmospheric Temperature
Delta Offset Press, Thapathali Kathmandu, Nepal, Page no. (83-84)
Shah, S.K………..Agronomy. IAAS, Rampur, Chitwan. 4.1 Air temperature
Sun is the primary source of heat for the earth and its atmosphere. The isolation absorbed
by the earth surface is covered into heat by the process of convection, conduction and
radiation. The temperature of environment of a given location at a particular time is known
as ambient temperature.
4.2 Diurnal variation in air temperature
Rhythmic rise and fall of air temperature or variation of air temperature during a day is
called diurnal variation of the temperature.
The rotation of earth on its axis causes the changes in temperature between the day and
night. Solar radiation gradually increases from sunrise, reaching maximum at noon i.e. at
12.00 pm but the temperature of the atmospheric air reaches to maximum value only after
some time later in afternoon. The, temperature
declines gradually reaching minimum in later night
or early morning. The temperature difference
between the maximum and minimum during the
day is called diurnal range of temperature.
To illustrate clearly, we have a graphical plot of
temperature/radiation vs time. Here we observe
that at noon i.e. at 12 pm, the radiation value
reaches to the summit. Although the maximum
amount of isolations received at noon, the earth
surface and air lying close to it continue to receive
more heat than they lose during the afternoon.
That is why temperature continues to rise and
show maximum value around 2.00 pm. So the gap of
time period between maximum point of radiation received and maximum temperature
observed is called time lag.
And from the middle of the afternoon to sunrise, the loss of heat by earth radiation exceeds
the receipts of the solar radiation therefore temperature continues to drop until about the
sunrise of the following day.

4.3 Annual variation of air temperature

Variation of temperature of a place in different times of a year is called annual variation in
temperature of that place. In the context of Nepal or the Northern hemisphere, maximum
solar radiation is recorded on around early May but maximum air temperature is recorded
on the end of June. So there is a gap of time left in between the maximum temperate and
maximum radiation observed, this gap of the time is called annual temperature time lag.
26
Similarly, minimum is observed in last of December. The difference on mean temperature

27
between the warmest and coldest months in a year at a station is called annual range of the sun’s rays fall vertically over equator. So the condition of equinox (i.e. equal day and
the temperature. night) occurs in that day. As earth moves from w to x position, northern hemisphere is
Lapse rate inclined to temperature towards the sun; summer exists in northern hemisphere and winter
in southern hemisphere. In this position, sun falls vertically over tropic of cancer. After June
Generally, there is a steady decrease of temperature with increasing elevation (up to 21, there is apparent movement of sun on southward and on September 23, the sun again
tropopause). The observed rate of vertical decrease in temperature (also called vertical overhead at the equator as shown in position Y. The movement of sun continues till
temperature gradient) is called the environmental lapse rate. It is not a constant but varies December 22 when the sun’s rays are overhead at tropic of Capricorn as position Z. Hence
with height, location and season. Normal lapse rate is 6.50C/km. winter period prevails in northern hemisphere and summer in southern hemisphere. After
22nd December, there is apparent movement of sun towards north, falling vertically over
equator on 21st March and cycle repeats.
Normally due to greater angle of incident of sun’s rays and longer duration of sunshine,
maximum temperature is attained in summer and reverse condition follow in winter. The
summer and winter season are reveres between northern and southern hemisphere. The
annual range of temperature is lowest in the equatorial region. As the amount of isolation
received does not show much variation between summer and winter. Annual range of
temperature is greatest in the interior of the continents in middle latitude.
4.5 Measurement of ambient temperature.
Different types of thermometer are used to measure the air temperature as
i. Mercury or alcohol in glass thermometer
ii. Maximum minimum thermometer
Figure: Annual variation of the air Figure: Normal lapse rate iii. Bimetallic Thermograph
temperature iv. Thermocouples
v. Thermistors

Temperature inversion i. Mercury or alcohol in glass thermometer

Generally, temperature decreases with height but This thermometer is invariably used for routine observation of air temperature. Alcohol in
sometimes when the colder air lies below warmer air glass thermometer is used in very cold region. However, mercury in glass thermometer is
and closer to earth surface the normal lapse rate is most common in normal and high
reversed and this is called temperature inversion. temperature measurement. There
Temperature inversion near the ground surface may is expansion or contraction of
produced under following condition-long and clear winter mercury or alcohol due to change
night, clear sky, relatively dry air and snow covered in temperature which is measured
surface. by observing the graduated
4.4 Seasonal variation in temperature capillary tube of the thermometer.
The accuracy of the measurement
The seasonal difference in depends upon the types of
temperature is primarily due to the thermometer’s constriction and calibration and method of handling.
difference in the angle of incidence of
sun’s ray and duration of sunlight and ii. Maximum minimum thermometer
distance between sun and earth.
It consists of two thermometer-one to measure maximum temperature called maximum
To illustrate the seasonal variation of thermometer and next to measure minimum temperature of a time period called minimum
temperature, let’s take 4 special days thermometer.
fall on 4 distinct seasons. On March
21, as in position of w of the diagram,
28 29
Maximum thermometer is similar to mercury in glass thermometer 100C to 400C. Beyond these limits, plants are damaged severely and even get killed. The
except that it is provided with a small constriction in capillary tube. maximum production of dry matter occurs when the temperature ranges from 20 and 300C.
There is rise of mercury column up to the maximum temperature it As already seen the temperature of a place is largely determined by latitude and altitude.
attains. However, if the temperature falls, the mercury in the Based on the above the vegetations are classified as tropical (rain forest, desert,
constriction contracts and the threads breaks but the level of grassland), temperature (Grassland, deciduous forest), taiga (coniferous forest), tundra
mercury remains in the capillary tube which indicates the maximum (lowshrubly growth, lichen) and polar.
temperature of the measuring period. Day temperature seldom produces any difference in response in the flower initiation, size of
Similarly, minimum thermometer is generally alcohol in leaves or rate of leaf production. Night temperature on the other hand has in general
thermometer which can measured temperature below freezing pronounced effect on the state of leaf production as well as upon the leaf size.
point also. In its capillary tube, a metal index is fitted which is Every plant has its own minimum, optimum and maximum temperature limits for its normal
made as such that alcohol can pass from inner side of the index growth and reproduction. The vital physiological activities of a plant stop both at below the
at rising function. However, with decrease in the temperature, the minimum level ad at above the maximum level, whereas physiological activities will be at its
alcohol cannot pass throughout the index and it pulls the index maximum at optimum temperature levels. These levels of temperature are known as
down. The minimum temperature can be recorded by noting the cardinal temperature points.
scale reading opposite to the end of the index fartherst from the bulb.
Table: Cardinal temp. for the germination of some important crops
These thermometers are usually kept in horizontal position inside the shelter. Maximum S.N. Plant Cardinal Temperature (0C)
temperature is recorded in afternoon whereas a minimum thermometer is read in morning. Minimum Optimum Maximum
And resetting is done on afternoon for both.
1 Rice 10-12 30-32 36-48
iii. Bimetallic Thermograph 2 Maize 8-10 32-35 40-44
3 Wheat 3-4.5 25 30-32
It makes the use of a curved metallic strip. 4 Barley 3-4.5 20 38-40
Bimetallic strip is formed by welding together 5 Carrot 4-5 8 25
two strips of different metals. Due to 6 Peas 12 32-34 40
temperature increase, both expand, but two 7 Oat 4-5 25 28-30
metals expand at different rates. So it leads 8 Lentil 4-5 30 36
the strips to bends. And this variation in strip
9 Tobacco 13-14 28 35
curvature transduces to change in temperature
In General
and calibrated. There is a rotating drum,
10 Cool season 0-15 25-31 31-37
rotating in a fixed speed (clock driven rotating
crops
drum). And variation in curvature due to
11 Warm season 15-18 31-37 44-50
temperature change is presented on the graph
crops
by pen arm showing the temperature record of the measure period.
(Bierhyzen, 1973)
Similarly, thermocouples and thermistors can also be used to measure air temperature but
they are use in some special conditions only. They are electrical device showing the
temperature of air by calibrating the potential difference induced due to change in a. Effect of low temperature on plant
temperature. Many crop plants are injured and many killed when night temperature is very low. Tender
leaves and flowers are very sensitive to low temperature and frost. Plants, which are rapidly
4.6 Significance of atmospheric temperature in crop production growing and flowering, are easily killed. If low temperature coincides with wet soil, it results
in accumulation of harmful products on plant. Exposure to extremely low temperature and
Air temperature is an important climatic variable affecting the life cycle of plants. Though
heavy snowfall damages the plants in several ways like: Suffocation, desiccation, heaving,
optimum air temperature requirement of plants differ from species to species, however,
chilling and freezing. An example of the low temperature effect is spikelet sterility of rice.
both extreme high and low temperature is harmful to plants. For proper growth and
development, air temperature plays a vital role. Chilling injury: Plants which are adopted to hot climate when exposed to low temperature
are found to be severely injured by chilling injury. Chlorotic bands in the leaves of
Air temperature is the most important weather parameter, which affects the plant life. The
sugarcane is one of the example of chilling injury..
growth of higher plants is restricted to a temperature between 0 to 600C and the optimum is
30 31
Freezing injury: In freezing injury, ice crystals are formed in the intercellular spaces and
then within the cells which cause more injury on the structure of the protoplasm and plasma
membrane, so that plant parts or entire plant may be killed or damaged beyond repair.
Suffocation: Formation of thick covering of ice or snow on the soil surface is suffocation.
As a result, the entry of Oxygen is prevented and plants suffer from want of oxygen. This
causes accumulation of harmful substances in the plants. Where
Heaving: Heaving is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plant along with soil from its GDD= Growing degree days;
normal position. TMAX= Daily maximum temperature
TMIN.= Daily minimum temperature
TBASE=temperature below which the process of interest stops
b. Effect of high temperature on plant
Though High temperature accelerates photosynthesis, respiration, growth of shoot and
leaves and ripening of fruits, excessive high temperature above 50oc, lead lethal effect. References
Cells of most plant species get killed when the temperature ranges from 50 to 600C. This
point of temperature is called thermal death point and varies with plant species and age of Moui, H.S. 2004. Introduction to Agrometeorology, Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi,
plant tissues. The aquatic plants and shade loving plants are killed at 400C whereas Page (50-58)
xerophytes at 500C.
Shah, S. ……Agronomy. IAAS, Rampur, Chitwan.
High temperature results in desiccation of the plants and disturbs the balance between
photosynthesis and respiration. Higher temperature increases the respiration leading to the Mavi, H.S. 2004. Introduction to Agrometeorology. Oxford and IBH Publishing; New Delhi,
rapid depletion of reserve food in plants resulting in stunted growth due to incipient or page (258-261)
starvation. Brady, N.C. Nature and properties of soil.
When high temperature occurs in combination with high humidity, it favors the development
of many diseases. High temperature affects the physiological balances and disturbs its
enzyme inactivation/protein coagulation occurs above 600C. Once the temperature
exceeds the maximum up to which growth takes place, the plant enter a state of
quiescence and cannot be performed well after providing the suitable/favorable
environment later on also. Heat wave, Sun scald, Stem girdle ar the examples of the high
temperature effects.
Sun scald: Injury caused by high temperature on the sides of the bark.
Stem girdle: High temperature at the soil surface scorches the stems at ground level which
is common in young seedling of cotton in sandy soil. Stem girdle may causes the death of
the plant by destroying the conductive and cambial tissues.
Denaturation of enzymes

Degree days (DD) and Growing degree days (GDD)

At a given location, the period between planting and harvesting is not a specific number of
calendar days but rather a summation of energy units, which may be represented as
degree-days. A degree-day for a given crop is defined as a day on which the mean daily
temp is one degree above the zero temperature (that is the minimum temperature for
growth) of the plant.
GDD or accumulated day degrees is also called as Effective Heat Unit. This is an arithmetic
accumulation of daily mean temperature above certain threshold temperature. This is
computed by using the formula suggested by IWATA (1984).
32 33
 Chapter V
Soil Temperature Factors affecting soil temperature
Temperature of the soil surface is affected by rate of heat gain by radiation & its loss, thermal
Soil temperature is the most important factor that controls the intensity of biophysical and conductivity of the lower layers. Soil temperature is affected by following factors;
microbiological processes that takes place in the soil. Heat is supplied to the soil by I. Amount of radiation received by soil:
geothermal activity, atmospheric process and radioactive transfer. II. Albedo of soil
Temperature of soil depends on thermal properties and heat content of the soil mass. Thermal III. Texture of soil
properties includes IV. Soil moisture and air content
V. Organic matter on soil
i. Specific heat: VI. Rainfall characteristics of the area
Heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gm of soil by 10c. Specific heat of water is 1.
The constituents of soil have much less specific heat than this. Of the soil constituents, quartz Soil temperature is higher in the day time as it receives more solar radiation. Amount of the
has minimum specific heat (0.1cal/gm-0C) and humus the maximum (0.45 cal/gm-0C). In radiation soil received depends on aspect and slope of the land and evaporation is affected by
general, specific heat of the different soil textures are in following orders: Silt loam>clay vegetation, tillage, mulching and irrigation also. Organic matter has high absortivity (black in
loam>silty clay loam>clay soil. color) and highest soil temperature.
Specific heat is affected by moisture content. Specific heat at field capacity is more than that
at the wilting point. Hence the specific heat of the soil mainly depends on the specific heat of Soil temperature profile
mineral constituents and moisture contents. Soil has a capacity of sink (absorb) and source (lose). It means during the day time in the
For clay, it is generally 0.8 cal/gm-oC and for humus it is 0.45 cal/gm-oC (5 times lower than presence of solar radiation it absorbs heat energy and during night it loses some energy by
the specific heat of water) radiation and convection. This phenomenon is responses for changing the temperature of soil
profile.
ii. Heat capacity/Volumetric heat:
At depths below four feet, ground temperature stays a constant 50 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit
Quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 cm3 soils by 10C. It is denoted by Cv (10 to 12.770C)year-round."
and expressed in cal/cm3-0C. Heat capacity of water is 1 cal/cm3-0C. Most field soils have field
capacity of 0.3 to 0.6 cal/cm3-0C. It depends on soil moisture content, density of soil, texture, 5.1 Diurnal variation in soil temperature
soil characteristics as organic matter content, coverage etc. Soil with greatest heat capacity
will warm up slowest. Due to absorption of solar radiation, heat is
generated inside the earth surface and
Cv=pC, where p= bulk density of soil, C Specific heat of soil. temperature increases. As radiation falls in the
iii. Thermal conductivity/Heat flux (K) soil surface, heat is transfer to the soil profile by
It is the quantity of heat transfer across a unit cross sectional area in a unit time under a unit the process of conduction. The incoming energy
temperature gradient. It is the rate at which soil can conduct heat. In other word, it is the ability available at the soil surface varies with position of
of the soil to transfer heat from molecule to molecule (inolcular conductivity). It shows the the sun, so there appears diurnal variation of
easiness of heat transfer in the soil. It varies with porosity, moisture content, texture and soil temperature on soil profile.
organic matter of soil. It is expressed in Jm-1 s-1 K-1 or W m-1 K-1(watt=1J/s). Thermal As sun shine, the solar radiation falls on the
conductivity of the water is 0.0014 cal/cm-sec-0C. High thermal conductivity means low heat surface of the earth. During a clear day, the
capacity. A sandy soil has higher thermal capacity (0.0046 cal/cm-sec-0C; low specific heat) solar radiation (intensity) increases gradually till
than loam and clay soil. A soil with high organic matter has the least thermal capacity noon. So, the soil temperature tends to increase
(0.00027 cal/cm-sec-0C). Thermal conductivity is greatly influenced by moisture content. gradually and become maximum around noon-about 1.00 to 3.00 pm-according to soil profile.
Then the loss of heat occurs and gradually continues till morning. Surface temperature is

