ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS
&
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL
Subject name: Optical communication
Subject Code: KEC-058
Branch/Semester: ECE/5TH
Session: 2023-24(Odd-Semester)

Team members:
1. Prof. (Dr.) Priyanka Bhardwaj
2. Dr. Manidipa Roy
 B-TECH. ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

(THIRD YEAR)

Lecture Tutorial Practical

S.No. Course Code Course Title Credits
(L) (T) (P)

SEMESTER IV

1. KEC-501 Integrated Circuits 3 1 0 4

Microprocessor & 3 0 0
2. KEC-502 3
Microcontroller 2 1 0

3. KEC-503 Digital Signal Processing 3 0 0 3

4. KEC-051–054 Department Elective-I 3 1 0 4

5. KEC-055-058 Department Elective-II 3 1 0 4

6. KEC-551 Integrated Circuits Lab 0 0 2 1

Microprocessor &
7. KEC-552 0 0 2 1
Microcontroller Lab
Digital Signal Processing
8. KEC-553 0 0 2 1
Lab
9. KEC-554 Mini Project/Internship 0 0 2 0
Constitution of India,
KNC501/KNC5 Law and
10. Engineering / Indian 2 0 0 2
02
Tradition,
Culture and Society
MOOCs
11. (Essential for Hons.
Degree)
TOTAL SEMESTER CREDITS 21

**The Mini Project or Internship (4weeks) conducted during summer break after IV Semester
and will be assessed during Vth Semester.
Department Elective - I Department Elective - II
KEC-051 Computer Architecture and KEC-055 Electronics Switching
Organization KEC-056 Advance Semiconductor Device
KEC-052 Industrial Electronics KEC-057 Electronic Instrumentation and
KEC-053 VLSI Technology Measurements
KEC-054 Advance Digital Design using KEC-058 Optical Communication
Verilog
 UNIT 1
1.1 Introduction to Optical Communication
1.1.1 General Communication System
1.1.2 System need for optic fibre Communication
1.1.3 General Fiber Optic Communication Systems
1.1.4 Advantages of Optical Fiber Communications
1.1.5 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communications
1.1.6 Electromagnetic Spectrum & Optical Windows
1.1.7 Industrial applications of optical communication
1.2 Ray Theory of Transmission
1.2.1 1Reflection
1.2.2Refraction
1.2.3 Refractive Index
1.2.4Snell’s Law
1.2.5Critical Angle
1.2.6Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
1.2.7 Acceptance Angle
1.2.8Acceptance Cone
1.2.9Numerical Aperture (NA)
1.2.10 Numerical
1.2.11Applications of Ray Theory of transmission
1.2.12 Questions & Answers
1.3 Optical Fiber as Waveguide
1.3.1 Single fiber structure
1.3.2 Modes of Fiber Profiles
1.3.3 Step Index (SI) Fiber
1.3.4 Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber
1.3.5 Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fiber
1.4 Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation
1.4.1 Maxwell theory Modes in a planar guide
1.4.2 Modes in a Planar Guide Phase and Group velocity
1.4.3 Phase & Group velocity in Optical fibers
1.4.4 Phase Shift with total internal reflection
1.4.5Evanescent Field Goos-Haenchen Shift
1.5 Cylindrical Fiber
1.5.1 Modes
1.5.2 Solutions of Wave Equation
1.5.3 Bessel Function Solutions Normalized Frequency /V-Number
Introduction to Optical Communication

General Communication System

Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to
another. When the information is to be conveyed over any distance a communication
system is required. Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently
achieved by superimposing or modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave
which acts as a carrier for the information signal. This modulated carrier is then
transmitted to the required destination where it is received and the original information
signal is obtained by demodulation.

Fig1.1:-A General Communication System

Basically there are 2 types of communication system:

A. Wired Communication :Copper Cable, Waveguide, Optical Fiber

B. Wireless Communication: Free space

Need of fiber optic communication

Fiber optic communication system has emerged as most important communication system.
Compared to traditional system because of following requirements:

In long haul transmission system there is need of low loss transmission medium
There is need of compact and least weight transmitters and receivers.
There is need of increase the span of transmission.
There is need of increased bit rate-distance product.

A fiber optic communication system fulfils these requirements, hence most widely accepted.

General Optical Fiber Communication System

Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following
importantblocks.
A. Transmitter
B. Information channel
C. Receiver

Fig 1. 2:- The Optical Fiber Communication System

Information Source:-
It provides the information in the form of electrical signal into transmitter and it
comprises ofElectrical stage of Optical fiber Communication System.