34 35
doubled in the afternoon compared to morning due to insolation. Like this soil profile
undergoes different temperature variation in a day. This phenomenon is called diurnal
variation of soil temperature.
Amplitude of the diurnal variation of the soil temperature decreases rapidly with depth and
become small at higher depth. It means, greatest diurnal variation occurs at the shallowest
depth. Also, maximum temperature at some depth below the surface occurs some time later
than the surface. This is because heat wave penetrate downwards more slowly and subsoil
begins to heat up after some lapse of time. Greater diurnal variation occurs in the sandy soil
than in clay soils because sandy soils heats up fast and also cools up faster than clay.
Moisture content also affects the rate of the heating and cooling. In a cloudy day, the
temperature fluctuations are not rapid as compared to those in a clear day.
Variation due to morning and afternoon temperature beyond 30cm depth is negligible. A
variation beyond 30 cm is only seasonal changes.
When the graph between time period and soil temperature is plotted, maximum temperature is
observed at around 1 PM at the depth around 5 cm. however, maximum temperature at some
depth below the surface occurs some time later than that of the surface i.e. maximum 5.3 Measurement of temperatures of soil profile
temperature of soil of 20 cm occurs at around 3 pm as shown in figure. Thermometric methods are either contact type or non contact type.
It a cloudy day, the temperature fluctuations are not rapid as compared to those on clear day. i. Contact type: It includes Contact type includes thermometers in which the thermal
Diurnal variation does not show more fluctuations as compared to the annual variation. expansion of solid, liquid or gas is measured
• Mercury or alcohol in thermometer
5.2 Anual variation in soil temperature
• Bimetallic strip thermometer
As compared to diurnal change, annual temperature fluctuations extends much deeper into • Constant pressure or constant volume thermometer
the soil profile. • Electric resistance thermometer
Considering the soil of ground surface in January, the soil profile is at its minimum • Thermocouple
temperature. The surface layer begins to warm up from February and attains maximum at the ii. Non-contact type: In non-contact type, the temperature measurement is based on the
time of May last or June first. And then it gradually decreases and is minimum at around measurement of radiation from an emitter. This includes;
January. • Optical pyrometer
However, during January the soil is progressively warmer at lower depths, so the net flow of • Total intensity radiometer
heat is therefore upwards. The surface layers begin to warm up from February but lower
layers are still being cool. In March, the warming is accelerated on the surface and the 1. Bimetallic thermometer
cooling of lower depths is arrested. Then the flow of the heat is downwards. After attaining These are made by welding together two bars of the different metals like invar-bronze and
maximum temperature around first of June, the soil temperature decreases due to the rolling the resulting compound bar into a strip. Because of difference in linear expansion of
commencement of monsoon from 3rd week of June but the flow of heat still remains two metals, strips bends in response to temperature changes. A pointer to indicate the
downwards. Due to heavy rainfall, high water table condition and seasonal change, amount of angular deformation is attached to strip. The angular deflection is calibrated in
upper surface of soil profile start cooling. In month of November, the cooling is terms of temperature.
accelerated and continued to January when profile as a whole suffer the most rapid cooling
and cycle once again commences. 2. Mercury or alcohol in glass thermometer
In these thermometers, expansion of liquid (mercury or alcohol) due to change in temperature
is measured on a temperature calibrated scale. These have been modified by meteorologists
for measuring soil temperature at different depths under field conditions. These are generally
36 37
of two types: those with straight stem having a bend of about 1200 just above the bulb and Minimum temperature
those in which stem is bent above the soil surface and capillary tube lies parallel to the It is the min. temperature range below which no crop growth occurs. For typical cool season
ground. crop, it ranges between 0 to 6oC where as for hot season crop it range between 15 to 18oC.
3. Expansion thermometers (Bourdon Gauge) using liquid and gases
Thermometers that use a liquid are of dial type in which the change in volume of liquid in a Maximum temperature
metallic bulb due to changes in temperature is indicated by a gauge to which the bulb is It is the max. temperature range above which plants stop growth. For cool season crops, it
connected. ranges between 31 to 37oC & for that of the hot season crops it ranges between 44 to 50oc.
In a constant volume gas thermometer, the change in pressure of a constant volume of an Optimum temperature
inert gas is measured by Bourdon type pressure gauge on temperature scale. In vapour It is the temperature at which the most favorable condition (temperature) occurs for plant
pressure thermometers, a volatile liquid partially fills a metal bulb, which is connected by a growth. For cool season crops it ranges between 15 to 31oC and for hot season crop it ranges
Bourdon type pressure gauge by means of capillary tubing. Variation in saturation vapor from 31 to 37oc.
pressure of liquid due to changes in temperature is measured by Bourdon pressure gauge on
temperature scale.
Plant physiology and metabolic activities of the plant is greatly affected by soil temperature.
4. Electrical resistance thermometer
Germination of seed, functional activities of the root system, incidence of plant diseases and
There are two types of resistance thermometers in a general use. One type depends upon the
rate of plant growth is greatly influenced by soil temperature. Extreme high and extreme low
increase in resistance with an increase in temperature of a wire such as nichrome, coppor,
temperature is harmful for crops, though effect of temperature varies from crop to crop and
silver or platinum. Resistance changes are measured with bridge or in some cases a
species to species. Below minimum temperature range of crop, the germination ceases and
potentiometer and are related to temperature changes. Second type of the resistance
above maximum temperature range plant can’t perform normal physiological activities.
thermometer is semiconductor called thermistor. The thermistors have a high negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. In other word, the resistance of a thermistor decreases 1. Effect on microbial activity
with increasing temperature Thermisters are available in various sizes and shapes eg. Soil temperature influences the microbial growth and activity as well as decomposition of soil
sphere, rods, disc thus permitting great flexibility in operation. They give continuous record of organic matter which is restricted below 100C. So, Composting is faster during summer than
temperature. in winter season. The rate of microbial activity such as respiration becomes double for every
100C rise in soil temperature but at low temperature it drops (due to this reason farmers stores
5. Thermocouples potato and ginger in the soil). The activity of ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria, celluytic
The thermoelectric junctions called thermocouples are made by joining two dissimilar metals bacteria, Actinomycetes etc decreases as the soil temperature decreases below 150C. Better
at two different places to form two junctions. If the entire circuit is composed of only two microbial activity is obtained at constant temperature than fluctuating temperature. Nitrogen
metals, the total electromotive force in the circuit is proportional to the difference in the fixation is favorable in temperature range of 5 to 27oC. However, higher temperature leads
temperature of two junctions. One junction is called measuring (hot) junction and another denitrification process and volatilization. Soil bacterial become inactive below 50C and
junction is called reference (cold) junction. For measurement of temperature, reference death of bacteria occurs above 300C.
junction is kept at constant temperature. The electric potential produced is usually measured
with a potentiometer 2. Effect on seed germination
Thermistors and thermocouples give a continuous record of temperature and are smaller in The minimum temperature for the germination of the winter crops such as rye, mustard, pea
size and almost instantaneous in response to temperature changes. etc is 1 to 30C and other winter crops like sugar beet is 5-80C. Most of the winter crop will not
germinate if the soil temperature is more than 350C. Soil temperature must be in the range of
5.4 Significance of soil temperature in crop production
14 to 200C for wheat and Pea. Potato and sunflower require more than 5oC for germination
Before entering into this topic, we need to have knowledge of cardinal temperature. and bean, corn etc require above 10oC for germination.
In relation to the plant growth, three temperature i.e. minimum temperature, maximum
temperature and optimum temperature need to be recognized as they play a vital role in the Seed may not germinate due to higher or lower temperature even if they are physiologically
physiological activities of the plants. mature (Quiescence). Seedling emergence is optimum at 26 to 340C.

38 39
3. Effect on root growth Chapter VI
Minimum and maximum soil temperature for the root growth is specific to the crop species.
Atmospheric Pressure
The development of the root above maximum and below minimum temperature is restricted.
The initiation of adventitious roots of cereal crops is also influenced by soil temperature whose
6.1 Concept of atmospheric pressure
range is in between 10-300C.
Air is an admixture of several gases. Gas molecules are in constant state of collision and
4. Effect on crop growth move about freely. If a gas is kept in a close vessel, the gas molecules exert an outward push
on its wall. Similarly, our atmosphere is just like that container bounded by the earth’s land-
Each crop requires certain temperature to attain full maturity. The minimum temperature sea surface from below and by the force of gravity of earth from above which does not allow
required for growth and full maturity of crop is 12-170C for cotton, 5 to 60C for oat and potato the air mass to escape to the outer space. Air pressure therefore is defined as the force
etc. Similarly, rice, maize etc can tolerate up to 35oC for good production; Sugarcane can exerted against a surface by the continuous collision of gas molecules.
tolerate up to 38oC. For potato, above 24oC, there will be excessive branching of young
sprouts and plant may seem in better appearance but there will be drastically decrease in The atmospheric pressure of any given place is defined as the
tuber yield above 290C. force exerted upon a given surface by the air column
above it. Thus, mass of the column of air above the given
5. Effect on nutrient availability point determine the atmospheric pressure at that point.
The rate of absorption of water and nutrient uptake is low in cool soil and it increases with The atmospheric pressure at the sea level is 1034 gm/cm2 or
increase in soil temperature. 14.7µ/inch2. In matric units the average /standard sea level
pressure is given as 1013.25 millibar at temperature of 15oC
6. Removal on soil contaminants and latitude of 45o. The average weight of air at sea level, as
The removal of certain organic pollutants from contaminated soils an be accomplished by measured by a mercury barometer is capable of balancing a
raising the soil temperature. column of 760 mm Hg or 29.92 inch tall.
Air pressure unit
7. Effect of freezing and thawing
1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)= 760 mmHg= 760 torr = 1013.25
When soil temperature fluctuates above and below 00C, water in soil undergoes cycles of
mbar =1034 gm/cm2
freezing and thawing. Alternate freezing and thawing leads to the formation of ice crystals in
the soil and causes structural deterioration of the soil. A torr (torr) is named after Torricelli and is the pressure produced by a column of mercury 1
mm high - equals to 1 / 760th of an atmosphere.
In sum up, temperature has following effects on plants. •1 atm = 760 torr = 14.696 psi (Pounds per square inch)
i. Direct effect: Seed germination ad root system, microbial activity 1 Bar = 0.9869 atm, There are 1,000 millibar (mbar) in one bar, a unit common in
ii. Indirect effect: respiration and crop yield meteorology.
The amount of the pressure exerted by air at a particular point is determined by two factors
namely: temperature and density. Air pressure is proportional to density as well as
temperature (Pressure α density; Pressure α Temperature). So the equation showing the
relationship between pressure, volume, temperature and density of the gases is called
gas laws. Some of the relevant gas laws are;
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature the volume of gas is inversely proportional
to the pressure on it. P1V1 = P2V2; V1 = the initial volumeV2= the final volume
P1= the initial pressureP2= the final pressure

40 41
 Charles’s Law states that the volume of a gas will vary directly with the absolute
temperature, given that the mass and pressure remain constant. V1/T1 = V2/ T2
Gay Lussac’s Law states that if the volume and the mass remain constant, the
pressure exerted by a gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of that
gas.
Ideal Gas Law: Air can approximately be regarded as an "ideal gas" ideal gases
obey the "ideal gas law": P = C.r.T, Where P = pressure exerted by the gas; C =
constant, r = density of the gas = mass/volume; T = Temperature of the gas
6.2 Variation in air pressure
Atmospheric pressure is not uniform all over the earth surface. Not only does it decrease
rapidly with increasing elevation; but even at a fixed elevation, it varies from place to place
and from time to time. 80% of the total mass of the air is found below 5 km and the average density decrease from
Vertical variation of air pressure 1.2 kg/m3 at that surface to 0.76 kg/m3 at 5 km.
Air is highly compressible. Atmosphere is held to the earth by the force of gravity and air The rate at which pressure varies with altitude is not constant. The atmospheric pressure
pressure is the weight of all air above the level of which it is measured. So obviously as the decreases at much greater rate near the ground surface compared to higher elevation.
elevation increases, air molecules are more dispersed or their intermolecular spaces becomes Generally, pressure is reduced by approximately ½ for each 5 km increase in altitude. At the
greater, the weight of the air above the point of measurement decreases, and finally the height of Mount Everest, the air pressure is about 2/3 less than what is at sea level.
atmospheric pressure also decreases. In other word, air near the ground is naturally denser Vertical variation of pressure is actually much larger that the horizontal variation.
than that found at a certain elevation
6.3 Horizontal variation of the air pressure
It is the horizontal variation of pressure that generates our winds. The horizontal variations of
pressure are much less than the vertical variations; nevertheless these relatively small
variations are of fundamental significance for determining wind direction and speed. Factors
which control the distribution of temperature on the earth surface equally govern the
distribution of pressure as well. This is mainly due to the fact that there is a close
relationship between pressure and temperature. Horizontal distribution of air pressure on
the earth surface is shown by mean of isobars. Isobars are the lines drawn through points
of equal pressure. They are drawn at equal pressure interval of either 3,4 or 5 millibar.
A cyclone is a low pressure system in which the wind overall travels inwards and upwards.
. In other word, If there is fairly recognize centre of low pressure at the centre surrounded by
high pressure, cyclonic wind movement is observed. These systems rotate counterclockwise
in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. They typically bring
Figures: Relationship between elevation and the atmospheric pressure. stormy weather.
An anticyclone is a high pressure system. So, anticyclone is formed if there is a high
pressure zone surrounded by low pressure zone in which the wind generally travels
downwards and outwards. These systems rotate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. They typically bring clear weather.

42 43
If there is no identifiable centre of low pressure but the elongated region of lower pressure, the This is called the Buys-Ballot law. If you stand, in the northern hemisphere, on the ground and
feature is referred as a trough of low pressure. If there is only an elongated region of higher with the wind from behind and see the clouds above you coming from your left side, then a
pressure, the term ridge of high pressure is used. low pressure is moving toward you.
6.5 Measurement of atmospheric pressure
Instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure is the barometer. Basically there are two
types of barometers i.e. Mercury barometer and Aneroid barometer.
Mercury barometer/ Torricellian barometer
In 1943, Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Galilee had developed
mercury barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure. This
mercury barometer is most accurate apparatus and still used for
checking the accuracy of other types of barometer.
It is operated with the principle of balancing the column of air
Figure Cyclonic and anticyclonic circuliations Figure: Trough of low pressure against the column of mercury in a sealed glass tube. A vertical
& ridge of high pressure column of mercury 760 mm long exerts approximately the same
pressure (force) per unit area as the atmosphere at sea level. The
height of the mercury column is proportional to the pressure;
6.4 Pressure gradient
P=ϱ gh
The decrease of pressure between two points along a line perpendicular to the isobars
divided by the distance between the points is called pressure gradient. In other worlds, Where, P= Pressure; ϱ=density of mercury (constant); g= acceleration due to gravity
pressure gradient is the rate of the change of pressure per unit horizontal distance. (constant); h= height of the mercury column.
So P α h
Fluctuation in air pressure produces a corresponding difference in the height of the mercury
Pressure gradient = and graduated vernier is mounted to facilitate the accurate reading.
The rate and direction of the change in air pressure is also known as barometric slope. It is A thermometer is mounted on a mercury barometer with the bulb exposed so as to indicate
expressed in millibar per hundred kilometers or per degree of latitude. the temperature as representative as possible to that of the entire barometer. Barometer
Isobars drawn closely on a weather map represent a steep (strong) pressure gradient should be mounted on a solid support and should not be exposed to direct sunlight. It must
and high wind velocity; while isobar drawn further apart indicates a weak pressure hang vertically and be kept at a height convenient to read.
gradient and light wind.
Aneroid Barometer

A major disadvantage of the mercury barometer is its bulkiness and

fragility. The long glass tube can break easily, and mercury levels
may be difficult to read under unsteady conditions, as on board a
ship at sea. To resolve these difficulties, the French physicist
Lucien Vidie invented the aneroid ("without liquid") barometer in
1843.

An aneroid barometer is a container that holds a sealed chamber

from which some air has been removed, creating a partial vacuum.
Figure: Pressure gradient An elastic disk covering the chamber is connected to a needle or pointer on the surface of the
44 45
container by a chain, lever, and springs. As atmospheric pressure increases or decreases, the Chapter VII
elastic disk contracts or expands, causing the pointer to move accordingly on a calibrated dial
Wind
And aneroid must be compared with a standard mercury barometer to establish calibration. It
is a direct reading barometer which can use as altimeter also. 7.1 Causes of wind
There are two different types of the air movement in the atmosphere: horizontal movement
Similarly, other pressure recording instruments are and vertical movement. The horizontal movement of the air relative to the earth surface
i. Altimeter (Altimeter barometer) due to difference in pressure is called wind; whereas vertical movement of the air column
ii. Barograph (An automatic recording aneroid barometer) is called current.
iii. Microbarograph The air will move vertically if it is warmer and consequently more buoyant than the
iv. Microbarovarigraph (very sensitive and can change very minute fluctuation also.) surrounding air. Upward and downward air currents are referred as updrafts and downdrafts
particularly, when considering condition in clouds having strong vertical velocities. Vertical
Read more: http://www.scienceclarified.com/As-Bi/Barometer.html#ixzz2SKIAabhr motion occurring in the atmosphere is of great significance for the formation of clouds,
precipitation and various types of storms.
Even though horizontal as well as vertical movements of air are equally important, more air is
involved in the horizontal movement. Winds are the means by which uneven distribution of the
pressure over the globe is balanced out. Winds have been considered by meteorologists as
an essential part of the thermodynamic mechanisms of atmosphere which seems as means of
transporting heat, moisture, and other properties from one part of the earth to the other.
7.2 Factors affecting the wind motion
Out of the numerous factors affecting the wind motions, following are considered to be most
important.
i. Horizontal air pressure gradient
Although, atmospheric pressure itself is not a force, however, difference in atmospheric
pressure produces a force. The direction of wind and its magnitude or velocity is greatly
affected by the horizontal pressure difference (pressure gradient). The greater these
difference, the greater the wind velocity; and direction is always from higher pressure
towards lower pressure. The line showing the directions of the wind is always perpendicular
to the isobars. In steep gradient, velocity would be greater whereas in weak gradient velocity
seems to be lower. The principle cause of pressure gradient is unequal heating of the earth
land & sea surface, which generates temperature differences in the atmosphere. Thus, the
greater the difference, the steeper will be the pressure gradient and higher the wind velocity.
Diurnal variations of the temperature and resultant pressure gradient are confined to a very
shallow layer of the atmosphere. But latitudinal variation results in variation in the amount of
insolation received generate the atmospheric circulation on a much larger scale.
ii. Rotation of the earth (Coriolis force)
Coriolis force is an apparent and additional force caused by the earth's rotation about its axis
on a parcel of moving air. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflection of winds towards the
right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere.
46 47
 Coriolis force is directly proportional to the Geostrophic wind
a. Angular velocity of the moving object It is the theoretical (horizontal) wind that would result from an exact balance between
b. The mass of the moving body the Coriolis effect and the pressure gradient force. The geostrophic wind is
c. Sine of the latitude (sinϕ) directed parallel to isobars. This balance seldom holds exactly in nature. The true wind almost
C=2 Ω V sinϕ always differs from the geostrophic wind due to other forces such as friction from the ground.
Where, C=Coriolis force; Thus, the actual wind would equal the geostrophic wind only if there were no friction and the
isobars were perfectly straight. Despite this, much of the atmosphere outside the tropics is
Ω=Angular velocity of earth spin=15o/hr=2π/24 rad/hr close to geostrophic flow much of the time and is above a height of 600 m.
V=Velocity of moving mass
Wind system with reference to the pressure system
Φ=Latitude
Winds are named by the direction from which they blow. Wind blowing from the major high
And its characteristics is as below pressure belt to adjoining low pressure belt is called planetary winds or prevailing winds.
• It acts only right angle to the direction of wind in northern hemisphere and to the left on The following wind belts are found on the earth’s surface in each hemisphere.
southern hemisphere.
i. Doldrum
• It only affects the direction of motion i.e. it tends to deflect or turn the air. The Coriolis force
At the equator, warm air rises. Since much of the air movement is vertical, winds are light.
alone cannot change the speed.
This band is the Equatorial Doldrums. It is a calm and variable wind belt lying over equatorial
• At given latitude, the magnitude of the Coriolis force is directly proportional to the low pressure belt trough (5oN-5oS). The low pressure is caused due to heating of atmosphere
horizontal velocity. The Coriolis force is maximum at the pole and zero at the equator. and ascent of air. Due to absence of
strong pressure gradient, the wind is
iii. Frictional force light and variable. The movement of
Whenever air moves relative to earth’s land water surface, the frictional force tries to slow the wind is mostly upward and strong
air and also change its direction. Therefore, there seems the deflection in direction of wind convective thunder showers occur
and change in speed due to the frictional force offered by the materials on its direction. The mostly in the afternoons. Atmosphere in
force of friction is greater over rough surface such as forest or city. Since the Coriolis force is this belt remains hot and unbearably
proportional to the wind speed, friction consequently reduces it. On contrary, the pressure sticky. As trade winds from both
gradient force remains unaffected by wind speed; hence it exceeds the Coriolis force along it hemisphere meet here, the belt is also
near the earth surface. This results in the movement of the air at an angle across the isobars called intertropical convergence zone
towards the low pressure area. The effect of friction is most pronounced near the surface (ITCZ). Heavy precipitation from
within about 1 km. cumulonimbus clouds is the
characteristic feature of this zone.
iv. Centrifugal action of wind
Pressure gradient force tends to move in a straight line but as soon as motion begins; the
Coriolis force causes it to move in a curved path. If the motion of the air is along the curved or ii. Trade wind belt
circular isobars, centrifugal force is developed which tends to pull the air outwards from the This high pressure zone lies from 5o to 30o of latitude on both sides of equator and wind
centre of curvature. But the curved path is maintained by inward acting force i.e. centripetal blows towards the equator. Coriolis Effect causes this air flow to be deflected to the west. Thus
force. there is a belt of easterly winds on either side of the equator. In the northern hemisphere, the trade
Gradient wind: A wind moving along the isobars at such a velocity that the force due to wind blows from Northeast (NE) and in the southern hemisphere from Southeast (SE) and
pressure gradient is balanced by the deflective and centrifugal effect is called the gradient they are called northeast trade and southeast trade respectively. These winds are
wind. In other words, it refers to the horizontal wind velocity in which balance is achieved characterized by covering extensive area with steady velocity and direction.
between Coriolis force, pressure force and centrifugal force. iii. Prevailing westerlies belt
48 49
Around 30 degrees from the equator, cool air sink. Again, since much of the air movement is 75-87 Strong gale Minor structural damage may occur (shingles blown off
vertical, winds are light. This band is the Horse Latitudes, supposedly because sailing ships roofs)
becalmed here often had to throw overboard the bodies of horses that died of starvation or 88-102 Storm Trees uprooted, structural damage likely
thirst. 103-118 Violent storm Widespread damage to structures
Air sinking in the horse latitudes flows equatorward in the Trade Winds and also polewards. 119+ Hurricane Severe structural damage to buildings, wide spread
The poleward flow is deflected east by the Coriolis Effect. So, in mid-latitudes there is a belt of devastation
westerly winds, the Westerlies. The belt of prevailing westerlies lies between 30o to 60o
latitude in each hemisphere. From the subtropical high pressure belt in each hemisphere 7.3 Measurement of wind speed and direction
winds blow towards the sub-polar low pressure region (sub polar troughs). Due to Coriolis Wind direction and velocity can be measured by using the following instruments.
force, the direction becomes from west to east. These winds are called middle latitude a. Anemometer
westerlies. In the northern hemisphere, this wind blows from southwest (SW) and in southern
hemisphere from north-west (NW) direction. The most common wind run meter or anemometer consists of three or four conical cups
mounted at the end of short arm which fits into a vertical spindle. The cup anemometer is
iv. Polar easterlies belt
firmly embedded in concrete base in the ground. The number of rotation per unit of time
Cold air flowing outward from the poles, on both side of the equator is (like the Trade Winds) around this spindle is measure of wind speed.
deflected westward. This zone is called the Polar Easterlies. Hence 1 rotation=2πr= x distance
The boundaries between wind belts are not fixed but fluctuate and have wave-like geometries. n rotation=nx distance
A loop like the one from the doldrums to the horse latitudes is called a Hadley Cell. If t is time taken in second for the n rotation so cover distance is nx meter
Wind observations Then speed is nx/t in m/sec
In weather analysis, knowledge of wind direction and velocity is of great importance. Direction The anemometer does not respond to very light wind of less than 0.5 m/sec. Accurate
and velocity of wind can be measured accurately by means of instruments or they may be records of wind are obtained at velocities higher than 2m/sec. The site of installation should
estimated by direct observations. Winds are always named by the direction from which they be free from obstacles but should still be representative of the environmental conditions for
blow. For example, a west wind blows from west towards the east; a south wind blows from which the data are to be used. Though the installation of anemometer is done at 10 m height,
south towards north. The direction from which a wind blows is called windward and the but for agricultural purpose the height of the cup is maintained at 2 m above ground.
direction towards which it blows is called leeward.
Spot wind speed measurement can be taken with cup counter anemometer itself. So
Rough indications of wind velocity at 2 m height when the surrounding is flat, open terrain are anemometer itself adjusts the wind direction and gives wind speed and the reading at different
given by the Beaufort scale. This can also be used if instruments are not available. periods of day is important.
Wind speed Name Indicator conditions Anemograph
(km/hr)
<1 Calm Smokes rise vertically Recording anemometer or anemograph is used to record instantaneous wind speed and
1 to 5 Light air Smoke drifts and leaves rustle direction. Usually the anemograph record the wind speed and direction on daily or monthly
6-11 Light breeze Wind felt on face chart allowing calculation of wind velocity at any given period of time. These are expensive
12-19 Gentle breeze Flags extended, leaves move. instrument and are not usually used in agrometeorological station for general measurement.
20-29 Moderate breeze Dust and small branches move Wind vane
30-39 Fresh breeze small trees begin to sway.
Wind direction can be obtained by observing the wind vanes placed at sufficient height above
40-50 Strong breeze Large branches move, wires whistle, umbrellas are
the ground. To assist reading the four main directions- north, south, east and west- are
difficult to control
permanently indicated. When installing a wind vane, the axis should be placed vertically and
51-61 Near gale Whole trees in motion, inconvenience in walking.
the wind vane should be oriented correctly with respect to north. Proper balancing about the
62-74 Gale Difficult to walk against wind. Twigs and small branches
axis of the wind vane is important. Preferably a ball bearing should be used. And wind
blown off trees.
50 51
direction can be expressed in degree measured clockwise from the geographical north or in Ocean. The summer monsoon and the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of the
terms of the points on a 16 or 32 point compass as show in the figure. Southeast Asia.

During summer months (summer monsoon), water bodies of Indian Ocean remain relatively
cooler as compared to the land mass of Asiatic main land. This leads to the formation of low
pressure zone over central Asia and high pressure zone over Indian Ocean which results the
wind movement from Indian Ocean towards Asiatic main land and cause precipitation over
this land generally from (April)June to September.

However during winter months, water bodies cooled slowly as compared to land mass which
results the dry air mass movement from north to eastward direction causing higher amount of
rainfall on western part of the country. This air mass movement prevails from October to
January and called northeast monsoon Where as previous one is called southwest
monsoon.

7.4 Significance of wind in crop production

Figure: Cup Figure: Wind vane Figure: 16 point Wind • Wind effect on crop is pronounced in combination with temperature and humidity
Anemometer direction conditions.
Positive effects
Some of the famous winds are; • Rate of photosynthesis increases with wind speed up to up to certain limit then it
a. Local winds (Land breeze and sea breeze) remains at peak to certain velocity. As wind help to increase the supply of CO2 to plants
which increase the rate of photosynthesis.
During the day time, land gets heated more as compared to the sea. So, the low pressure is
formed over the land surface and wind flows from sea towards the land surface which is • Wind helps in pollination (anemophily)
called sea breeze. Whereas, during the night, land gets cool faster than sea surface. So, low • It causes the seed dispersal
pressure is formed over sea surface and wind blows from land towards the sea called land
• Fluctuation of wind helps to maintain hormonal balance in plants
breeze.
b. Cyclone and anticyclone • Mild air or wind is also helpful for agricultural unit operation of cleaning.
Negative effects
If there is fairly recognize centre of low pressure surrounded by high pressure then it si
designated as cyclone and if there is centre of high pressure, it is designated as anticyclone. Too low or too high wind velocity is harmful for crop production. Some of them are as follows;
As winds converge towards the low pressure centre, passage of cyclone produces strong • Higher wind speed coupled with high temperature and low humidity of the surround
winds and heavy rainfall in case of precipitation occurrence). Anticyclones have descending air has desiccating effect on the plants by replacing humid air by dry air in the
current of air and are associated with fair weather and clear skies. Cyclones and anticyclones intercellular spaces thereby increase water demand of the crop plant. At the time of cell
may be stationery, semipermanent or they may be rapidly moving pressure centre creating expansion, the hot dry wind affects the cell maturity and results in dwarfing of plants.
weather disturbances.
• High wind velocity increases the transpiration rate under normal condition as layers of
c. Monsoon winds
the humid air adjacent to the plant leaf surfaces are removed by wind. This keeps RH
Derived from the Arabic word mausim means season. A monsoon is a seasonal change in the low and increases the transpiration rate. There is a greater increase in cuticular
direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry transpiration than stomatal transpiration.
seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian

52 53
 Chapter VIII
• Severe winds are harmful especially at the time of flowering and fruit set. The internal
Humidity
water balance is upset, resulting the poor seed setting. Another form of the injury is the
blossom injury caused by evaporation of secretions in the stigma. 8.1 Humidity
• Occurrence of the heavy winds at the time of crop maturity causes the crop damage by The water evaporated from the ground surface gets
lodging, shattering etc. Such type of damage is common in such crops as corn, wheat mixed with air. It is the water vapor content of air at
and sugarcane. any time and place. However, this term is not used to
describe droplets of fog, cloud or rain since water vapor
• Wind from sea carries salt as spray on coastal areas and makes it impossible to grow
is dry like any other gases.
salt sensitive crops.
The percentage of water vapor may changes; however,
• High wind accelerate the moisture loss from soil, thereby increases the irrigation
there is an upper limit which the moisture content of air
demand
does not exceed. The maximum amount of water vapor
• Strong wind also cause soil erosion and exposure of roots of shallow plants. that a given amount of air can hold at a given time is
referred to as its water vapor capacity. Water vapor
capacity is directly proportional to the rise in
References temperature. However, changing pattern shows slower
Shrestha, G.K., D.R.Baral, S.M. Shakya and D.M. Gautam.2001.Fundamental of Horticulture. Delta Offset press, Thapathali, at lower temperature and higher or rapid at higher
Kathmandu Nepal temperature. And when the air at a particular
temperature has water vapor to its capacity, it is said to
be saturation.

Absolute humidity
It is the weight of water vapor in a given volume of the air. It changes with change in
temperature. It is hardly used by meteorologists because absolute humidity varies with the
expansion or contraction of air even though the amount of water vapor is constant.
Specific Humidity
It is the weight of the water vapor per wt. of a given mass of air including the water
vapor i.e. dry air+water vapor. Specific humidity of air changes only as the quantity of
water vapor change and is not affected by change in pressure or temperature also.
Maximum amount of specific humidity is found in equator and minimum at poles i.e. it
decrease with increase in latitude. Since capacity of air to hold the water vapor depends on
its temperature, the amount of water vapor present in the air near the equator is much more
than at poles. Similarly, because of control of temperature, specific humidity in a particular
region is much higher in summer than in winter.

Relative humidity
It is defined as the ratio of the actual amount of the water vapor present in the air to the
maximum amount required to saturate at that temperature. Thus, it is the ratio of the water
vapor content of air to its water vapor capacity. It can also be defined as ration of
observed vapor pressure to that required for saturation at the same temperature.
54 RH=Ea/Es
Where, RH=Relative humidity; es= saturated vapor pressure, ea= actual vapor pressure.

55
 RH α 1/T saturated, and the pressure of that vapor (usually expressed in mmHg) is called the
Relative humidity has inverse relation with the temperature i.e. it decreases with increase in saturated vapor pressure.
temperature (as temperature increases the water vapor holding capacity of air.) and vice Since the molecular kinetic energy is greater at higher temperature, more molecules can
versa. So in the morning RH is high because of the low temperature and the same is low in escape the surface and the saturated vapor pressure is correspondingly higher. If the liquid
mid afternoon because of high temperature. is open to the air, then the vapor pressure is seen as a partial pressure along with the other
It varies from 0 to 100% i.e. if RH is zero, atmosphere is absolutely dry, if 100 it is constituents of the air. The temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the
completely saturated. atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point.
Mixing ratio At any time, the difference the moisture holding capacity of air and its actual humidity is
called saturation deficit.
It is the weight of the water vapor per unit weight of the dry air or it is the ratio of density of
the water vapor to density of dry air. It is expressed in grams of water vapor per kilogram 8.3 Measurement of humidity
of dry air.
It is difficult to measure the humidity in easy manner and the most common humidity
Numerically it is calculated as; measure device is psychrometer using dry and wet bulb
thermometer. And further the psychrometer is of various types as
Assman, Whirling or sling psychrometer.
Where, X= Mixing ratio; e= vapor pressure; es= saturation vapor pressure; P=total air
In dry and wet bulb thermometer, two thermometers are kept side
pressure
by side on a single frame. Two thermometers are alike except that
Dew point in wet bulb thermometer; the bulb is kept moist by means of muslin
cloth or wick constantly moistened from a reservoir. Dry bulb
Due to lowering of temperature, the moisture holding capacity of the system is reduced.
thermometer is like ordinary air thermometer. Due to evaporation
Dew point is the temperature of the given volume of air that should be lowered so that
from wick, the temperature of wet bulb drops and reads lower
it becomes saturated with the water vapor and air attains 100% humidity.. Further
temperature than dry bulb. This difference in reading of these two
cooling below dew point in general results in condensation to clouds, fog, dew or frost. If
thermometers is called wet bulb depression. This difference in
the dew point temperature is below freezing point, sublimation results and crystals of ice or
temperature is directly proportional to the dryness of air. Wet
snow flakes are formed.
bulb depression can be converted into relative humidity with the
8.2 Vapor pressure and Saturation Vapor pressure help of hygrometric table. Measurements are taken at a fixed
Like other gases, water vapor attributes a small increase in pressure in the atmosphere. time for the locality in the morning and afternoon. The wet bulb
Part of the total atmospheric pressure attributed by the water vapor is called vapor should be kept moist. If there is no depression of the bulb the air is saturated & RH is
pressure or partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere is called vapor pressure. 100%.
To illustrate the contribution of water vapor on atmospheric phenomenon; let’s take a Assman’s psychrometer
sealed container with water covering the bottle. Due to the presence of heat, water The arrangement is as mentioned above. But one bulb is mounted little lower than the other
molecules vaporize and escape from the surface. At the same time, because of increasing and that one is converted to wet bulb thermometer by covering with muslin cloth. And here,
vapor pressure in the air column above surface, more and more of the psychrometer is swing freely on the air or aerated with fan.
these escaping molecules are forced to return to the evaporating
Whirling or sling psychrometer
body. At last, equilibrium is reached between vaporization and
condensation. And, number of water molecules leaving the surface This is portable instrument consisting of dry and wet thermometers fixed on a wooden
(through vaporization) equals number of molecules returning (by frame. The instrument is rotated 20-30 times in the air and the temperature is recorded in
condensation) to the evaporating surface. Under such condition, air both thermometers.
is said to be saturated and partial pressure of water vapor is referred Hair hygrometer
as saturation vapor pressure. However, any increase in temperature
of air, would require more moisture for saturation because capacity Hair hygrographs/hygrometers are based on the
increases with increase in temperature. hygroscopic nature of human hair. The principle of
operation is based on the assumption that the hair
The process of evaporation in a closed container will proceed until there are as many changes its dimension (length) in response to the
molecules returning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point the vapor is said to be
56 57
changes in humidity of the surrounding air i. e. human hair lengthens as relative humidity References
increases and contracts as relative humidity decreases. The hydrograph is designed such Brady, N.C., R.C. Weil. Nature and properties of soil. 14th Edition revised
that changes in the length of hair are monitored and calibrated as change in air humidity. It
gives satisfactory results in case of extreme temperature and normal humidity. Wekipedia
8.4 Significance of atmospheric humidity in crop production www.uwgb.edus/dutchs/EarthSC102Notes/102HowEarthWorks.HTM)
Relative humidity directly and indirectly affects the crop production. It directly influence the
water relation of plant and indirectly affects leaf growth, photosynthesis, pollination, disease
and pest occurrence and crop yield.

A. Direct effects
I. Plant water balance and irrigation need: Low humidity coupled with high
temperature and high wind movement causes higher transpiration and desiccating effects.
If soil moisture couple with low soil moisture, it induces water stress in plants unless extra
water is supplied. In other word, irrigation is needed under low relative humidity condition.

B. Indirect effects
i. Photosynthesis: High humidity interfere the incoming solar radiation resulting into
reduced photosynthesis.
ii. Leaf growth: Leaf growth not only depends on synthetic activities resulting from
biochemical process but also depends upon the physical process of cell enlargement. Cell
enlargement occurs as a result of turgor pressure developed within the cells. Turgor
pressure is high under high RH due to less transpiration. This is why leaf enlargement is
high in the humid region.
iii. Pollination, fruit set and fruit color development: At high RH, pollen may no be
dispersed from the anther. Relative humidity also affects fruit set. For e.g., bean
(Phaseolus spp.) responded negatively to low humidity for fruit setting. Excessive humidity
creates negative effect on fruit color development.
iv. Pest and disease occurrences: Incidence of the insectpests and diseases is high
under high humidity condition. High humidity favor easy germination of fungal spores on
plant leaves. Usually three conditions are favorable for the attack of diseases and pests.
• High humidity with high temperature
• High humidity with very low temperatures
• Low humidity with low temperature.
For example, late blight of potato becomes severe under warm and humid days. Infestation
of the diseases and pests is high in rainy season vegetable production plots.
v. Crop yield: So, optimum atmospheric humidity is favorable for crop production but
their extremities are harmful. For example; in maize, high RH during maturity stage
increased incidence of pests and diseases and thus reduced crop yield. Normally 60-70%
RH is ideal for most of the crop. Very high RH also reduces evapotranspiration, leads to
stomatal closure and increases the heat load of the plants.
vi. Important consideration for post harvest storage of crops: Cold temperature and
low RH is important for long-term storage of the grains (wheat, rice etc.). Similarly, cold
temperature and high RH is important in order to prevent water loss from fresh fruits and
vegetables (leafy vegetables, cucumber, apple etc.)