Electrical Transmit:-
It drives an optical source to give a modulation of the light wave carrier. Modulation
convertsthe electrical message into the proper format and also impresses the signal onto
the wave generated by the carrier source.
Two distinct categories of modulation are used i.e. analog modulation and digital modulation.
 Optical Source:-

It provides the Electrical-Optical Conversion i.e., converts the electrical signal into the
optical one. There are basically two types of optical source:-

a. LED(Light Emitting Diode)

b. Semiconductor Laser

Optical Cable:-
It serves as the transmission medium for transmitting signal which is in the form of
optical into destination or receiver section from transmitting transmission. Optical cable
which is used here is basically a form of cylindrical waveguide or optical fiber
waveguide having core as inner layer and cladding as outer layer having different
refractive index and thus follows the principle of TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
(TIR) for its operation.
Optical Detector:-
In the optical fiber system the optic signal is converted into an electric current by a photo
detector. The current developed by the detector is proportional to the power in the
incident optic wave. Detector output current contains the transmitted information. This
detector outputis then filtered to remove the constant bias and then amplified.
The Commonly used photo detectors are: - PIN Diode, Avalanche Photodiode etc.
Electrical Receive:-
The electrical signal received from the photo detector is further processed for its
availability in the destination at this block. In this section signal processing is done so as
to improve the SNR (Signal to Noise ratio). Also in this section bit error rate is calculated
and further minimized so that the signal received will have minimum noise and error.
Destination:-
This is the point at which signal has to reach finally and in this section signal is further
transformed into form it is required such as sound etc.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Communications

Wide bandwidth
The light wave occupies the frequency range between 2 ⨉ 1012 Hz to 3.7 ⨉ 1012
Hz. Thus the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is much higher.
Low losses
Fiber optic cables offers bery less signal attenuation over long distances.
Typically it is less than 1 dB/km. This enables longer distance communication
between repeaters.
Immune to cross talk
A fiber optic cable has very high immunity to electric and magnetic field. Since
fiber optic cables are non-conductors of electricity hence they do not produce
magnetic field. Thus fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk between cables
cause by magnetic induction.
Interference immune
Fiber optic cable are immune to conductive and radiative interferences caused by
electrical noise sources such as lighting, electric motors, fluorescent lights.
1.1.4.5 Light weight
As fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than
copper or aluminiumcables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport.
Small size
The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore fiber
cableis small in size, requires less storage space.
More strength
Fiber cables are stronger and rugged hence can support more weight.
Security
Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap into
fibercable as they do not radiate signals.
No ground loops exist between optical fibers hence they are more secure.
Long distance transmission
Because of less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is possible.
Environment immune
Fiber cables are more immune to environmental extremes. They can operate
overlarge temperature variations. Also they are not affected by corrosive liquids
and gases.
Safe and easy installation
Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain. They are non-conductors
hence there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is associated with them.
Theirsmall size and light weight feature makes installation easier.
Less cost
Cost of fiber optic system is less compared to any other system.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communications

High initial cost
The initial cost of installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other
system.
Maintenance and repairing cost
The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic systems is not only difficult but
expensive also.
Joining and test procedures
Since optical fibers are of very small size. The fiber joining process is very costly
andrequires skilled manpower.
Tensile stress
Optical fibers are more susceptible to buckling, bending and tensile stress than
coppercables. This leades to restricted practice to use optical fiber technology to
premises and floor backbones with a few interfaces to the copper cables.
Short links
Even though optical fiber cables are inexpensive, it is still not cost effective to
replace every small conventional connector (e.g. between computers and
peripherals), as the price of optoelectronic transducers are very high.
Fiber losses
The amount of optical fiber available to the photo detector at the end of fiber
length depends on various fiber losses such as scattering, dispersion, attenuation
and reflection.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum & Optical Windows
The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging
from below one hertz to above 1025 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from
thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This
frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within
each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency (long
wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible
light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end.
The electromagnetic waves ineach of these bands have different characteristics, such as
how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications.

Fig 1. 3:-Electromagnetic Spectrum Showing Optical Windows

Since Fiber optic signals must propagate through a medium, often glass, this media has
an influence on propagation characteristics. Not all frequencies propagate equally
through all media. In optical fibre, we have globally settled on three windows when the
glass will permitthe greatest throughput to flow. These Windows are:-

1. 850nm – normally used for multimode links

2. 1310nm-normally used for single mode links-Course wave
divisionmultiplexing(CWDM)
3. 1550nm-normally used for single mode links-dense wave division multiplexing
 1.1.7 Industrial applications of optical communication

A. In Telecommunication Industries:-
They can be used as a medium for long-distance communication. Since the light does
notleak out of the fibre much as it travels, the light can go a long distance before the
signal gets too weak. This is used to send telephone and internet signals between
cities. Signals for many conversations can be carried over a single fibre without
amplifiers.

B. In Medical industry:-
A Gastroscope is a thick optical cable consisting of many optical fibres. They are
used by doctors to look down a person’s throat to detect illnesses inside their
stomach.
Other types of endoscopes in which optical fibres are used are arthroscopes (used
to search for problems in joints like shoulders or knees) and bronchoscopes (used
to see inside the lungs).
Another example of its use in the medical industry is for x-ray, MRI, CAT, PET
imaging and light therapy. Optical fibres help to transmit images of organs or
arteries,which were previously inaccessible without the use of surgery.
C. In Industrial endoscopes:-
Optical fibres are used as industrial endoscopes. Examples include a fiberscope or
boroscope. They can be used to examine things like inaccessible pieces of
machinery such as airplane engines or the inside of a clock. Many microscopes
use fibre-optic light to provide very strong lighting of samples being studied.
D. In spectroscopy:-
In spectroscopy, optical fibre bundles analyse compositions of a substance that is
unable to be placed inside the spectrometer. By using fibres, a spectrometer can
be used to study objects.
E. Optical fibre is sometimes used for shorter links too, like carrying the sound
signals between a compact disc player and a stereo receiver. The fibres used for
these short links are often made of plastic.
F. Fibres are also used for decoration, like fibre-optic Christmas trees, signs or art.
For example, the jewellery shop Swarovski use optical fibres to light up the
crystals insidethe shop.
G. An anti-tank missile uses fibre optic cable for flight control, so that signals on
fibre optic cables cannot be jammed.

University Questions

Two-mark questions
1. Write down the wavelength region corresponding to first, second and third windows.
2. Define Optical Sources and Name it
3. Define Optical Detectors and Name it

Five-mark questions
1. Enlist the advantages of Optical Communication.
2. Write the disadvantages of Optical Communication
 3. Enlist the applications of Optical Communication
4. Distinguish between Conventional Communication system and
OpticalCommunication System.

Ten-mark questions

1. Draw the block Diagram Optical Fiber Communication System. Enlist the
advantagesof optical Communication.
2. Explain the different blocks of optical Communication with proper Diagram

Concept based questions & answers

1. What is the difference between an optical and an acoustic
phonon?Ans:-
Optical phonons are involved in the Raman scattering process and acoustic
phonons in the Brillouin scattering. Acoustic frequency is in the 10-11 GHz
range, whereasoptical phonons in the range of 10-12 THz.

2. What are the problems with the direct conversion of analog video signals into
opticalsignals?
Ans:-
The direct conversion of an analog electrical signal to an optical signal and back
has non-linear effects that distort analog video signals. It is difficult to
compensate for these distortions. Fiber also has attenuation that causes optical
power to dim over longer distances. When the dimmed optical signal is converted
back into an electrical signal, the voltage levels are too low. Amplifiers can
compensate for low voltage, but also increase signal noise, thereby reducing the
signal-to-noise ratio. Fiber optic AV equipment that uses analog techniques
suffers from increased noise and distortion, which produces a low quality video
signal.

Electronics Industry based questions & answers

1. Do Signals Really Travel Faster In Fiber

Optics?Ans:-
Sending communications at the speed of light" means the speed of light in
glass (about 2/3 C), but signals in UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cables like
Cat 5e travel at about the same speed (2/3 C). Coax, meanwhile, has a faster
NVP (nominal velocity of propagation), about 0.9C, due to its design. Fibers
"speed" is not referring to the speed of the signal in the fiber, but the
bandwidth potential of the fiber.
2. Will "intelligent Buildings" Use Fiber Optics or Copper Wiring to Carry
Voice/data/videoThroughout the Structure?
Ans:-
Both Fiber will be used when the distances are longer than 90 meters or data
ratesare higher (e.g. Gigabit Ethernet). Most backbones will be fiber. Desktop
connections to telecom closets will be copper for the near future, until network
managers find out what a telecom closet really costs! Phones will continue to
use copper until we all go to voice over IP. Video (CCTV) uses fiber for
distances over about 150-250 meters.
Questions asked in competitive examinations with answers.

1. Which transmission media has the highest transmission speed in a

network?Ans:-
Optical Fiber
2. Which equations are best suited for the study of electromagnetic
wavepropagation?
Ans:-
Maxwell’s equations
3. Who proposed the idea of transmission of light via dielectric waveguide
structure?Ans:-
Hondros and debye
Ray Transmission Theory
Before studying how the light actually propagates through the fiber, laws governing the
nature of light m ust be studied. These were called as laws of optics (Ray theory). There is
conception that light always travels at the same speed. This fact is simply not true. The speed
of light depends upon the material or medium through which it is moving.

Reflection
The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface at some
incident angle 𝜑1from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from the
surface at some angle 𝜑2from normal which is equal to the angle of incidence.

Laws of Reflection Angle i =Angle r

Fig 1. 4:- Reflection

Refraction
Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light ray
changes its direction at interface. Refraction occurs whenever density of medium changes.
E.g. refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will appear as it
is bent. The refraction can also observed at air and glass interface

1. When wave passes through less dense medium to denser medium, the wave is
refracted (bent) towards the normal.
2. When wave passes through denser medium to less dense medium, wave is refracted
away from the normal.
3. The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in
different mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass.

Fig 1. 5 :- Refraction
 Refractive Index
The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials. Refractive index is also
known as index of refraction and is denoted by 𝜂.
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐
𝜂= =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣

Snell’s Law
Snell’s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media having
different indexes of refraction.

Let the two medias have refractive indexes 𝜂1and 𝜂2where𝜂1 > 𝜂2, 𝜑1 and 𝜑2 be the angles
of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. Then according to Snell’s law, a
relationship exists between the refractive index of both materials given by
𝜂1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝜂2 sin 𝜑2
y1
or = sin φ2
y2 sin φ1

This equation shows that the ratio of refractive index of two mediums is inversely proportional to
the refractive and incident angles.