58 59
 Chapter IX mixed with upward atmosphere and the vapor pressure deficit remains high, thereby
increasing the evaporation rate.
Evaporation
v. Humidity
9.1 Evaporation Vapor pressure deficit is reduced at higher level of atmospheric humidity and thus
Evaporation is the processes in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state at the free evaporation is lowered.
surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy. vi. Atmosphere pressure
During evaporation, water molecules absorb energy from the surrounding body, which gives If the atmospheric pressure is more, naturally will be lesser evaporation (Dallon’s law). At
them motion to escape from surface of the liquid or evaporating body. This change in state the higher altitude, the atmospheric pressure is less; hence the evaporation should be
requires an exchange of 585 Cal for each gram of water evaporated. Since energy is normally higher. This is not true exactly so, because of the decreased of temperature at
consumed in the process of evaporation, the remaining liquid is cooled by an equivalent higher altitude (means decreased atmospheric pressure) which reduce the
amount. So evaporation could be regarded as a cooling process and has an cooling effect evaporation.
on evaporating body. vii. Soil characteristics
Evaporation is expressed as an evaporation rate in mm/day, cm/day, in/day. When moisture content of the soil is at field capacity, soil characteristics does not affect
The process of evaporation is dependent on the driving force and resistance force. The the rate of evaporation critically. When the moisture content of the soil decreased and the
driving force is the difference in the vapor pressure (vapor pressure deficit) between the soil dried out, the rate of evaporation depends primarily on the soil texture, configuration
layer from which water is evaporated and that of the atmosphere. Higher deficit causes higher and soil profile, uniformity etc.
rate of evaporation. The resistance being offered by the evaporating body (soil) and wind viii. Quality of water
(cold). Evaporation will occur only if the actual vapor pressure of air above the evaporating
body is less than that of the evaporating surface. Presence of any dissolved salts in water reduces the saturated vapor pressure of the
water which consequently reduces the rate of evaporation. So, the evaporation from fresh
9.2 Factors influencing evaporation and transpiration rates water is greater than that from saline water.
i. Area of water available 9.3 Measurement of evaporation
The amount of evaporation is directly proportional to the area of evaporation. If the exposed i. Pan measurement method
area is large, the evaporation will be more and vice versa.
ii. Using empirical formula
ii. Amount of water available
iii. Storage equation method
Rate of the evaporation increases with increase in the amount of available water. Thus,
evaporation is greater over oceans than over continents. In soils, the rate of evaporation at iv. Energy budget method
field capacity is higher than that at the lower moisture level.
i. Pan measurement method
iii. Solar radiation and air temperature
In this method a pan of certain standard dimension is taken and the water is filled in this pan
High radiation or more temperature means more energy available to the water up to a certain range of level. The amount of water evaporated from this pan is measured,
molecules for escaping from liquid to gaseous stage. If temperature is more, water from which the rate of evaporation is calculated. The rate of evaporation is multiplied by a
vapor capacity of the air mass also increased leading more evaporation. Thus, suitable pan coefficient, so as to obtain the evaporation rate from the given water body. This
evaporation in summer season is higher than that of the winter season. is necessary because it is found that the evaporation from a large surface source is not the
iv. Wind velocity same as that from a small pan. Different shape of pan has been designed by different
If the winds are light, a thin layer of the air above the surface gets saturated and vapor designers and different values of pan coefficient have been given. The more important of
pressure deficit between the surface and the atmosphere becomes small, which reduces these pans are;
the rate of evaporation. When wind velocity is high, moisture evaporated from the ground is US Weather Bureau Class A pan evaporimeter:

60 61
This is perhaps the most commonly used evaporation pan. The pan consists of a shallow ii. Using empirical formula
vessel about 1.22m in diameter and 25.5cm deep. The pan in made of unpainted non- 1. Meyer’s formula
corrosive galvanized iron sheet. The pan is placed on a wooden platform such that its base is E=Km(es-ea)(1+v9/16)
15 cm above the ground surface to allow free circulation of air below the pan. The water in the Where; E=Evaporation from water body in mm/day
pan is filled to a depth of 20cm (reference point). Water surface level is measured daily with Km= a coefficient having value of 0.36 for large deep water, & 0.5 for small &
a hook gauge installed in the stilling well. Evaporation is computed as the difference between shallow water
observed water levels on two consecutive days. Alternatively, it is computed from the water es= Saturated vapor pressure at the water surface
added each day to bring the water level up to a fixed mark in the stilling well. Pan coefficient is ea = Actual vapor pressure
about 0.6 to 0.8 and generally taken as 0.7. Opening portion of the pan is covered by wire v9=monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at about 9 m above the ground
gauge to protect from birds
2. Rohwer’s formulaa
Colorado sunken pan E=0.771(1.465-0.000732 Pa)(0.44+0.0733 V0.6)(es-ea)
The pan is 90 cm square and 46 cm deep. The pan is buried into the ground that its top 10 Where E, es, ea have the same meaning as in above equation
cm is kept above the ground and water level in the pan is kept at the ground level. Pan
coefficient is 0.75 to 0.86, generally 0.78. These pans suffer from operational difficulties as Pa= Mean atmospheric pressure
cleaning and heat leakage from soil sides. The main advantage of the sunken pan over the V0.6=Mean wind velocity (km/hr) at ground level, which can be considered at 0.6m above
Class A Evaporation pan is that its radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are closer the ground.
to those of a reservoir. However, it is more expensive, more difficult to detect leaks, needs
more care to keep the surrounding area free from grass, dust, etc. iii. Storage equation method or Water budget method or mass balance method
It is based on measurement of continuity of water flow-essentially, the budget comprised by
US Geological Survey floating pan the various items of input, and water storage of hydrologic system.
The pan is 90cm square in pan and 45cm deep. The pan is set afloat in a lake to simulate Continuity equation
the characteristics of a large reservoir. The water level in the pan is kept the same as E = (S1 - S2) + I + P - O – Os
that of the lake. Their operation becomes difficult when wind is strong. The Pan coefficient is Where, E = evaporation
generally taken as 0.8. The pan has the following disadvantage: S1, S2 = storage at time 1 and 2
(i) The cost of installation and maintenance is high. I = surface inflow
(ii) It is difficult and inconvenient to take measurement. P = precipitation
O = surface outflow
Pich evaporimeter Os = subsurface seepage (most difficult to evaluate)
It consists of an inverted graduated tube filled with water, with filter paper clamped over its Advantage: This method is simple in concept.
mouth. The instrument is kept in Stevenson Screen. This is not very reliable instrument. It Disadvantage: This method is difficult to do so accurately because of the effects of errors in
generally overestimates the effect of wind and underestimates the effect of the solar radiation. measuring various items involved in the water balance.
iv. Energy budget method
ISI Standard pan This method is similar to the Water Balance Method except that it deals with the continuity of
It is a modified form of the U.S. Class A Evaporation Pan. The pan consists of a shallow energy flow instead of water flow. Use Continuity equation in energy units;
vessel made of copper sheet of 0.9mm thickness, tinned inside and painted outside. The pan Hn-Hg-Hi-Hs
E=
is 1.22m in diameter and 25.5 cm in depth. It is installed on a wooden grillage platform 10 cm ρ La (1+ᵝ)
above the ground surface. The pan has small stilling well in which a fixed point gauge with a
Where, E = Evaporation
vernier is installed to measure the level of water. The water surface is initially kept 5 cm below
Hn=Net heat energy received or net incoming energy
the rim (top) of the pan. The daily evaporation is computed as the difference between the
Hg=Heat lost to the ground
observed water levels in the pan. The pan coefficient is generally around 0.8.
62 63
 Hi=Net heat conducted out of the system by water flow
Hs=Heat stored in the water body 9.6 Evapotranspiration
ρ =Density of water
La= Evapotranspiration is the sum of the water lost to the atmosphere by the plants through
ᵝ=Bowen’s ration=ratio of heat loss by conduction to heat loss by evaporation transpiration and the water evaporated from the soil and water body surrounding the plants. It
will eventually depend upon the available moisture for both the process of transpiration and
9.4 Transpiration evaporation.
Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the Measure of the Evapotranspiration under normal condition is of great importance in the
atmosphere as water vapor. The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escape estimation and management of present and future resources. So it has been widely used as
through the leaves. It can be stomatal, cuticular or lenticular. Most of the stomatal an agroclimatic index to assess the effect of water supply on the growth and yield of crop.
transpiration takes place through plant leaves.
Transpiration is the basic physiological phenomenon of all plants. Phytometer method is 9.7 Potential evapotranspiration (PET) & actual evapotranspiration
generally adopted by an engineer where as botanists can adopt various methods to measure When sufficient moisture is freely available to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully
transpiration. covering an area, the resulting evapotranspiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
Phytometer method of measuring transpiration PET does not critically depend on soil and plant factors but depends essentially on climatic
factors as wind, temperature, humidity etc. PET is the rate of evapotranspiration of an
It is laboratory method. It is a large vessel filled with soil in which one or extended surface of 8 to 15 cm tall green grass cover actively growing, completely shading
more plants are rooted. The soil surface is sealed to prevent evaporation. the ground and no short of water.
The escape of moisture is only by transpiration which can be determined by
weighing the plant and container at desired intervals. The real evapotranspiration, occurring in a specific situation in the field, is called the actual
evapotranspiration (AET). However, at the field capacity AET will be equal to PET, Though
T=(W1+W)-W2 PET depends upon the climatological factors but AET is largely affected by the characteristics
Where; T= transpiration (ml) of soils and vegetation.
W1=Initial weight of instrument 9.8 Consumptive use
W2= Final weight of instrument Consumptive use (CU) is the amount of water used in the evapotranspiration from an area
W=Total wt of water added during full growth of plant. under vegetation plus the water used by the plants in their metabolic process for building of
plant tissues. Since the quantity of water used in metabolic process is insignificant compared
9.5 Factors affecting transpiration to evapotranspiration, the terms consumptive use and evapotranspiration are considered as
one and the same thing.
I. Percentage of sunshine (90% of daily transpiration occurs during
day) 9.9 Factors affecting consumptive use

II. Wind speed i. Evaporation from the soil surface x. Length of growing season
ii. Temperature xi. Stage of plant growth
III. Mean monthly temperature: Plant growth normally ceases when temperature fall iii. Wind xii. Amount of foliage of plant
down to 40C & hence transpiration occurs in small quantity. iv. Humidity xiii. Nature of leaves of plant
IV. Humidify v. Rainfall xiv. Method of irrigation & amount of
vi. Intensity of sunlight irrigation
V. Types of crops/growth stage of crops
vii. Day time hour xv. Quantity of readily available soil
VI. Moisture level on soil viii. Soil type and topography moisture.
VII. Rainfall intercepted by vegetation ix. Type of crop and cropping pattern

9.10 Method of determining consumptive use or evapotranspiration

64 65
 i. Direct method Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of water required to maintain constant moisture
ii. By using empirical formula conditions within the tank. ET is
measured volumetrically or
gravimetrically by volume or weight. It is
i. Direct method time consuming and expensive. In
general there are two types of lysimeter
Though different names have been given for the measurement of ET or CU according to
one is weighing type and another is non-
objectives and methods such as soil moisture studies on plots, field experimental plots,
weighing type. With the help of weighing
Integration methods, inflow and outflow studies etc, these all are based on the assumption
type, we can calculate instantaneous
and taken parameters. Actually in direct measurement of ET, the difference of inflow and
evaporation or ET, i.e. ET is measured
outflow is taken
by change in wt. of lysimeter. A part of
∆b=Drz (Qf-Qi)=inflow-outflow water allowed to drain throught the
Where inflow and outflow are total flow into and out of the control volume during time interval pervious bottom and collected in a pan
being considered kept below it.
∆b=Change in soil moisture within the volume during the time interval being considered. The value of water required, when averaged over the crop period, in mm/day, will give us the
value of AET in mm/day for that vegetation, under these specific field conditions.
Drz=Depth of root Zone below surface
A Lysimeter should be so designed, as to accurately reproduce the field condition of the soil,
(Qf-Qi)=Final and initial moisture control by volume in the time interval being consider moisture content and type and size of the vegetation of the surrounding area. The instrument
Here Inflow=I+P+SFI+LI+GW should also be buried in the field so that the soil is at the same level inside as well as outside
Outflow=ET+RO+LO+L+Dp the container. Such field studies are time consuming and costlier and are generally adopted
only for research studies on crops.
Where,
Water balance
I= irrigation ET=Evapotranspiration
Day:Initiatial water content=Final volume+ET+Leaching loss (If water not added)
P= Precipitation RO=Surface flow out of the control
volume Season:Initiatial water content+Added water to maintain the constant level=Final
SFI=Surface flow into the control volume volume+ET+Leaching
LI = Subsurface lateral flow into the LO =Subsurface lateral flow out of the
control volume control volume
ii. By using empirical formula
GW =Ground water seepage into the L=Leaching requirement
Some empirical formulas are commonly used or are popular. But according to topographic
control volume Dp =Deep percolation and climatic variation, different empirical methods or formula are suitable in different places.
a. Penman equation
b. Modified Penman equation
Thus, c. Blaney-criddle method
ET=I+P+SFI+LI+GW-RO-LO-L-DP-Drz(Qf-Qi) d. Thornthwaite method
However, actual evapotranspiration (AET) in the field can be measured by an instrument e. Radiation method
called lysimeter. It is a special water-tight tank containing a block of soil and set in a field of a. Penman equation/Penman Monteith equation
growing plants. The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding field.
Penman’s equation for computation of PET or CU for an area has a sound theoretical
reasoning, and it is not a simple empirical equation. This equation has, in fact, been derived
by intelligently combining the energy balance and mass transfer approach of the computation
66 67
of the transpiration and evaporation respectively. Hence, although slightly complicated Based on the intensive study of the climatic and measured gross ET data from various
mathematical conceptional work is involved here, yet it is more popular in today’s computer research station in the world and available literature on prediction of ET or PET, Doorenbos
age. and Pruitt (1975) proposed a modified Penman method for estimating fairly, accurately the
It states that’s reference crop ET and gave the tables to facilitate the necessary computation.
∆Hn+r. Ea Etp= W Rn + (1-w) f(u) (es-ea)
ET= {Hn=Qn
∆+r (radiation term) (aerodynamic term)
Where,
ET= Daily potential evapotranspiration (mm/day) Where,
∆= Slope of the saturated vapor pressure verses temperature curve at the Etp = Unadjusted potential evapotranspiration in mm/day
mean air temperature(mm Hg/oc) W= Temperature related weighing factor (dimensionless) (table)
Hn= Net incoming solar radiation or energy expressed in mm of evaporated Rn= Net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day
water per day (1-w) = Temperature & elevation related weighing factor for effect of wind
Ea= Aerodynamic component(parameter includes wind velocity and & humidity on ET (table)
saturation deficit; mm/day) f(u)= Wind related function (table)
r= Phychromatric constant(=0.49mm Hg/oc) es= Saturated vapor pressure
ea= Actual vapor pressure
And in the above equation, net radiation (Hn) is estimated by following equation;
Hn=Hc(1-r)(a+bn/N)-σTa4(0.56-o.092√ea)(0.1+0.9n/N) c. Blaney-criddle method
Where;
Blaney and criddle developed a simplified formula in which CU of water is related with
Hc= Mean incident solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere on a
temperature and day time hours.
horizontal surface, expressed in mm of evaporated water per day
r= Reflection coefficient (albedo) of a given area CU ……………………….in English unit
a= A constant depending upon the latitude & is given by a=0.29cosɵ
b= A constant having the average value 0.52
n= Actual duration of bring sunshine in hours Where
N= Maximum possible hours of bright sunshine(mean value) & is function CU = Monthly consumptive use of water for a given period in inch
of latitude K= Empirical consumptive use crop coefficient or a month
σ= Stefen-Bolzman constant 2.01x10-9 mm/day W= Temperature related weighing factor dimensionless (table)
Ta= Mean air temperature in 0K T= Mean monthly temperature in oF
ea= Actual vapor pressure in the air in mm of Hg. P= Monthly day light hour express as percentage of day light hour of
The parameter ea is estimated as the year

d. Thornthwaite method
Thornthwaite proposed a formula for ET calculation when data other than temperature are
Where; not available.
V2= Mean wind velocity of 2m above the ground in km/day E=1.6 [10 x T/I]4
es= Saturated vapor pressure Where
ea= Actual mean vapor pressure
E= Potential ET in mm/month
b. Modified Penman equation T= Mean monthly temperature in oC
68 69
 I= Annual or seasonal heat index So CUMar=5.05*20/30=3.25 inch
I=∑i=[T/5]1.514…………………..i is monthly heat index So total CU=∑KPT/100=3.57+3.00+2.47+3.53+3.25=15.6 inch.
a= Empirical constant
=0.000000675 I3-0.0000771 I2+0.01792 I+0.49239
E is corrected by Multiplying it by corrective factor given in table to give
PET. b. Estimation of actual evapotranspiration demand of crops
This method is not so applicable and gives false reading at zero degrees Celsius. c. Importance of the Evaporation/transpiration in agriculture
Transpiration is often termed as a necessary evil(necessary because it is essentialfor all
e. Radiation method
translocations; evil because it results in water loss and ultimately, water stress in plants
Doorebnos and Pruitt proposed a formula for calculation of consumptive use of water based or it is an inevitable, but potentially harmful, consequence of the existence of wet cell
on the data given about temperature and sunshine. surfaces from which evaporation occurs.
CU=a+bwRs Loss of water may have severe effect on the plants, some of whichare direct and some
Where indirect; some important effects are listed below;
CU= Consumptive use of water in mm per day Excess water getting into plant might decay the cells. Transpiration prevents it by
w= Weightage factor which depends on temperature & altitude removing the extra water.
Rs= Solar radiation in terms of mm of evaporable water per day Extra quantity of water if retained would disturb the osmotic relationship between cells.
a,b= Constants given in table This is prevented by transpiration.
Transpiration stream helps in distribution of nutrients to all the parts of the plant body
st
Estimate the consumptive use of water by wheat crop sown on 1 November and harvested Fresh and cool water reaches all parts of the plant body and this reduces the metabolic
on 20th March at a place having latitude 23o39’N using Blaney Criddle method from the heat acting as a coolant
following data. It indirectly helps in the uptake of salts as the latter get into the plant together with water.
Month Mean monthly %monthly day Crop coefficient Upward movement of water (Ascent of sap) is due to the suction force created by
air temp. 0F light hour (P) (K) transpiration.
Nov 73.87 7.45 0.65
Dec 66.81 7.49 0.60 It indirectly affect the process of respiration and photosynthesis.
Jan 65.30 7.55 0.50
Feb 70.34 7.16 0.70 Regulation of the plant tissue temperature?????????
Mar 80.02 8.40 0.75