The refracted wave will be towards the normal when 𝜂1 < 𝜂2 and will away from it when 𝜂1 >𝜂2.
 Critical Angle
When the angle of incidence (𝜑1) is progressively increased, there will be progressive
increase of refractive angle (𝜑2). At some condition (𝜑1) the refractive angle (𝜑2) becomes
90o to the normal. When this happens the refracted light ray travels along the interface. The
angle of incidence (𝜑1)) at the point at which the refractive angle (𝜑1) becomes 90o is called
the critical angle. It is denoted by𝜑c.
The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (𝜑1) at which the ray strikes
the interface of two media and causes an angle of refraction (𝜑2) equal to 90o.

Hence at critical angle 𝜑1 = 𝜑2 and 𝜑2 = 900

Using Snell’s law: 𝜂1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝜂2 sin 𝜑2

𝜂2
sin 𝜑c = sin 900
𝜂1

sin 900 = 1
y2
Therefore, sin 𝜑c =
y1

y
Critical angle 𝜑c = sin–1 ( 2)
y1

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

When a ray of light travels from Denser medium (having higher refractive index) to Rarer
medium (having lower refractive index) such that the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle, the ray gets reflected into the same medium, this phenomenon is called as Total
Internal Reflection (TIR).

In the optical fiber, the rays undergoes multiple TIR until it emerges out of the other end of
optical fiber.

The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are:

1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index of second one.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle.

Acceptance Angle

Applying Snell’s law to external incidence angle

𝜂0 sin 𝜑0 = 𝜂1 sin 𝜑1

But 𝜑1 = (90 − 𝜑c)

sin 𝜑1 = sin(900 − 𝜑c) = cos 𝜑c

Substituting sin 𝜑1 in above equation

𝜂0 sin 𝜑0 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜑c

sin 𝜑 = 𝜂1 cos 𝜑
c 𝜂0 c
Applying Pythagorean Theorem to ΔPQR

√𝜂12 − 𝜂22
cos 𝜑c =
𝜂1
𝜂1 √𝜂12 − 𝜂22
sin 𝜑0 = [ ]
𝜂0 𝜂1

√𝜂12 − 𝜂22
sin 𝜑0 = [ ]
𝜂0
2 2
𝜑0 = sin–1 [√𝜂 1 − 𝜂 2 ]
𝜂0

The maximum value of external incidence angle for which light will propagate in the
fiber.
√𝜂 2 −𝜂 2
–1 1 2
𝜑0max = sin [ ]
𝜂0

When the light rays enters the fivers from an air medium n0 = 1. Then above equation reduces to,
𝜑0max = sin–1 [√𝜂12 − 𝜂22]

The angle 𝜑0 is called as acceptance angle and 𝜑0maxdefines the maximum angle in which
the light ray may incident on fiber to propagate down the fiber.

Acceptance Cone
Rotating the acceptance angle 𝜑0max around the fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is obtained; it is
called as acceptance cone of the fiber input. Fig below shows formation of acceptance cone of a
fiber cable.

The Cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core
and is able to travel along the fiber. The
launching of light wave becomes easier for large acceptance cone

The angle is measured from the axis of the positive cone so the total angle of convergence is
actually twice the stated value.
 Numerical Aperture (NA)
The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light
gathering capability. Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light accepted
by fiber. The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to be entering the fiber
and hence there is relation between the numerical aperture and the cone of acceptance.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟(𝑁𝐴) = sin 𝜑0𝑚𝑎𝑥

√𝜂 2 −𝜂 2
1 2
𝑁𝐴 =
𝜂0

For Air, 𝜂0 = 1

∴ NA = √𝜂12 − 𝜂22

𝑁𝐴 = √𝜂core2 − 𝜂cladding2

Hence,
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = sin–1 𝑁𝐴

By the formula of NA we conclude that the numerical aperture is effectively dependent only on
refractive indices of core and cladding material; NA is not a function of fiber dimension.

The index difference (Δ) and the numerical aperture (NA) are related to the core and
claddingindices:

(𝜂 2 − 𝜂 2)
∆= 1 2
𝜂1
𝑁𝐴2
∆=
2𝜂 2
Also
𝑁𝐴 = √𝜂 2 −𝜂 2

1⁄2
𝑁𝐴 = (𝜂12
− 𝜂2 ) 2

𝑁𝐴 = 𝜂1 (2∆)1⁄2
 Types of Rays
The rays are broadly divided into following types:-
1. Axial Rays
2. Meridional Rays
3. Skew rays
The skew ray does not pass through the center; it reflects off from the core cladding
boundaries and again bounces around the outside of the core. It takes somewhat similar shape
of spiral of helical path.
The Meridional ray enters the core and passes through its axis. When the core surface is
parallel, it will always be reflected to pass through the center.
The axial ray travels along the axis of the fiber and stays at the axis all the time.

Skew Rays
In a multimode optical fiber, a bound ray that travels in a helical path along the fiber and thus
(a) is not parallel to the fiber axis, (b) does not lie in a meridional plane, and (c) does not
intersect the fiber axis is known as a Skew Ray.

1. Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its axis.
2. A possible path of propagation of skew rays is shown in figure. Figure 24, view (a),
provides an angled view and view (b) provides a front view.
3. Skew rays are those rays which follow helical path but they are not confined to a single
plane. Skew rays are not confined to a particular plane so they cannot be tracked easily.
Analyzing the meridional rays is sufficient for the purpose of result, rather than skew rays,
because skew rays lead to greater power loss.
4. Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis of the fiber. The acceptance
angle for skew rays is larger than the acceptance angle of meridional rays.
5. Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light acceptance in an optical fiber.
The addition of skew rays increases the amount of light capacity of a fiber. In large NA
fibers, theincrease may be significant.
6. The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a fiber. Skew rays tend to
propagate near the edge of the fiber core. A large portion of the number of skew rays that are
trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays.
7. Leaky rays are predicted to be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary. However, these
rays are partially refracted because of the curved nature of the fiber boundary. Mode theory is
also used to describe this type of leaky ray loss.

Acceptance Angle for Skew rays

Ray direction is defined in two planes as shown in figure.

ϒ is the angle of reflection for skew rays within the fiber. Since cosϒ is less than 1, acceptance
angle is higher for Skew rays as compared toMeridional rays.

Numericals
1. A light ray is incident from medium-1 to medium-2. If the refractive indices of medium-1
and medium-2 are 1.5 and 1.36 respectively then determine the angle of refraction for an
angle of incidence of 30o.
Solution:-
Medium 1 𝜂1 = 1.5
Medium 2 𝜂2 = 1.36
Angle of incidence 𝜑1= 300.
Angle of incident 𝜑2 =?

Snell’sLaw:-
𝜂1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝜂2 sin 𝜑2
1.5 sin 300 = 1.36 sin 𝜑2
1.5
sin 𝜑2 = sin 300
1.36
sin 𝜑2 = 0.55147
∴ 𝜑2 = 33.460
 Angle of refraction 33.460 from normal.

2. A light ray is incident from glass to air. Calculate the critical angle (𝜑c).
Solution:-
Refractive index of glass 𝜂1= 1.50
Refractive index of air 𝜂2= 1.00

Snell’sLaw:-
𝜂1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝜂2 sin 𝜑2
𝜂1 sin 𝜑2
=
𝜂2 sin 𝜑1
From definition of critical angle, 𝜑2 = 900 and , 𝜑1 = 𝜑c
𝜂1
∴ sin 𝜑c = sin 90
0

𝜂2

1.5
sin 𝜑c = . 1 = 0.67
1
∴ 𝜑c = sin–1 0.67 = 41.810
Critical Angle = 𝜑c = 41.810
 3. Calculate the NA, acceptance angle and critical angle of the fiber having 𝜂1 (Core
refractive index) = 1.50 and refractive index of cladding 𝜂2= 1.45.
Solution:-𝜂1 = 1.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂2 = 1.45
(𝜂1 − 𝜂2) 1.5 − 1.45
∆= = = 0.033
(𝜂1) 1.5
Numerical aperture, 𝑁𝐴 = 1.5√2 × 0.033
𝑁𝐴 = 0.387
Acceptance angle 𝜑0 = sin 𝑁
–1 𝐴
𝜑0 = sin–1 0.387
𝜑0 = 22.780
–1 y2
Critical angle, 𝜑c = sin
y1
1.45
𝜑c = sin–1
1.50
𝜑c = 75.20

Applications of Ray Theory of transmission:-

1. Able to understand how rays propagate inside transmission medium of optical
Communication i.e., Optical Fiber.
2. This theory understanding plays a vital role in manufacturing of optical fiber since it
decides that inner layer of optical fiber i.e., core should have higher refractive index
as compared with the refractive index of the outer layer.
3. This concept also helps us to understand what precautions and what steps should be
followed so that we can achieve maximum ray transmission inside optical fiber i.e,
acceptance angle and numerical aperture should be high so that we can achieve less
loss inside optical fiber.

Questions & Answers

University Questions

Two-mark questions
1. Define Critical angle

Five-mark questions

1. What is Total Internal Reflection? Explain Snell’s Law.

2. An Optical fiber in air has an NA of 0.4. Compare the acceptance angle for
meridional rays with that for skew rays which change direction by 100 degree at each
reflection.

Ten-mark questions
1. What do you mean by the Acceptance Angle of an Optical Fiber? derive an
expression for Numerical aperture of an Optical Fiber. Show how acceptance angle is
related to refractive index of the fiber core.
2. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by a ray
diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive
index of 1.5 and cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
(a) Critical angle at core cladding interface
(b) NA for the fiber
(c) Acceptance angle

Concept based questions & answers

1. What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?

Ans:-
Cladding is a essential part of the optical fiber since in optical fiber transmission of
signal is possible only because of Total internal reflection and it is possible only when
the structure which is used for the transmission of signals will be made up of two
material having different refractive indices and outer layer which is cladding will have
less refractive index as compared with inner layer which is core.
2. What is the significance of Total internal Reflection?
Ans:-
Total internal reflection decides the propagation of signals in Optical Fibers

Questions asked in competitive examinations with answers.

1. Light incident on fibers of angles the acceptance angle do not propagate into the
fiber.
Ans:-
Greater than
2. The ratio of speed of light in air to the speed of light in another medium is called as

Ans:-
Refractive index
3. When a ray of light enters one medium from another medium, which quality will not
change?
Ans:- Frequency
 Optical Fiber as Waveguide

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide capable of conveying

electromagnetic waves at optical frequencies. The electromagnetic energy is in the form
of the light and propagates along the axis of the fiber. The structural of the fiver
determines the transmission characteristics.

The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by the modes of the
waveguides, here mode means path. Each mode has distinct pattern of electric and
magnetic field distributions along the fiber length. Only few modes can satisfy the
homogeneous wave equation in the fiver also the boundary condition a waveguide
surfaces. When there is only one path for light to follow then it is called as single mode
propagation. When there is more than one path then it is called as multimode
propagation.

Single fiber structure:-

A single fiber structure is shown in Fig.. It consists of a solid dielectric cylinder with
radius ‘a’. This cylinder is called as core of fiber. The core is surrounded by dielectric,
called cladding. The index of refraction of core (glass fiber) is slightly greater than the
index of refraction of cladding.
If refractive index of core (glass fiver) = 𝜂1
And refractive index of cladding =𝜂2, then
𝜂1 > 𝜂2

Modes of Fiber

Fiber cables can also be classified as per their mode. Light rays propagate as an
electromagnetic wave along the fiber. The two components, the electric field and the
magnetic field form patterns across the fiber. These patterns are called modes of
transmission.
The mode of a fiber refers to the number of paths for the light rays within the cable.
According to modes optic fibers can be classified into two types.
i) Single mode fiber
ii) Multimode fiber

Multimode fiber was the first fiber type to be manufactured and commercialized. The term
multimode simply refers to the fact that numerous modes (light rays) are carried
simultaneously through the waveguide. Multimode fiber has a much larger diameter,
compared to single mode fiber, this allows large number of modes.
Single mode fiber allows propagation to light ray by only one path. Single mode fibers are
best at retaining the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distance also they do not exhibit
dispersion caused by multiple modes.
Thus more information can be transmitted per unit of time. This gives single mode fiber
higher bandwidth compared to multimode fiber.

Some disadvantages of single mode fiber are smaller core diameter makes coupling light into
the core more difficult. Precision required for single mode connectors and splices are more
demanding.

Fiber Profiles
A fiber is characterized by its profile and by its core and cladding diameters.

One way of classifying the fiber cables is according to the index profile at fiber. The index
profile is a graphical representation of value of refractive index across the core diameter.
There are two basic types of index profiles.

(i). Step index fiber.

ii) Graded index fiber.

Fig. shows the index profiles of fibers

Step Index (SI) Fiber

The step index (SI) fiber is a cylindrical waveguide core with central or inner core has a
uniform refractive index of 𝜂1 and the core is surrounded by outer cladding with uniform
refractive index of 𝜂2. The cladding refractive index (𝜂2) is less than the core refractive index
(𝜂1). But there is an abrupt change in the refractive index at the core cladding interface.
Refractive index profile of step indexed optical fiber is shown in Fig.. The refractive index is
plotted on horizontal axis and radial distance from the core is plotted on vertical axis.
Fig:- (a) Multimode Step Index Fibers

(b). Multimode Step Index Fibers

The propagation of light wave within the core of step index fiber takes the path of meridional
ray i.e. ray follows a zig-zag path of straight line segments.

The core typically has diameter of 50-80 µm and the cladding has a diameter of 125 µm.

The refractive index profile is defined as –

𝜂1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)

It has 2 types:- (𝑟) = {
𝜂2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

1. Single mode Step Index Fibbers:-

The core fiber of a single mode fiber is very narrow compared to the wavelength of light
being used. Therefore, only a single path exists through the cable core through which
light can travel.

The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small size
interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult.
Another disadvantage of single mode fibers is that as the refractive index of glass
decreases with optical wavelength, the light velocity will also be wavelength dependent.
Thus the light from an optical transmitter will have definite spectral width.
2. Multimiode Step Index Fibers:-
Multimode step index fiber is more widely used type. It is easy to manufacture. Its core
diameter is 50 to 1000 μm i.e. large aperture and allows more light to enter the cable. The
light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner. There are many many paths
that a light ray may follow during the propagation.

The disadvantage of multimode step index fibers is that the different optical lengths
caused by various angles at which light is propagated relative to the core, causes the
transmission bandwidth to be fairly small. Because of these limitations, multimode step
index fiber is typically only used in applications requiring distances of less than 1 km.
 Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber
The graded index fiber has a core made from many layers of glass.In the graded index
(GRIN) fiber the refractive index is not uniform within the core, it is highest at the center and
decreases smoothly and continuously with distance towards the cladding. The refractive
index profile across the core takes the parabolic nature.