Solution
CUNov= KPT/100=0.65*7.45*73.87/100=3.57 inch Evaporation
CUDec=3.00 Regulates hydrological cycle-distribution of the water through precipitation
CUJan=2.47 Transfom saline water to fresh water.
CUFeb=3.53 Distribution of some essential elements for example Sulfer.
CUMar=5.05 Regulates the temperature of the earth body.
th
But given that crop is harvested on 20 March
70 71
 Chapter X
Precipitation

10.1 Concept
Precipitation is defined as the forms of the water (either liquid or solid) which reach to the
earth surface from the atmosphere. When water evaporates from water surface like
streams, rivers, oceans, ponds and also from the lands and plants in the form of water vapor,
this water vapor get collected on the atmosphere and behave like a gas. As the evaporation
continues, the amount of atmospheric vapor goes on increasing. But since a space can hold
only a certain fixed amount of water vapor in the presence of solid or a liquid surface, a state
is reached when any further addition of vapor will get condensed on the surface. The vapor
may get condensed in different forms such as mist, rain, hail, snow, sleet etc. The evaporated
water thus returns to the earth surface in any of these forms. The water which comes back to
the surface of the earth in its various forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet etc is known as
precipitation. However, precipitation does not include some other forms of condensed
moisture as fog, dew and frost.
For the formation of single raindrop of fairly good size, millions of clouds droplets produced by
condensation process are required. The exact process which cause the cloud droplets to join
together to form large raindrops capable of falling to the earth as precipitation are not fully
understood. However, two mechanisms are proposed to explain these processes namely
Bergeron and Collision Coalescence Process.
i. Ice crystal theory of Bergeron
The ice-crystal theory to explain precipitation was propounded by Tor Bergeron, an eminent
meteorologist from Norway, in 1933. It is also called the Bergeron Process after the name of
its discoverer.
It is based on two special meteorological properties of water. It is assumed that droplet in a
cloud does not freeze at 0oc and can remain in liquid state below -40oc and it is referred as
super cooled water. The super-cooled water tends to freeze, if it is disturbed. Besides, super-
cooled droplets also freeze when they come into contact with a tiny solid nucleus, about 1
micro-meter in diameter. This is called a freezing nucleus. Most of the nuclei become active
at -20° to -25°C. However, freezing nuclei are spar se in the atmosphere. Thus, when the
ascending air currents rise well above the freezing level, some of the water droplets will be
changed into ice and through sublimation water vapour will enter into solid state.
Now, we have to consider the second special property of water. Over ice, the saturation
vapour pressure is lower than what it is over water. In other words, when air is saturated (100
per cent relative humidity) with respect to water, it is supersaturated (relative humidity greater
than 100 per cent) with respect to ice. From it is clear that at - 15°C, when the relative
humidity is 100 per cent with respect to Water, it is about 115 percent with respect to ice. In
this case, vapour diffuses rapidly from air to ice crystals so that the ice crystals begin to grow
72 73
at the expense of water droplets. The growth of ice crystals is rapid enough to generate iv. Sleet: Sleet is a weather phenomenon that occurs mostly in winter storms. The clouds
crystals large enough to fall. While falling from the cloud, the ice crystals grow by intercepting where the sleet falls from are warmer than the air below. The sleet begins as rain
cloud droplets that freeze upon them. Sometimes these falling ice crystals are broken up into and, as it falls, freezes, becoming rather small ice pellets. Sleet is a mixture of rain and
fragments which again become freezing nuclei for other water droplets. snow. However in American terminology, it is the small pallets of translucent ice <0.5 mm
A chain reaction takes place. These ice crystals by accretion grow further in size to become in diameter.
snowflakes before leaving the cloud. v. Hail: Hail is a weather phenomenon occurring in summer storms. Rain falls from the
Snowflakes generally melt before reaching the ground and fall as rain. Because of the warmer bottom of storm clouds. Updrafts in the storm lift the rain to the upper, colder
glaciations of the upper part of the cloud, its cauliflower like top becomes anvil-shaped, so regions of the storm clouds, causing the rain to freeze. Hails are usually 5 mm or
typical of a cumulonimbus. more in diameter. Anything smaller is considered an “ice pellet“. It is precipitation of
small balls or piece of ice with a diameter ranging from 5-50 mm or even more.
ii. Collision Coalescence Theory vi. Dew: Sometimes, moisture is made available at soil surface by direct condensation and
One theory explaining how the behavior of individual droplets leads to the formation of clouds absorption from the atmosphere. This is known as dew and it is observed that mostly it
is the collision-coalescence process. Droplets suspended in the air will interact with each evaporates as the day progress.
other, either by colliding and bouncing off each other or by combining to form a larger droplet.
Eventually, the droplets become large enough that they fall to the earth as precipitation. The 10.3 Types of precipitation
collision-coalescence process does not make up a significant part of cloud formation as water Adiabatic cooling or dynamic cooling is the primary cause of condensation and hence is
droplets have a relatively high surface tension. responsible for the most precipitation. The adiabatic process is the process by which a gas
and other material is heated or cooled (change in state) without being heat added to or taken
10.2 Forms of precipitation away from gas, but rather by expansion and compression. Here compression results in
Precipitation can be of various forms depending on the following conditions; heating and expansion results in cooling. When a parcel of air is lifted in the atmosphere, its
pressure decrease. To equalize pressure, it expands. This results lowering in temperature as
i. The temperature at which condensation takes place
well as lowering the pressure and density. It is the adiabatic cooling. When a parcel of gas
ii. The conditions encountered as the particles pass through air descends, its pressure increases. To equalize the pressure, air must contract. This results in
iii. Types of clouds and their heights from the grounds increase in temperature. This is called adiabatic heating.
iv. The processes generating precipitation Depending upon the way in which the air is cooled, as to cause precipitation, we can have
following kinds of precipitation
The common forms of precipitation are as follows;
i. Convective precipitation iii. Cyclonic precipitation
i. Rain: It is the most common form of the precipitation consisting of liquid water droplets ii. Orographic precipitation iv. Frontal precipitation
bigger than 0.5mm in diameter.
ii. Drizzle: It is fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine droplets of water i. Convective precipitation
diameter <0.5mm and very close to one another. When drizzle occurs, relative humidity Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the
of air is often nearly 100%. So fine drops never evaporate in their journey. earth's surface. The warm ground heats the air over it. As
Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, sleet, hail, and graupe. the air warms, the air molecules begin to move further
iii. Snow: Precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from the direct conversion of apart. With increased distance between molecules, the
water vapor to ice is referred as snow. Usually in winter, when temperature is below molecules are less densely packed. Thus, the air becomes
freezing in the whole atmosphere, the ice crystal doesn’t melt and reach the ground as “lighter” and rises rapidly into the atmosphere. As the air
snow. Actually on very cold atmosphere sublimation of water vapor leads to snow. It is the rises, it cools. Water vapor in the air condenses into clouds
precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice in the form of hexagonal crystals. and precipitate. This type of precipitation may be in the
form of light shower to cloudburst or thunderstorm. This

74 75
type of precipitation is highly localized and short duration; and common in the tropics. 10.4 Measurement of rainfall.
ii. Orographic precipitation Various types and design of gauges are used for the measurement of both rainfall and
This is the most important precipitation and responsible snowfall depending upon the objective of measurement. The amount of precipitation is
for most of the heavy rain in Nepal. Orographic expressed as depth of water over the area expressed in mm and rate or intensity is expressed
precipitation results when warm moist air moving in mm/hr. Generally two types of rain gauges are used for measuring rainfall
across the ocean is forced to rise by large mountains. i. Non-recording type of rain gauge
As the air rises, it cools as higher elevation results in ii. Recording type of rain gauge
cooler temperatures. Cold air cannot hold as much
moisture as warm air. As air cools, the water vapor in the I. Non-recording type of rain gauge
air condenses and water droplets form. Clouds forms and These are most widely used for the measurement of rainfall. They are known as non-
precipitation (rain or snow) occurs on the windward side recording because amount of the rainfall is not measured by recording but by
of the mountain (see diagram). The air is now dry and collecting the rainwater over a period of time. The collected rain is then measured by
rises over top the mountain. As the air moves back down the mountain, it collects moisture means of graduated cylinder so as to directly represent the rainfall volume in cm of water
from the ground via evaporation. This side of the mountain is called the leeward side. It depth.
receives very little precipitation. Orographic barriers tend to increase both cyclonic and Volume of the water collected (cm3)
orographic precipitation because of the increased lifting involved. The precipitation is depth of rainfall (cm)=
Area of the aperture of collector (cm2)
composed of shower and steady rainfall.
Non-recording rain gauge are cylindrical in form with a leak proof collector rim placed over a
iii. Cyclonic precipitation funnel that leads to receiver. The receiver has a narrow neck into which the funnel fit to
Cyclonic precipitation is caused due to lifting of air caused by pressure difference. If low reduce the evaporation loss. The rim of the collector has sharp edge which falls vertically
pressure occurs in an area, air will flow horizontally from the surrounding area, causing the air inside. The collector is so designed that rain falling on the collector does not splash out. The
in low pressure area to lift. The precipitation that results is also called non-frontal cyclonic collector, funnel and receiver are made up of the non-corrosive metal, fiberglass or plastic.
precipitation. The large whirling mass of air at the centre of which the barometric pressure is Since the type, design, diameter of collector, height and the manner in which the gauge is
low is known as cyclone. And the centre portion of this cyclone where the pressure is low, exposed vary from country to country, it is important that the type selected and the methods of
acts like a chimney, through which the air gets lifted, expands, cools and finally condensed installation be similar to other gauge. The best way would be to follow the national practice for
causing precipitation. Cyclonic precipitation can occurs in the form of drizzle, intermittent rain the installation of the gauge and the data recording system in order to obtain comparatively in
or steady rain. the data.
iv. Frontal precipitation Various models have been designed for such gauge, Out of them the symon’s type was most
Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge of a warm, widely used till 70th. However, meteorological department has adopted another model called
moist air mass (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass standard gauge.
(cold front). The molecules in the cold air are more tightly Symon’s gauge
packed together (i.e., more dense), and thus, the cold air is The Symon rain gauge consists of a cylindrical vessel, called metal casing, of 12.7 cm
heavier than the warm air. The warmer air mass is forced up diameter, with a base of 21.0cm. The metal casing is fixed vertically to a masonry
over the cool air. As it rises, the warm air cools, the water foundation block of the size 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm. A funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm
vapor in the air condenses, and clouds and precipitation and a glass bottle are placed in the metal casing. The height of the metal casing is fixed so
result. If the precipitation is caused by cold front, it is very that the rim is 30.5 cm above the ground surface. The glass bottle, called the receiver, is of
intense and short duration; while that caused by a warm front is more continuous. Third 7.5 to 10 cm diameter. The rain gauge is kept in open. The rain falling into the funnel is
possibility is that of an occluded front. An occluded front occurs when a cold front over takes a collected in the receiver. The receiver, with the rain water in it, is taken out of the metal
warm front. The precipitation pattern is combination of both cold and warm frontal distribution. casing. The rainfall depth is measured with a special measuring glass jar graduated in mm of
A cold front is that in which the warm air replace the colder air, whereas in a warm front the rainfall. It can measure up to 12.5 mm of rainfall. During heavy rains, the rainfall is measured
case is opposite.
76 77
3 or 4 times in a day. The total rainfall of the day is obtained by adding all the individual Besides giving the total amount of rain fallen at a station, such a curve will also help in
measurements of day. indicating the times of onset and cessation of rain, and thereby indicating its duration.
The standard rain gauge, developed around the start of the 20th century, consists of a funnel Moreover, the slope of the curve gives us the intensity of rainfall for any given period.
attached to a graduated cylinder that fits into a larger container. If the water overflows from Since such gauges represent the cumulative rain, they
the graduated cylinder, the outside container will catch it. When measurements are taken, the are sometimes called as integrated rain gauges.
cylinder will be measured and then the excess will be put in another cylinder and measured. Moreover, such gauges can provide us with continuous
In most cases the cylinder is marked in mm and in will measure up to 25 mm (0.98 in) of recorded measurement for a number of days and thus
rainfall. Each horizontal line on the cylinder is 0.2 mm (0.007 in). The larger container collects are of great utility in filly and far off areas, where it
any rainfall amounts over 25 mm that flows from a small hole near the top of the cylinder. A is not practically feasible to daily visit the gauge
metal pipe is attached to the container and can be adjusted station. Such gauges are therefore also sometime
to ensure the rain gauge is level. This pipe then fits over a known as continuous rain gauges.
metal rod that has been placed in the ground. In general such a gauge consists of a clock driven
Standard rain gauge rotating drum with a graph paper fixed around it.
It is a modified version of the Symon’s rain gauge. The There is a pen point in contact with the graph paper, which moves up with the collected rain
standard rain gauge consists of a collector with a gun metal and thus recording the cumulative rain with passage of time.
rim. The exposed surface area of the collector is either 100 Various models have been designed for recording gauge which are as follows;
cm2 or 200 cm2. The collector has a deep set funnel which a. Tipping bucket gauge d. Floating type gauge
discharges into a polyethylene bottle kept inside the base. b. Weighing type gauge e. Optical rain gauge
The capacity of the bottle can be 2, 4 or 10 liters. The rain
collected in the bottle is measured with a graduated cylinder a. Tipping bucket gauge
which directly gives the rainfall in mm or cm. The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a large copper cylinder set into the ground. At the
The advantage of the standard rain gauge over the Symon top of the cylinder is a funnel that collects and channels the precipitation into a small bucket.
gauge is that it can be installed such that the rim is always at After an amount of precipitation equal to 0.2 mm falls into
a standard height of 30 cm above the ground surface one of the two buckets, the lever tips and empties its water
irrespective of the nominal capacity. into a storage tank and at the same time another bucket is
It may be mentioned again that a non-recording type rain gauge gives the total depth of brought under the funnel. The tipping of the lever (bucket)
rainfall for the past 24 hours but does not give the duration and intensity of the rainfall. actuates an electrical signal which is sent to the recorder
The measurement of rainfall should be taken at the same time each morning i.e. usual where the pen arm moves either up or down leaving a trace
practice is 8.00 am. However, if rainfall is heavy enough to exceed the capacity of bottle, 2-3 on the graph or record sheet that is fixed on the clock
intermediate readings are kept to give the rainfall of 24 hrs. driven drum. From this record sheet, total amount of rainfall
for a given period and rainfall intensity can be determined.
II. Recording type of rain gauge Total rainfall, as determined from the record at the end of the
The recording type rain gauges have recording arrangement, which gives the rainfall day, may also be checked by measuring the rainwater
intensity and the duration of the rainfall, besides giving the total depth of the rainfall, but collecting in the storage tank.
records automatically on a graph, which is known as the mass curve of rain fallen. These b. Weighing type gauge
rain gauges are, therefore, more useful than the non-recording type rain gauges.
In weighing-type precipitation gauge, rain water received in the
P2-P1 Dp received is channeled via funnel into a storage bin/catch
Rate of rainfall or intensity of rainfall= =
T2-T1 Dt bucket. The catch buck is supported on a weighing platform of
a spring or lever balance. The increasing in weight of the
bucket due to addition of the precipitation is transmitted
78 79
through a system of links and levers to a pen which makes traces of accumulated amount of Where, P= average precipitation of the basin
rainfall on a suitably graduated chart wrapped around a clock driven drum. The mechanisms P1, P2, P3…….Pn are respective perceptions at the stations
is arranged to reverse the travel of pen after a certain amount of rainfall (say 150mm), so that
the gauge may operate unattended for a week at a time except in the regions of intense n= total no. of stations
rainfall where totals may exceed the capacity of the gauge (usually 300 mm). The rainfall If the stations are uniformly distributed over the area and the rainfall rate does not differ much
record produced by this gauge is in the form of mass curve of rainfall, in which the total at various stations, and then this method is quite satisfactory. But if there are many
amount of the rainfall is plotted with respect to time. The slope of the curve gives the intensity topographic difference, and the rainfall rate vary considerably, then this method leads to large
of rainfall. error. This method does not give accurate results and hence is rarely used in practice.
The weighing-type recording gauge may also contain a device to measure the quantity of b. Thiessen’s Polygon Method
chemicals contained in the location's atmosphere. This is extremely helpful for
In the Thiessen polygon method, the rainfall recorded at each rain gauge station is given a weightage of
scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and
the basis of the area which it represents. This
their effects on the levels of the acid rain
method is better than the arithmetic mean
c. Floating type gauge method which gives equal weightage to all the
Rainwater received is channeled through funnel into a chamber which consists of a floating stations. In this method, adjacent stations
body. As the level of the rainwater collected in are joined by straight lines, thus dividing
the float chamber rises, the float moves up the entire area into series of triangles.
which actuates pen connected to it through a Perpendicular bisects are erected on each
connecting rod. The pen makes a trace of line, thus, forming a series of polygons-
cumulative rainfall on a suitably graduated chart each containing only one rainfall station.
wrapped around a clock driven revolving drum. The value of precipitation measured at a
This in the gauge also, the rainfall record is in station is assigned to the whole area
the form mass curve of rainfall in which covered by the enclosing polygon. In other word, the rainfall recorded at this station is
accumulated rainfall is plotted against time.. assigned to that polygon. If P is the mean rainfall of the basin, and area of the basin is A,
Such a gauge may be emptied either manually then;
or by self starting siphon. A1P1+A2P2+A3P3+………………….+An.Pn
P=
A1+A2+A3+………………….+An
Estimating average rainfall over an area
Following methods are popularly used to estimate the mean or average rainfall over a basin.
a. Arithmetical Mean Method
b. Thiessen’s Polygon Method
c. Isohyetal method

a. Arithmetical Mean Method

This is the simplest method that can be used. It consists of averaging all the amounts that
have been recorded at the various stations in the area; as given below;
P1+P2+P3+………………….+.Pn
P=
N