Fig. shows refractive index profile of graded index fiber.

fig:- refractive index profile of graded index fiber

index as moved away from the centre of the core. A graded index fiber has lower coupling
efficiency and higher bandwidth than the step index fiber

The refractive index variation in the core is given by relationship:-

α
𝑟 𝜂1 (1 − 2∆ ( ) )
𝑛(𝑟) = { 𝑎
1
𝜂1(1 − 2∆)2 ≈ 𝜂2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)

where, r = Radial distance from fiber axisa = Core radius

𝜂1 = Refractive index of core
𝜂2 = Refractive index of claddingα = Shape of index profile.

In graded index fiber the light waves are bent by refraction towards the core axis and they
follow the curved path down the fiber length. This results because of change in refractive

It exists in only one type: - Multimode Graded index fiber

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)

Fig:-Ray Transmission in multimode Graded Index fibers

It may be observed that the meridional rays shown appear to follow curved paths
through the fiber core. Using the concepts of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in
refractive index from the center of the core creates much refraction of the rays as they
are effectively incident on a large number or high to low index interfaces. This
mechanism is illustrated in Figure where a ray is shown to be gradually curved, with
an ever- increasing angle of incidence, until the conditions for total internal reflection
are met, and the ray travels back towards the core axis, again being continuously
refracted.

Fig:- An expanded ray diagram showing refraction at the various high to low index interfaces
with in the graded index fiber.

1.3.6. Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Sr. Parameter Step index fiber Graded index fiber
No.
1. Data rate Slow Higher
2. Coupling efficiency Coupling efficiency with fiber Lower coupling
is higher efficiency
3. Ray path By total internal reflection Light ray travels in
Oscillatory fashion.
𝜂1 − 𝜂2 𝜂12 − 𝜂22
4. Index variation ∆= ∆=
𝜂1 2𝜂12
5. Numerical aperture NA remains same Changes continuously
with distance from fiber
axis
6. Material used Normally plastic or glass is Only glass is preferred
preferred.
7. Bandwidth efficiency 10 – 20 MHz/km 1 GHz/km
8. Pulse spreading Pulse spreading by fiber Pulse spreading is less
length is more.
9. Attenuation of light Less typically 0.34 dB/km at More 0.6 to 1 dB/km at
1.3 μm. 1.3 μm.
10. Typical light source LED LED, Lasers
11. Applications Subscriber local network Local and wide area
communication networks
 Electromagnetic Mode Theory for Optical Propagation
Maxwell theory Modes in a planar guide
The basis of electromagnetic wave propagation is provided by Maxwell’s Equation. For a
medium with zero conductivity:-

Substituting for D and B

Taking the curl of Maxwell’s curl equations, gives

Then using the below vector identity

We can obtain the non-dispersive wave equations:

Comparing the wave equation obtained with scalar wave Equations

We obtain the phase velocity as

1
𝑣p =
(𝜇𝜀)1⁄2
If planar waveguides, described by Cartesian coordinates or cylindrical polar coordinates,
then the Laplacian operator takes the form:
𝛿2𝑇 𝛿2𝑇 𝛿2𝑇
∇2𝑇 = + +
𝛿𝑥2 𝛿𝑦2 𝛿𝑧2

𝛿 2𝑇 1 𝛿𝑇 1 𝛿2𝑇 𝛿2𝑇
∇2𝑇 = + + 2 2 + 2
𝛿𝑟2 𝑟 𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝛿𝜑 𝛿𝑧
The basic solution of the wave equation is a sinusoidal wave, whose basic form is a uniform
plane wave given by:

𝑇 = 𝑇0 exp (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘. 𝑟)
Where k is the propagation vector which gives the direction of propagation and the rate of
change of phase with distance, while the component r specify the coordinate point at which
the field is observed.
When λ is the optical wavelength in a vacuum, the magnitude of the propagation vector of the
vacuum phase propagation constant k is given by:
 Modes in a planar guide

Planar Guide:-
There are two basic types of waveguides in optical communication:

In a Non-planar waveguide of a 2-dimensional transverse optical confinement, the core is

surrounded by cladding in all transverse directions, and 𝜂(x,y) is a function of both x and y
coordinates.

In a Planar waveguide that has the optical confinement in only one transverse direction, the
core is sandwiched between cladding layers in only one direction (ex-x direction) with an
index profile 𝜂(x).

Modes in a Planar Guide:-

The conceptual transition from ray to wave theory may be aided by consideration of a plane
monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the ray path within the guide.
As the refractive index within the guide is n1, the optical wavelength in this region is reduced
to λ/ n1, while the vacuum propagation constant is increased to n1 k.

When θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the guide
axis, the plane wave can be resolved into two component plane waves propagating in
the z and x directions

Fig:- The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide:

(a) a plane wave propagating in the guide shown by its wave vector or equivalent ray – the wave
vector is resolved into components in the z and x directions;

(b) the interference of plane waves in the guide forming the lowest order mode (m = 0)

The component of the phase propagation in the Z direction is given by:

𝛽z = 𝜂1𝑘 cos 𝜃

The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction is given by:
 𝛽x = 𝜂1𝑘 sin 𝜃

The component of the plane wave in the x direction is reflected at the interface between the higher and
lower refractive index media. When the total phase change after two successive reflections at the
upper and lower interfaces (between the points P and Q) is equal to 2mπ radians, where m is an
integer, then constructive interference occurs and a standing wave is obtained in the x direction.