80 81
Where, P1, P2; P3....Pn represents rainfall at the respective stations, whose surrounding
polygons have the area A1, A2, A3……An respectively.
http://www.ehow.com/how_10036270_calculate-rainfall-thiessen-polygon-
method.html#ixzz2QR1uo3cL

c. Isohyetal method
Isohyets are the contour of the equal rainfall. They are drawn on
the map using common sense, after the rainfall at each station is
plotted. The area between the adjacent isohyets are either
estimated on the graph or measured by planimeter. Solution

Then,
{A1(P1+P2)/2+
P= A2(P2+P3)/2+…An(Pn+Pn+1)/2}
A1+A2+A3+………………….+An

Numerical
Q1. If the precipitation of 7 stations are 50,70,90,23,205,206,,150 cm respectively, find
the average rainfall
Solution;
Using arithmetic mean method In triangle ABC & BEH
P1+P2+P3+………………….+.Pn EH=1/2 AC
P=
N
Let a=side of square,
50+70+90+23+205+206+150
= Then, AC=√2 a
7
= 113.4 cm EH=1/2 √2 a=1/√2
Q2. Find the mean precipitation for the sketch below by Thiesens method. The area is
composed of a square plus an equilateral triangle of 4 km aside. The area of square EFGH, feeding the station no. 6
=a/√2 * a/√2= a2/2

Area of the square plot contributing to each corner station

= 1/2 * a/2 * a/2= a2/8

In equilateral traingle, the three vertices stations will be fed

equally i.e. equal to 1/3 * area of triangle

82 83
 =1/3 * [1/2 *a *√3a/2] Q4. Using Isohyetal method, find the mean precipitation
=a2/4√3 Isohyets (cm) Area (km2) Isohyets (cm) Area (km2)
9 22 13 78
10 80 14 16
(Here, tan60=h/(a/2) or √3= h/(a/2) or h= √3a/2) 11 105 15
12 98
Thus the area feeding various stations can be estimated as below
Solution;
A1= a2/4√3 + a2/8
Isohyets Area Average ppt Product (A*
=0.26925 a2 (cm) (P) (A)(km2) (p1+p2)/2 (P1+P2)/2
=0.26925 * 16 9 22 9.5 209
=4.328 km2 10 80 10.5 840
11 105 11.5 1207.5
A2= a2/8= 16/8= 2 km2 12 98 12.5 1225
A3= a2/8= 16/8= 2 km2 13 78 13.5 1053
14 16 14.5 232
A4= A1= 4.328 km2 15 399 4766.5

Using Thiessen’s polygon method, So,

A1P1+A2P2+A3P3+………………….+An.Pn ∑A* (P1+P2+…Pn)/2
P= Paverage=
A1+A2+A3+………………….+An ∑A
=(4.8*4.308 +13*2+8*2+5.4*4.308+3.2*2.309 +9.4* 8)/(4.308+2+2+4.308+2.309+8) 4766.5
=
P=7.36 cm 399

= 11.94
Q3. The area of strips between isohyets is given below. Find the average depth of
annual precipitation over the basin.
Isohyets (cm) Area (km2) Isohyets (cm) Area (km2) Estimating missing rainfall
75-85 580 106-115 1000 Sometimes, the rainfall amount at a certain rain gauge station for a certain days may be
86-95 2960 116-125 610 missing due to the absence of some observer or instrumental failure. In such a case, it might
96-105 2850 126-135 160 be needed to estimate the missing rainfall amount by approximating the value from the data of
Soln; the nearby rain gauge stations.
580*80+2960*90+2850*100+1000*110+610*120+160*130
P= If N1, N2, N3 & Nx represents the average annual rainfall at station 1, 2,3& x stations
580+2960+2850+1000+610+160 respectively; and P1,P2,P3 & Px represents their respective precipitation of the day for which
the date is missing at station x then we have,
P= 99.05 cm P1+ P2+ P3 ……[If N1, N2, N3 differ within 10%
Paverage=
3 of NX]
However, if Nx differ from stations by more than 10%, the normal ration method is used;

84 85
 (P1 *NX)/ N1 + (P2 *NX)/ N2+ (P3 of physiological and chemical processes within the plant, acting as an energy exchanger and
Px= *NX)/ N3 carrier of nutrient food supply in solution.
3 Rainfall contributes to the soil moisture regimes and have thus significant effect on crop
In general growth and development. Excess of rainfall may cause yield reeducation. Prolong rainfall for
Px (P1/ N1 +P2/ N2+P3/ 4-5 months caused poor drainage that reduces the growth and yield of crop drastically.
= N3 ) Excessive wet condition favor the fungal growth. Excessive rainfall causes the soil runoff and
PN M nutrient leaching. Water logging condition due to excessive rainfall causes the poor root and
microbial respiration as the level of oxygen is depleted. At the same time substances toxic to
Px here is the missing data the plants may accumulate in the soil.
Q4. Precipitation station x was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm Snowfall serves as thermal insulator, conserving heat in soil. It contributes to meet the chilling
occurred. The respective storm totals at three surrounding stations A,B &C were 107, requirement of temperate crops such as apple. But longer deposition of the snow deposition
89 and 122 mm. The normal average annual precipitation amounts of stations X, A,B & on plants, fruits and vegetable prevents is growth and may cause freezing injury to the plants.
C were 978,1120, 835 and 1200 mm respectively. Estimate the storm precipitation for It also may cause flower and fruit drop.
station x. Hailstorm causes the mechanical injury to the agricultural crops. Heavy flower and fruit drop
and grain shattering occur due to hailstorm during summer.
Solution
Thus, in any regional study of agricultural production, precipitation is of fundamental
Nx= average annual precipitation of station X=978mm
importance. Knowledge on precipitation in terms of type, spatial distribution (how much it
Therefore, 10% of Nx=9.78 rains where it rains), temporal or seasonal distribution (when it rains), frequency, duration and
Thus the maximum permissible annual precipitation at either of the three stations for taking intensity of the precipitation are helpful in following aspects of agriculture;
ordinary mean; • Selecting appropriate crop species and/or varieties. For e.g. Deuti variety (maize) can
978+9.78=1075.8 mm which is less than the average annual precipitation at station A &C tolerate the drought condition and thus may be suitable in the drought prone area.
• Planning for irrigation and drainage
Hence, according to the normal ration method;
• Planning for the sowing, pest and disease control, tillage operation, scheduling fertilizer
Px 1(P1/ N1 +P2/ N2+P3/ N3 ) application
=
Nx 3 • Selecting appropriate soil conservation practices.
• Planning for harvesting and post harvest practices etc.
Nx *1(P1/ N1 +P2/ N2+P3/
Px = N3 )
3

978*(107/1120) +89/ 935+122/1200)

Px =
3

Px = 95.3

Thus the missing precipitation at X station is 95.3 mm

10.5 Significance of rainfall in crop
Among the various individual climatic parameters which influence the growth characteristics of
crops, the most important is considered to be water. Limitations in water availability are
frequently a restrictive factor in plant development, and water is essential for the maintenance
86 87
 Chapter XI a. A conical cap provided with a 6 mm diameter hole at the top can be used. To avoid leakage
of water, a rubber washer is provided between the conical cap and the rim of bottle. The
Soil Moisture method consists of weighing the empty dried pycnometer bottle with conical cap and
washer. Let its weight be W1.
11.1 Concept of Soil moisture b. Next 200 to 400 gm of moist soil is taken in pycnometer with cap washer and soil is
Soil is a three phase system i.e. it consists of soil solids, soil air and soil water. Soil basically weighed again. Let it be W2.
contains solid materials or particles and the space between these particles are either filled c. The bottle is filled to about half with water and the contents are stirred thoroughly by glass
with water or gas or both. And the vacuum or free spaces between these solid particles are rod. A little more water is added to it and washer and cap are fixed up. The pycnometer is
called pores. And the water holding capacity of soil mainly depends on its porosity. Porosity is now filled with water up to conical top. Sometimes a vacuum is used to expel the water
proportion of the soil volume occupied by pore spaces. There are mainly two types of pores entrapped in the soil before filling the bottle with water. The pycnometer is dried from
i.e. micropores or capillary pores (smaller than 0.08 mm) and macropores (larger than outside and weighed (W3)
0.08mm). In macropores water get drained under gravitational action where as in micropores d. Next, pycnometer is emptied, cleaned thoroughly and weighed after filling up with water up
water is tightly held and cannot be drained out by gravitational water. The soil water may exist to the top (W4)
in the soil in various forms and the weight of the water to the weight of the solid contents Water content (w)=Ww*100%/Ws
in a given mass of soil is called water content or moisture content of the soil. i.e.
Weight of water (Ww)=(W2-W1)-Ws
Moisture content (w) = Ww*100%/Ws
It can be seen that if from W3, the weight of solid Ws could be removed and replaced by
Where Ww= weight of water weight of equivalent volume of water, the weight W4 would be obtained.
Ws=weight of solid mass i.e. W3-Ws+Ws/Gs. Yw. Yw=W4
Water content of soil sample can be determined by several methods. Among them, oven or W3-W4=Ws(1-1/Grw)
drying method and pycnometer methods are commonly adopted methods for calculations of
Where, Gs=sp. Gravity of soil sample
water content of soil in lab.
a. Oven drying method Yw= sp. Gravity of water
So, Ws= (W3-W4)(Gs/(Gs-1))
This is the commonly adopted and simplest method for the determination of moisture content
of soil sample in the laboratory. The method basically consists of drying a weighted moist soil Finally,
sample in a oven at a controlled temperature (1105-109oC). For a period of 24 hours after W=Ww/Ws= {(W2-W1)-Ws}/Ws={(W2-W1)/Ws}-1
which the day weight of the sample is taken. The water content is then calculated as shown
as below. Water content W= [(W2-W1)/(W3-W4)] x[(Gs-1)/(Gs)] *100
W1=Weight of the container In view of difficulty of removing the entrapped air in the soil samples, this method is more
W2= Weight of container with moist sample suited for noncohesive soil where this can be achieved easily.
W3=Weight of the container with oven dried sample
Classification of soil water
Weight of the water (Ww)=W2-W3 ii. Gravitational water
Weight of the soilld (Ws)=W3-W1 iii. Capillary water
iv. Hygroscopic water
Thus, water content =Ww *100 %/Ws=(W2-W3)*100%/(W3-W1)
i. Gravitational water
b. Pycnometer method Water containing in macropores and drains out freely under the influence of gravity is called
It is a quick laboratory method to determine the water content of soil. Pycnometer is an gravity is called gravitational water. It is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary
approximately 900 ml capacity glass bottle provided with a conical cap.
88 89
 water. Most of the gravitational water is not available to plants for the use because it drains have field capacity at a tension around 0.33 bars. At field capacity it is relatively easy for a
out rapidly from the root zones. plant to remove water from the soil.
ii. Capillary water • The wilting point is reached when the maximum energy exerted by a plant is equal to the
tension with which the soil holds the water. For most agronomic crops this is about 15 bars
Water retaining in micropores of soil after the drained off of gravitational water is known as of soil moisture tension.
capillary water, which is held in the capillary pores of soil by surface tension. It is held in • The presence of high amounts of soluble salts in the soil reduces the amount of water
soil against gravitational force and thus water is the principle source of water for plant available to plants. As salts increase in soil water, the energy expended by a plant to extract
growth. water must also increase, even though the soil moisture tension remains the same. In
iii. Hygroscopic water essence, salts decrease the total available water in the soil profile.
Water adsorbed by dry soil particles from the atmosphere and is held as a very thin film on Soil moisture stress
the surface of soil particle due to adhesive force. Generally, hygroscopic water is referred It is the sum of soil moisture tension and osmotic pressure of soil solution. Salt in the
as unavailable to plant. soil increased the force needed to extract water and that tension caused by salt is osmotic
pressure. So in general plant growth is a function of both soil moisture tension and as well as
Important notes osmotic pressure.
• Gravitational water is the amount of soil water between saturation capacity and field Soil moisture characteristics
capacity. So field capacity is the lower limit of gravitational water.
As we know that for a soil of given texture and structure, soil moisture tension is inversely
• Field capacity forms the upper limit of capillary water and lower limit of permanent wilting
proportional to its moisture content. So the graphical plot of soil moisture tension with respect
point. Thus, it is the amount of water in the soil between field capacity and the permanent
to its available water or moisture of the soil gives the outlines showing their relation for
wilting point
different textural soil. And that curve so obtained is called soil moisture characteristics curves.
• Permanent wilting point is the upper limit of the hygroscopic water.
In general, amount of water available to plant, infiltration, percolation, amount of irrigation etc.
can be predicted with the help of soil moisture characteristic curve of that soil. Soil moisture
Soil moisture tension characteristic curve of clay, loamy and sandy soil is as below and from this we can analyze
There are two ways to measure soil moisture i. Soil Moisture Content (the amount of water in many things by observing the nature of graph.
the soil, usually described as a percentage) and ii. Soil Moisture Tension
The degree to which water clings to the soil is the most important soil water characteristic to a
growing plant. This concept is often expressed as soil moisture tension. Soil moisture tension
is negative pressure and commonly expressed in units of bars. Thus, as soil moisture tension
increases (the soil water pressure becomes more negative), the amount of energy exerted by
a plant to remove the water from the soil must also increase. Simply, Soil moisture tension is
the ease to which the plant root has to work to extract water from the soil. It is the measure of
the tenacity with which water is retained in the soil and is the force per unit area that must
be exerted to extract the water from the soil. It is also known by the means as capillary
potential, capillary tension, soil pull, force of suction etc. It is expressed in atmosphere.
Soil moisture tension is governed by two factors: Soil moisture content and the salt contents.
• A soil that is saturated has a soil moisture tension of about 0.001 bars, or less, which
requires little energy for a plant to pull water away from the soil.
• At field capacity most soils have a soil moisture tension between 0.1 and 0.33 bars. Soils
classified as sandy may have field capacity tensions around 0.10 bars, while clayey soil will

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 Soil moisture constant Wilting range
It is the range of soil moisture from permanent wilting point and ultimate wilting point.
Water contents under certain standard conditions are referred as soil moisture constants. . It
is the imaginary boundary of the soil moisture available to the plants showing the significance Readily available Water
of different soil moisture level on the plant bodies. Under field conditions, water content of soil The difference in moisture content of soil between field capacity and the permanent
is always changing constantly with time and depth of soil and is not static or constant. wilting point is called available soil moisture. But, only a portion of available water which is
However, the concept of soil moisture constants greatly facilitates in taking decision in most easily extracted by plants is called readily available water. Around 75-80% of the
irrigation. Various types of soil moisture constants are described as follows; available water is the readily available water.
i. Saturation Capacity Soil moisture deficiency
When all the pores of the soil are completely filled with water, the soil is said to be under The water required to bring the soil moisture content of a given soil to its field capacity is
saturation capacity or it is the upper limit of the soil moisture capacity. In this condition, soil called field moisture deficiency or soil moisture deficiency.
moisture tension is almost equal to zero (0 bar). Equivalent moisture
ii. Field Capacity As the field capacity is the water retained by saturated soil after being acted upon by gravity.
After the drainage of gravitational water i.e. after 2-3 days after the soil has been thoroughly Similarly, equivalent moisture is the water retained by a saturated soil after being centrifuged
wetted by rain water or irrigation, the moisture content at that stage is called field capacity. So for 30 minutes by a centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravity. Therefore, it is slightly less
it can be consider as the maximum amount of moisture held by soil against gravity. 10 to 30 (for sandy) or at the most equal to field capacity.
kPa (0.1 to 0.3 bar). Infiltration
iii. Permanent wilting Point When water falls on a given formation, a small part of it is first of all absorbed by the top thin
It is the soil moisture content at which plant can no longer obtain enough moisture to meet the layer of soil, so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency and gradually more downward
transpiration requirements and remains wilted unless water is added to the soil. after filling pores. So, the process whereby the water enters the earth surface strata of the
soil, and moves downwards is known as infiltration.
For most plants this condition develops when the soil water potential (Ψ) has a value of about -
1500 kPa (-15 bar). A few plants especially xerophytes (desert type plants) can continue to Percolation
remove water at even -18 bar or -20 bar. It is the downward movement of the water through saturated or nearly saturated soils in
Approximate PWP= Field capacity/factor response to the force of gravity.
Factor varies from 2 to 2.4 depending upon texture/type of soil. Seepage
iv. Ultimate wilting point It is the infiltration (vertically) downward and lateral movement of water into the soil or
substrata from a source of supply such as reservoir or irrigation canal.
It is the moisture content at which the plants are completely wilted and plants die i.e. they
can’t recover from wilting even after the addition of water to the soil. At ultimate wilting point,
soil moisture is held at -3100 kPa (-31 bar). Factors affecting Infiltration
1. Soil and soil characteristics
Notes;
• Initial moisture content of soil
• The water content of the soil at permanent wilting point is called wilting coefficient or • Conduction of soil surface
permanent wilting percentage. • Hydraulic conductivity of soil surface profile
• Whereas the water content at ultimate wilting point is called hygroscopic coefficient. • Texture
• On very hot windy days, wilting may occurs due to excessive transpiration which is • Porosity
called temporary wilting but it recovers soon without addition of water on cooler portion • Organic matter
of the day or during night. • Degree of swelling
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2. Coverage • Irrigation and drainage requirement of the field depends on soil moisture content and
• Vegetative cover the type of crops and cropping stage. Almost field crop are very sensitive to the water
• Grazing logging condition (except rice). In rice, vegetative stage, tillering stage and grain filling
• Cultivation stage are very sensitive to the adequate available soil moisture. But, soil moisture level
3. Liquid characteristics
should be lowered for grain maturity. In wheat, Crown root initiation (CRI) of wheat
• Viscosity
requires optimum level of the soil moisture.
• Temperature
• Duration of rainfall

11.2 Significance of soil moisture in crop production

• Helps in wearing away of minerals and thus play role in soil formation. It enhances
the soil aggregate formation.
• Soil water associated with soil colloidal surface causes soil to swell and shrink, adhering
and formation of structural aggregates.
• Helps in nutrient holding, movement, retention and innumerable number of soil
reactions are influenced by soil water.
• Supplies sufficient water to meet evapotranspiration need of plants.
• Serves as solvent and makes soil solution.
• Controls soil aeration, heat movement and soil temperature.
• Degree of soil saturation of the field influences the availability of the essential plant
nutrients. For example denitrification and leaching losses of nitrogen takes place in
flooded condition. In contrast, Fe and manganese will be transformed into (oxidized)
plant available form. Moisture level influences the soil pH level which, in turn, influences
the availability of the essential plant nutrients. Zn deficiency has been reported severe
problem under flooded condition in calcareous soils.
• Oxidation of the organic matter is enhances by soil moisture, but under saturation, the
rate decreases as the level of O2 depleted. Mineralization of the OM accelerates when
the long spell of drought is followed the rainfall.
• Has ecological functions including the regulation of the soil metabolism and affects
various management practices.
• Influences infiltration and runoff water in and through soils that affects soil erosion.
• Soil moisture is required for seed germination. Imbibitions of the seed is the first and
stage of the seed germination and this moisture is supplied by soils.
• Higher level of soil moisture increases the incidence of most of the insectpests and
diseases. But drainage helps to control incidence of certain insect pests as brown plant
hopper of rice.
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 Chapter XII Anthesis 30-32oC
Ripening 20-25oC
Agrometeorological Normals for Major crops
Rice has heavy moisture requirements. It can be classified as a hydrophyte. A heavy rainfall
Climate regulates and determines the growth and development of crop plants. Different crops of 125 cm is required during its vegetative period. There should be a monthly rainfall of 200
required varied optimal climatic conditions for better growth and development. It is important mm to grow lowland rice and 100 mm to grow upland rice, successfully. The feet of plant
to select the crop according to the climate suitability so that crop yields will be high. The should remain submerged in water from the time of sprouting to the milk stage of the grain. At
excess or deficiency of climatic elements exerts a negative influence on the organic life. waxy ripeness, no standing water in the field is required. Stress during panicle development to
Climatic norms mean the degree of temperature, amount of rainfall, humidity etc., which early ripening is more harmful and irreversible than that at early or later stages. Prolonged
distinguish optimal conditions from those defined as abnormal, both because of excess and stress during initial stage increases crop duration.
insufficiency. 12.2 Wheat
12.1 Rice This crop has a wide latitudinal distribution. The largest quantities of best wheat are produced
Unlike any other major food crop of the world, rice is grown under diverse environmental in the areas favored with the cool and moist weather during a fairly long growing period
conditions. Its adaptation spreads from sea level to 3000m height in Nepal, from 49oN to 46oS. followed by dry and warm weather to enable the grains to ripen properly. It is grown near the
Crop requires relatively high temperature for optimum growth and development. A mean equator as well as 60oC N and 40oS latitudes. There exist two types of wheat: Spring and
temperature of 220C is required during the growth period. Higher mean temperature may winter wheat. Spring wheat is grown in areas where the winter is prolonged and severe and
reduce the growth duration and accelerate flowering. Low temperature depresses winter wheat is grown in areas where winter is short and mild. Minimum, maximum and
germination, slows down the growth processes and delays the maturity. Rice yield is greatly optimum cardinal temperatures for germination of wheat crops are 3-4.5oC, 30-32oC and 25oC
reduced by the formation of sterile spikelets, which are induced by low temperatures. The respectively. A mean daily temperature of 15 to 20oC is optimum for growth and development.
period during which the low temperature is most critical is about ten to eleven days before Higher temperatures of about 30 to 35oC have detrimental effects on growth. It can survive a
heading occurs. When low temperatures do not occur during this critical period, sterility is temperature of -8 to -10oC in the spring during the early periods of its vegetative growth.
generally not induced-even when temperature exceeds 350C during anthesis and lasts for Prevalence of warm temperature during the early growth wheat may retard heading.
more than 1 hour. In rice, problem is low temperature damage (10 to 210C). Low temperature Temperature above 32oC prevailing 3 to 4 weeks after flowering may ripen the grain
in reproduction and ripening stages results in shattering of grains in many high yielding prematurely. High temperature coupled with high humidity may encourage the spread of rust
varieties. causing reduction of yield. It requires approximately 100 frost free days during the growing
period. Grain filling period is the most important period. High temperature and moisture stress
Rice is a sun loving plant and is classified as short day plant because it flowers when the day
during these periods reduces yield drastically.
length becomes shorter than critical. All long duration varieties are photosensitive. Several
day-neutral and high yielding varieties are also released in past some years. The plant The crop is usually classified as long day crop requiring more than 12 hours day light. But the
requires 30% of full sunlight for its canopy to become light saturated. Values of 5000-6000 new wheat varieties have wide adoptability and a less photosensitive; rather they are more
foot candles are suggested as light saturation intensity. Low light intensity results in reduction thermosensitive. The crop becomes light saturated at about 5300 foot candle. Photosynthesis
of total photosynthesis. Shading reduces incidence of light and also affects growth and increases with increase in CO2 concentration from normal value of 0.03% to 0.13%. Dry winds
development of rice plant. Reduced photosynthesis is reflected through reduced dry matter with high temperature hasten process of maturity; reduce grain weight and yields markedly.
production. Shading makes the plant taller, Shading during the first phase (transplanting to Optimum rainfall requirement is 625 to 825 mm. For swelling moisture required by seed is 40
panicle initiation-44 days) reduces yield more than that at other stages through greater to 50% of dry weight. Once hectare consumes about 2500 to 3000 tons of water. The non-
reduction in effective tiller and length and grains per panicle. availability of moisture inhibits the formation of side shoots. Dry soil completely arrests the
later shoots during the tillering period. Heading stage (crown root initiation) is the most critical
Optimum temperatures required at different stages of rice crop growth are as under;
stage; moisture stress at this stage results in shriveled grains and low yield.
Germination 20-35oC
12.3 Maize
Seedling establishment 25-30oC
Tillering 31oC Maize is warm weather plant that requires high temperature during the growing period. Maize
Panicle inititation 33oC produces good results when the growing season is more than 140 days, with the mean day
temperature of around 24oC and night temperature above 15oC. Low temperature reduces
96 97
growth and extremely high temperature may retard germination of seeds, particularly when it Sugarcane is essentially a tropical plant. Sugarcane thrives best in tropical hot sunny areas. A
is combined with deficient moisture. long summer growing season with an adequate rainfall, fairly dry, sunny and cooled but frost-
Maize is classified as short day or day neutral plant. But several hybrid and composite free ripening period and free from cyclones are characteristic ideal climate conditions for the
varieties are day neutral and can be grown throughout the year if temperature, moisture and production of sugar from canes. It takes generally 12 to 24 months for maturity. For the best
nutrients are not a problem. Saturation light intensity of the crop has been estimated around crop, the monthly temperature should remain about 22oC. When temperature goes below 7oC,
2500 to 3000 foot candle, although it varies with crop age. cane buds don not germinate. The optimum temperature for best growth is known to be
around 30oC. At temperatures below 21oC, root growth and tillering is affected. Moderate heat
The optimum day and night temperature for vegetative growth of crop lies around 30 to 35oC (21 to 26oC), light and humidity are required for early vigorous and fairly uniform tillering.
(day) and 23 to 25oC (night). If at the time of planting soil temperature is low and outlook is for Temperatures below 20oC and above 38oC are not conductive for good growth.
continued moist and cool weather, maize yield is reduced.
The crop attains light saturation at about 6000 foot candle light intensity. With increase in
Maize seed can germinate at 7oC. The temperature of -2 to -3oC prevailing for a few days concentration of CO2 from 0.03% to 0.13%, the photosynthesis increases. The yield of crop is
during tasseling and the milk stage of crop destroys it. Excessively high temperatures are also reduced to one half if the sunshine is cut down to half the normal.
harmful at this stage. If temperatures remain above 32oC during noon hours for several days,
pollen is destroyed and yield is drastically reduced. The crop requires 125 to 165 cm rainfall in a year. Torrential rainfall followed by bright
sunshine is ideal. Rainfall during maturity period is harmful for sucrose formation and
Maize is adapted to humid climates and has a high moisture requirement. It needs about 75 accumulation. Strong winds lodge the crop. Lodged cane contains less sucrose than unlodged
cm of rainfall during its life period. It spends the water economically and tends to be relatively one.
drought resistant crop. During germination period and subsequently up to earing stage, maize
plant can develop with little moisture. The crop requires heavy doses of water during its 12.6 Cotton
inflorescence. Its water requirements are again low when it is developing towards maturity. On Cotton is a warm season crop. It requires a mean annual temperature of 160C & an annual
an average, the range of consumptive use of water by maize is estimated between 41 and 64 rainfall of at least 50 cm distributed throughout growing season. A daily minimum temperature
centimeters. of 160C is required for germination and 21 to 270 C for proper vegetative growth and can
12.4 Potato tolerate up to 430C but does not do well if temperature falls below 210C. During fruiting if
heavy rainfall or irrigation is applied, shedding of the flowers and young balls may result.
Potato is both thermo & photosensitive crop. It is a cool season crop. Optimum soil
temperature for potato crop varies with different stages of the plant. Sprout development in Abundant sunshine during the period of ball maturation and harvesting is essential. It cannot
soil is rapid at a constant temperature of about 240C. However, the later growth will be better stands frost and hence its cultivation is restricted to an altitude of 1000 m only. A frostless
at approximately 180C. Soil temperature above 240C causes excessive branching of young season of 180 to 240 days is required for successful cotton cultivation.
sprouts, shortening of internodes & decrease in fragmentation of leaves. 12.7 Soybean
Tuber yield decreases in higher temperature due to reduction of synthesis of carbohydrates It is basically of temperate origin. Climatic requirements of soybean are similar to those of
over that consumed in respiration. So, temperature above 250C decreases tuber formation. maize. Therefore, soybean can be grown wherever maize is produced. Most of the varieties
Similarly, mild frost to the extent of -10C partially damages the potato leaves but when require a temperature range of 30 to 33oC. Minimum, optimum and maximum cardinal
temperature falls below -20C, the exposed part of the most of the varieties are damaged. temperature for germination are 5, 30 and 40oC respectively. A day temperature of 25oC or
Saturation light intensity for potato is 3000 foot-candle. Water requirement for potato crop less may delay the flowering and prolonged period of cloudy weather may tend to extend the
during its vegetative period are not very high. Fifteen to twenty cm of rainfall or irrigation is vegetative phase at the expense of seed yield. Soybean growth is limited by soil temperatures
sufficient. in excess of 33oC. At 27oC, nodule formation, development and nitrogen fixation were found to
Though no initial moisture content of soil is required for germination but for development of be most rapid. Nodulation is slow if temperatures are below or above this. Freezing
leaves and for branching, moisture is needed, Optimum soil moisture for potato crop is 65 to temperature can result in almost complete damage of leaves up to pod filling stage and in low
80% of the field capacity. Immediately after sowing and before sprouting, heavy rainfall leads seed yield when exposed before pod filling. High temperature during flowering and ripening
adverse effect. However, alternate dry and wetting leads to an excessive growth of plant and increases fat but reduces nitrogen content.
encourages the formation of off shoots on the young tubers. It is short day plant and is highly photoperiodic. A variation of 15 min in day length may be
12.5 Sugarcane sufficient to inhibit proper development in a specific variety.
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Water requirement of the soybean vary with climatic conditions, management practices and temperatures are between 25.5 and 21oC. It approaches the head stage slowly at a mean
length of growing season. In subtropical climates, about 65 cm of rainfall during growing temperature of 13 to 15.50C, and can stand market supply for many days at a mean
season is sufficient for a successful crop. Yield is adversely affected by moisture stress during temperature of about 10oC. This permits the long harvest period of good quality cabbage. It
pod filling stage and may resulting 20 to 50% reduction in grain yield. An excess of soil withstands frost in the fall or winter in the head stage, but freezing is generally destructive.
moisture inhibit nitrogen fixation. Yield is adversely affected by low atmospheric humidity. A When the mean monthly temperature exceeds 21oC, growth becomes slow and abnormal and
sufficient reduction in yield occurs when actively growing soybean is subjected to the quality is usually poor.
comparatively dry air. Strong wind at the time of pod filling may cause shattering when the Tomato: The temperature requirement of tomatoes differs at different stages of its growth.
pods are ripening. Germination of tomato seeds commences when the soil temperature is 14-160C. Research
12.8 Citrus shows that day/night temperature of 26.5/20oC is optimum for vegetative growth. Reduced
Citrus belongs to evergreen subtropical group and thrives well in frost free subtropical to growth rate of plants is observed at soil temperature below 17oC and air temperature below
semitropical climates. Citrus fruits include sweet orange, grapefruit, lemon and lime. These 20oC. The growth stops when the air temperature drops to about 8oC. High temperature of 30
are raised both in humid and sub humid regions. to 35oC especially when accompanied by low relative humidity cause large scale flower
dropping. Fruit setting is higher and fruit size larger at a temperature approximately 18oC.
The lowest temperature at which germination and growth takes place is 13oC and the Below 10oC, no fruit setting takes place. The optimum temperature for ripening of tomatoes is
maximum temperatures up to which growth takes place is 38oC. The optimum temperature for 20-25oC. Tomato plants require large amounts of light; shading produce low yields.
growth ranges between 23 and 33oC for sweet orange and 26 and 33oC for sour orange. The
hardiest type of citrus can withstand the temperature of -8oC. Younger tress of less than six Cucumber: The cucumber is a heat loving plant. Below 12oC cucumber seeds do not sprout;
years are comparatively more seriously damaged by low temperatures. at 18oC sprouts appear slowly (within 8 to 10 days) and at 25 to 30oC they appear within three
to five days. Seed sown very early in the cold and humid soil will not germinate. The optimum
For normal fruit production, about 90 cm rainfall per year is needed. In humid climates, there temperature for its growth is around 25oC. Cucumbers also require a high atmospheric
is sufficient rainfall for the production of these fruits. In many areas during the winter season humidity and a fairly humid soil. When an air temperature falls below 14oC, the plants turn
the rainfall is however inadequate and the application of irrigation water is very beneficial yellow and growth stops.
when trees are in bloom.
The shape, skin texture and color of citrus fruits are affected by climatic factors of which
relative humidity is the most dominating factor. It has been observed in areas where relative
humidity is high, citrus fruit tend to be smoother, thin skinned, better in quality and are more
juicy. However, under high humidity conditions citrus fruits are more affected by fungal and
bacterial diseases.
Hot dry desiccating winds are major contributing factors in poor yield. Such winds in addition
to mechanical damage causing defoliation, death of twigs and loss of fruit through excessive
transpiration
12.9 Vegetable crops
The majority of winter vegetable crops produce best results when grown within the
temperature range of 16-21oC. some vegetable crops like bean, tomato, onion and cucumber
deliver the best yields in the temperature range of 13 to 27oC. vegetables except beans
require high water amounts in the soil throughout the growing season. Commercial production
is therefore chiefly confined to the regions having annual rainfall between 75 to 100 cm.
Instead of annual, the growing season rainfall ranging between 50 to 60 cm is more
representative of the ideal moisture for the growth and production of the vegetable crops.
Cabbage and cauliflower: Cabbage is grown to some extent in every country in the
subtropical and temperate areas of the world. Cabbage grows best when monthly mean
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 Chapter XIII h= barrier height (same unit as the L)
Microclimatic modification Vm= Minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to move the most erodible soil
fraction
13.1 Importance and significance of microclimate modification in agriculture V= Actual wind velocity at 15 m height
Microclimate modification is a new concept to bring the field in the artificial control of the plant Θ= The angle of deviation of prevailing wind direction from the perpendicular to wind
environment (climatic condition) to keep up the optimum condition for plant growth and crop break.
production. This concept of farming does not cover vast area of farmland but it is limited in Advantages of wind break or shelter belt
micro level. In the large field areas, climate cannot be controlled as per plants requirement. A
practice of environmental control requires a complete knowledge of physiology of • Control of soil erosion
plants and physical environment. Indeed great efforts are required to achieve this • Conservation from mechanical damages
breakthrough. • Produces fuel as woods
• Protect orchards from hot and cold wind i.e. protect crops from freezing and mechanical
A set of conditions artificially created for one type of species may not be suitable for the next
damages caused by cold air winds.
or neighboring species. Moreover, the optimum conditions vary with growth and development
conditions ideally suitable for plants at one period may not be optimum for the next period in However there are some disadvantages of wind breaks. These are
its growth stage. Thus, the control of environment needs to be made specific, continuous or • Develop shading and thus reduce crop yield
intermittent. Further, the interaction within the available energy and physiology of plants are • Root competition with main crops
very complex which need to be consider.
• Harboring bird population
The control or modification of physical environment practices at present can be grouped into • Fungal diseases
three categories • Waste of water through transpiration
i. Controlling wind velocity/motion Overall, the speed reduction of wind depends on the permeability, height, width and shape of
ii. Controlling heat load wind break or shelter belt.
iii. Controlling water balance
i. Controlling wind velocity/motion Shelterbelt/Windbreak
Shelterbelt and windbreaks are row(s) of trees planted in the land at right angle to the prevailing wind direction
Wind has direction and velocity and both are significant. Wind is necessary in the and hence they reduce the velocity of wind and as a result reduce evaporation and prevent soil erosion. There is
physiological activities such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and pollination, which no consistent agreement in the difference between these two terms. However, shelterbelt is mostly used to
help to accelerate these activities. However, excessive wind motion leads mechanical describe wind barriers around the agricultural land and pastures while the term windbreaks describes wind
damage as well as physiological disorder on the plants. So, in that condition, there should be barrier around the building, garden and orchard.
control of wind motion, which could be done by the help of shelter belt or wind breaks.
Advantages of shelterbelt
Specifically, shelter belt indicates mechanical or structural barrier such as building, wall,
fences etc and wind break denotes biological barrier such as trees, crops etc. But they are 1. It prevents or at least reduces the velocity of wind and reduces the soil erosion of agricultural land and
generally taken as synonymously. And they indicate any barrier installed usually at right to the pasture land and more fertile land is available for agriculture.
direction of prevailing wind. 2. It prevents or reduce evaporation and hence more water is available to the crops,
3. It reduces transpiration from the plant surfaces,
Area protection from wind break 4. It moderates extreme temperatures,]
The distance of the protection mainly depends on the barrier heights. We have a 5. It provides aesthetic values in areas where tree and shrubs are scarce.,
mathematical relation; 6. It can increase the snow catch in cold climate and improve soil moisture.
7. It improves organic matter content of the soil,
L=17 h (Vm/V) x Cosθ 8. It provides different products.
Where, L= distance of full protection (m)
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 Species for shelter belts and windbreaks Crop production depends on the climate to a much greater extents than any other single
factors of the environment. However, a larger number of crops are being grown traditionally in
1. Resistant to wind, areas without considering to the fitness of the climate. As a result, poor yield of crop is
2. Native and introduced tree species which have proven their ability to the soil and climate of the region,
obtained. And on the other hand, many potential areas for production are being uncultivated.
3. Trees and shrubs should exhibit rapid growth in height. They must have dense uniform crown, thrifty
growth, perennial foliage and adequate height with straight stem, Food demand is increasing day by day but land and water resources are being the constant
4. They should have deep and strong tap root system and should not spreads to nearby agricultural crops, factors. So, the resources base of agriculture need careful management to increase the farm
5. They must be resistant to drought, heat, cold, diseases and insectpests, production from a unit area. Great improvements in technologies are being made to manage
6. They must have desirable character for e.g. leaves all year long or only part of the year. the resources of the variables involved in crop production, but successful managements of the
7. Value for the wood or other products such as forage, climate are still limited. The Netherlands, England and Israel could be the examples for the
8. Easy to propagated. success in agricultural development by micro-climate modification.
The significances of the microclimatic modification mainly lies in;
ii. Control of heat load i. Increase the quality crop production
Sometimes radiation/heat needs to be lowered whereas sometime it needs to be increased ii. Regulate the production season(off-season crop production)
according to the environmental conditions and environmental required of the crops.
In case of high temperature/heat/radiation;
• Controlled green house
• Step by step cropping systems or layering cropping system/stairs
• Irrigation
• Shelter belt/shading of plants
In case of low heat
• Polyhouse and green house
• Planting in sunny side
• Terracing
• Mulching
iii. Control of water balances
Natural moisture content could not be sufficient forever and sometimes it needs to be lower
also.
In deficiency condition:
• Irrigation
• Run off control and improve infiltration so water stored in root zone
• Reducing losses due to evapotranspiration by mulching, contouring, terracing etc.
In case of excess condition
• Drainage system

13.2 Importance and significance of microclimatic modification

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 Chapter XIV i. Delineation of climatically homogenous areas based on the topographic features and
prevailing climatic conditions. This can be done by the analysis of the topographical, soil
Agroclimatic regionalization and crop zonation and climatic maps. Topographic map gives the information about slope, elevation and
area cover; soil map deals with soil texture, structure, fertility and moisture content;
Agroclimatic regionalization and crop zonation climatic map deals with humidity, precipitation, radiation and temperature and wind
Weather elements affecting life cycle of plant are; motion.
ii. Identifying the climatic requirement of the different crops and crop varieties. For
b. Elements important to vegetative growth of plant:
this we should know the climatic parameters that control growth and development of the
• Moisture, crop.
• radiation and temperature iii. Assessing the pattern of climate of the given area
c. Elements important to the development of successive phase: iv. Matching the climate requirement of the crop for a given area
• Day length, v. Evaluating the suitability of crop
• daily range of temperature, annual variation in radiation and temperature,
• duration of frost free period, Crop zonation
• duration of rainy and dry season,
• Wind motion, humidity. In brief, it is the process of distinguishing the area into different zones and classifying them
according to the suitability of different crops after the detail analysis of the climatic condition of
Agroclimate that area and matching it with the climatic requirement for different crops.
It is defined as the total of climatic conditions rendering possible economic cultivation of plant
species expressed either in their value of intensity, duration, frequency and moment of
occurrence, or in the value of their integral effects upon living organisms and soil. In brief, Agroclimatic Zones of Nepal (Reference with horticultural crops)
agroclimate denotes the climatic requirements in relation to the agricultural production. Nepal lies between 26.2-30.100 latitude and 80.15-88.20 longitutde and north of the tropic of
Agroclimatic index cancer. Climatically, Nepal falls within monsoon system of sub-contient of of India on south.
Climate of Nepal can be divided into 4 distinct soans viz. hot and dry season from March to
It is the quantitative relationship between climate and agricultural production i.e. the mid-June, wet period summer season from mid-June to September and dry and cold season
values of agroclimate are expressed in agroclimatic indices. from Octobor to February. The dry period is dominated by prevailing wind that flows from
Agroclimatic regionalization Northwest and sometimes from the West. But wet period is characterized by the summer
monsoon. This wind system hitting Nepal mostly from southwest is in fact a part of S-W
It is a scientific method or process of delineating the climatically homogenous areas and
monsoon flow. Wet seson is very important for agriculturist because most of agricultural
evaluating the suitability of the crops on those areas after the full detail analysis of the
operations plant growth takes place during the wet period. Therefore, knowledge of the time
climate requirement of those crops. It is useful for planning a uniform agricultural development
when wet seaon wet in, the amount of precipitation and annual season variation are very
and designing most profitable cropping pattern. It also helps in specializing farm production
important. Climate is greatly modified by the variation in elevation as well as in the position of
and in determining agronomic and cultural practices.
mountain range.
Methods of agroclimatic regionalization
Latitudinally, Nepal lies in the lower part of the Warm Temperate Zone. However, due to
For delineating an agroclimatic region, two steps should be followed; higher elevation of the country, the average temperature of Nepal is very low. In general,
i. Quantify the main climatic characteristics like heat, wind and moisture in the form of temperature tends to rise as one goes towards west e.g. the average temperature in Easter
agroclimatic indices Terai in June is 260C where as the average temperature in Western in June is 320C.
ii. Mapping the geographical distribution of the indices in the form of agroclimatic Relief plays an important role in distribution of precipitation. Precipitation is heavier over the
region. hill, north of the plans including Mahabharate Lekh and over the middle and futher north (800-
2000 m altitude). The average precipitation in Nepal is 1,000 to 1,600 mm. The amount of
rainfall decreases as one goes westward. Leeward side of mountain may not get much rain.
Steps of Agroclimatic regionalization However, windward side of Mahabharate mountain range gets a lot of rain.
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Five characteristic climate-belts are distinguished in Nepal. They are. walnut, and other temperate stone fruits and hardy vegetables can be grown in this
i. Hot monsoon: They are in the Terai, Bhaber, Churia and Inner Terai with hot and wet zone.
summes and mild and dry winters.
ii. Warm termperate monsoon in Mahabharate lekh and beyond upto height of about
2,130m with warm and wet summers and cold and dry winters.
iii. Cold temperate monsoon in Mahabharat lekh and beyond upto height of about 3,350m
with mild wet summers and cold and dry winters.
iv. Alpine in higher mountain region upto a height of about 4,870m with a low temperature
in summer and extremely frosty condition in winter.
v. Tundra above the snow line where there are perpetual frost and cold desert condition.

Nepal can be divided into 4 zones on the basis of horticultural crop production
i. Tropical zone: In this region temperature is high and it becomes hot throughout the
year, except some periods in winter. There is no frost at all and snow is rare. The
average annual temperature exceeds 240C. The altitude is about 75m to 1,000m from
MSL. The eastern region gets more rain compared with the western zones. The whole
terai and lower valley in the hills falls in this region. Horticultural crops, which are
grown successfully in this zone are mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, litchi, jackfruit,
guava etc, non-hardy (tender) vegetables.
ii. Sub-tropical zone: This region is comparatively cooler than the tropical zone. There is
distinct summer and mild frosty winter. Summer season is comparatively long and
humidity is high. The altitude ranges from about 1,000 m to 1,5000m from MSL. The
average annual temperature remains about 170C to 240C. The lower mid-hills fall in
this zone. Citrus fruits are predominantly grown with other fruits such as pomegranate,
fig, date, guava, avocado, semi-hardy and non-hardy vegetables are grown well. Some
low-chilling varieties of fruits such as strawberry, peach, plum and apricot of temperate
zones can also be grown successfully.
iii. Mid-temperate zone: In this zone, there is moderate climate throughout the year and
winter is not very severe. The altitude generally ranges from 1,050m to 2,000m above
means sea level. The higher altitude may get snow during winters. High hills and mid
hills, base of the high hills, and lower Mahabharat lekh fall in this zone. The annual
average temperature lies between 10 to 150C.The mild deciduous fruits such as peach,
plum, pear, almond, apricot, persimmon, chestnut etc. and hardy and semi-hardy
vegetables can be grown successfully.
iv. Temperate zone: In this region, winter is pronounced with frost. Snow occurs every
year. It becomes very cold throughout the year. The average temperature is less than
100C and in winter it is less than 00C. Rainfall also is less. The altitude is between
2,000-3,000 from MSL. Mahabharat lekh and high hills falls in this region. Apple, pear,
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 Chapter XV Greenhouse gases vary in their ability to absorb and hold heat in the atmosphere, a
Human influence on Climate phenomenon known as the "greenhouse effect." HFCs and PFCs are the most heat-
absorbent, but there are also wide differences between naturally occurring gases. For
15.1 Global warming and greenhouse effects example, nitrous oxide absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide, and
methane absorbs 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide.
Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's
mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the Climate change and its causes
increase occurring since 1980. Such global rise in temperature is due to effect of greenhouse
Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in
gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which
temperature, precipitation, winds, and other indicators. Climate change can involve both
trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.
changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, extreme
events.

The earth's climate is naturally variable on all time scales. However, its long-term state and
average temperature are regulated by the balance between incoming and outgoing energy,
which determines the Earth's energy balance. Any factor that causes a sustained change to
the amount of incoming energy or the amount of outgoing energy can lead to climate change.
As these factors are external to the climate system, they are referred to as 'climate forcers',
invoking the idea that they force or push the climate towards a new long-term state - either
warmer or cooler depending on the cause of change. Different factors operate on different
time scales, and not all of those factors that have been responsible for changes in earth's
climate in the distant past are relevant to contemporary climate change. Factors that cause
climate change can be divided climate change.
i. Natural Causes
Greenhouse gases
The Earth's climate can be affected by natural factors that are external to the climate system,
Many greenhouse gases occur naturally, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, such as changes in volcanic activity, solar output, and the Earth's orbit around the Sun.
nitrous oxide, and ozone. Others such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Of these, the two factors relevant on times cales of contemporary climate change are
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) result exclusively from human changes in volcanic activity and changes in solar radiation. In terms of the Earth's energy
industrial processes. balance, these factors primarily influence the amount of incoming energy. Volcanic eruptions
are episodic and have relatively short-term effects on climate. Changes in solar irradiance
Human activities also add significantly to the level of naturally occurring greenhouse gases: have contributed to climate trends over the past century but since the Industrial Revolution,
• Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by the burning of solid waste, wood the effect of additions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere has been about ten times that
and wood products, and fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal). of changes in the Sun's output.
• Nitrous oxide emissions occur during various agricultural and industrial processes, and ii. Human Causes
when solid waste or fossil fuels are burned.
Climate change can also be caused by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels
• Methane is emitted when organic waste decomposes, whether in landfills or in and the conversion of land for forestry and agriculture. Since the beginning of the
connection with livestock farming. Methane emissions also occur during the production Industrial Revolution, these human influences on the climate system have increased
and transport of fossil fuels. substantially. In addition to other environmental impacts, these activities change the land
surface and emit various substances to the atmosphere. These in turn can influence both the
The Properties of Greenhouse Gases amount of incoming energy and the amount of outgoing energy and can have both warming
110 111
and cooling effects on the climate. Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere i. Soil processes
are much higher than they have been for the last 800,000 years. Since industrialisation,
greenhouse gas concentrations have increased dramatically. The major cause of this increase The potential for soils to support agriculture and distribution of land use will be influenced by
is the burning of fossil fuels. During the 150 years of the industrial age, the atmospheric changes in soil water balance: It increases in soil water deficits i.e. dry soils become drier,
concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by 31 percent. Over the same period, the level therefore increased need for irrigation but Could improve soil workability in wetter regions and
of atmospheric methane has risen by 151 percent, mostly from agricultural activities such as diminish poaching and erosion risk
raising cattle and growing rice. The dominant product of fossil fuel combustion is carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The overall effect of human activities since the Industrial ii. Crops
Revolution has been a warming effect, driven primarily by emissions of carbon dioxide
and enhanced by emissions of other greenhouse gases. The effect of increased temperature and CO2 levels on arable crops will be broadly neutral:
• The range of current crops will move northward
The build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has led to an enhancement of the
natural greenhouse effect. It is this human-induced enhancement of the greenhouse effect • New crop varieties may need to be selected
that is of concern because ongoing emissions of greenhouse gases have the potential to • Horticultural crops are more susceptible to changing conditions than arable crops; (what
warm the planet to levels that have never been experienced in the history of human happens to the high chilling requiring temperature fruits such as apple???)
civilization. Such climate change could have far-reaching and/or unpredictable environmental,
• Field vegetables will be particularly affected by temperature changes
social, and economic consequences.
• Phaselous bean, onion and sweet corn are most likely to benefit commercially from
15.2 Human influence on climate change higher temperatures
That changed with the start of the Industrial Revolution, when new agricultural and industrial • Water deficits will directly affect fruit and vegetable production
practices began to alter the global climate and environment. Before that time, human activity
iii. Grasslands and livestock
didn’t release many greenhouse gases, but population growth, deforestation, factory farming,
• There is unlikely to be a significant change in suitability of livestock.
and the widespread use of fossil fuels are creating an excess of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and contributing to global warming and climate change • Pigs and poultry could be exposed to higher incidences of heat stress, thus influencing
productivity
• Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and
various industrial practices are the major causes of global warming. • Increase in disease transmission by faster growth rates of pathogens in the
environment and more efficient and abundant vectors (such as insects)
• Carbon dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are burned to produce energy used for
transportation and manufacturing. • Consequences for food quality and storage
• The burning of trees, which is deforestation, is also the major causes of carbon dioxide iv. Weeds, pests and diseases:
emission into the atmosphere. • Weeds evolve rapidly to overcome control measures, short lived weeds and those that
spread vegetatively (creeping buttercup, couch etc) evolve at the greatest rate:
• Overall, the increasing number of cars and industries leads to a large fuel consumption
and high level of carbon dioxide emission. Then the emission of carbon dioxide, leads to • Rate of evolution will increase in hotter, drier conditions and in 'extreme years', could
global warming. lead to some types of herbicide tolerance becoming more common
• Possible increase in the range of many native pests, and species that at present are
15.3 Expected effects of global warming on global agricultural production not economically important may become so
As the concentration of greenhouse gases grows, more heat is trapped in the atmosphere and • Surveillance and eradication processes for other significant pests, such as the Colarado
less escapes back into space. This increase in trapped heat changes the climate and alters beetle will become increasingly important
weather patterns, which may hasten species extinction, influence the length of seasons,
cause coastal flooding, and lead to more frequent and severe storms.
Predicted effects of climate change on agriculture over the next 50 years
112 113
 Climatic Expected changes by 2050's Effects on agriculture urchins, kelp beds, and fish populations, appears to have collapsed due to loss
element of plankton, leading to loss of sea lions, leading orcas to eat too many sea
CO2 Increase from 379 ppm to 450 Good for crops: increased otters, leading to urchin explosions, leading to loss of kelp beds and their
- 600 ppm photosynthesis; reduced water associated fish populations.
use
Sea Rise by 10 -15 cm Increased Loss of land, coastal erosion,
level in south and offset in north by flooding, salinisation of
rise natural subsistence/rebound groundwater
Temper Seasonal changes by ± 10% Impacts on drought risk' soil
ature workability, water logging
irrigation supply, transpiration
Stormin Increased wind speeds, Lodging, soil erosion,
ess especially in north. More reduced infiltration of rainfall
intense rainfall events.

Many of the following "harbingers" and "fingerprints" are now well under way:

1. Rising Seas--- inundation of fresh water marshlands (the everglades), low-

lying cities, and islands with seawater.
2. Changes in rainfall patterns --- droughts and fires in some areas, flooding in
other areas. See the section above on the recent droughts, for example!
3. Increased likelihood of extreme events--- such as flooding, hurricanes, etc.
4. Melting of the ice caps --- loss of habitat near the poles. Polar bears are now
thought to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season
due to dwindling ice packs.
5. Melting glaciers - significant melting of old glaciers is already observed.
6. Widespread vanishing of animal populations --- following widespread habitat
loss.
7. Spread of disease --- migration of diseases such as malaria to new, now
warmer, regions.
8. Bleaching of Coral Reefs due to warming seas and acidification due to
carbonic acid formation --- One third of coral reefs now appear to have been
severely damaged by warming seas.
9. Loss of Plankton due to warming seas --- The enormous (900 mile long)
Aleution island ecosystems of orcas (killer whales), sea lions, sea otters, sea
114 115