The stable field distribution in the x-direction with only periodic z dependence is known as Mode

Fig: - Physical model showing the ray propagation and the corresponding transverse electric (TE)
field patterns of three lower order models (m = 1, 2, 3) in the planar dielectric guide

To visualize the dominant modes propagating in the z direction we may consider plane waves
corresponding to rays at different specific angles in the planar guide. These plane waves give
constructive interference to form standing wave patterns across the guide following a sine or
cosine formula. Figure shows examples of such rays for m = 1, 2, 3, together with the electric
field distributions in the x direction. It may be observed that m denotes the number of zeros in
this transverse field pattern. In this way m signifies the order of the mode and is known as the
mode number.

When light is described as an electromagnetic wave it consists of a periodically varying

electric field E and magnetic field H which are orientated at right angles to each other. The
transverse modes shown in Figure illustrate the case when the electric field is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation and hence Ez = 0, but a corresponding component of the
magnetic field H is in the direction of propagation. In this instance the modes are said to be
transverse electric (TE). Alternatively, when a component of the E field is in the direction of
propagation, but Hz = 0, the modes formed are called transverse magnetic (TM). The mode
numbers are incorporated into this nomenclature by referring to the TEm and TMm modes.
When the total field lies in the transverse plane, transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves
exist where both Ez and Hz are zero. However, although TEM waves occur in metallic
conductors (e.g. coaxial cables) they are seldom found in optical waveguides.

Phase and Group velocity

As a monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the z direction points of

constant phase travel at a phase velocity
𝜔
𝑣p =
𝛽
However, it is impossible in practice to produce perfectly monochromatic light waves, and
light energy is generally composed of a sum of plane wave components of different
frequencies. This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the individual waves
but is observed to move at a group velocity vg given by:
𝛿𝜔
𝑣g =
𝛿𝛽

Fig: - The formation of a wave packet from the combination of two waves with nearly equal
frequencies. The envelope of the wave package or group of waves travels at a group velocity 𝑣g

Phase & Group velocity in Optical fibers

The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the transmission characteristics of
optical fibers. If propagation in an infinite medium of refractive index 𝜂1 is considered, then
the propagation constant may be written as:

𝛽 = 𝜂1𝑘 cos 𝜃 = 𝜂1 2𝜋 = 𝜂1𝜔

𝜆 𝑐
Here we have assumed propagation only in z-direction and hence cosθ=1.

Phase velocity is then given by:-

𝜔 𝑐
𝑣p = =
𝛽 𝜂1
In general equation of group velocity, employing limit the group velocity becomes

𝛿𝜔⁄𝛿𝛽 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝜔⁄𝑑𝛽

 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2𝜋 –1 −𝜔
𝑣g = . = (𝜂1 ) ( )
𝑑𝛽 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
 −𝜔 1 𝑑𝜂1 𝜂1 –1
= ( — 2)
2𝜋 𝑑𝜆 𝜆
𝑐 𝑐
= = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁g 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑑𝜂1) 𝑁g
(𝜂1 − 𝜆
𝑑𝜆

Phase Shift with total internal reflection

Certain phenomena that occur at the guide–cladding interface are not apparent from ray
theory considerations of optical propagation. In order to understand these phenomena it is
necessary to use the wave theory model for total internal reflection at a planar interface as
shown in fig below:

Fig: - A wave incident on the guide–cladding interface of a planar dielectric waveguide. The wave
vectors of the incident, transmitted and reflected waves are indicated (solid arrowed lines) together
with their components in the z and x directions (dashed arrowed lines)

The wave propagation in z-direction is given by: - exp j(ωt-βz)

Propagation constant in the x-direction for the guide:- 𝛽x1 = 𝜂1𝑘 cos 𝜑1

Propagation constant in the x-direction for the cladding:- 𝛽x2 = 𝜂2𝑘 cos 𝜑2

Thus the three waves in the waveguide indicated in Fig., the incident, the transmitted and the
reflected, with amplitudes A, B and C, respectively, will have the forms:-

𝐴 = 𝐴0exp[−(𝑗𝛽x1𝑥) ]exp[𝑗(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]

𝐵 = 𝐵0exp[−(𝑗𝛽x2𝑥)] exp[𝑗(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]

𝐶 = 𝐶0exp[(𝑗𝛽x1𝑥) ]exp[ 𝑗(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]

Using the simple trigonometrically relationship 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜑 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜑 = 1
2 = (𝜂2 2 − 𝛽2) = −𝜉 2
x1 1 1

2 = (𝜂2 2 − 𝛽2) = −𝜉 2
x2 2 2

When an electromagnetic wave is incident upon an interface between two dielectric media,
Maxwell’s equations require that both the tangential components of E and H and the normal
components of D are continuous across the boundary. If the boundary is defined at x = 0 we
may consider the cases of the transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes.

Normal B.C:- 𝐴0 + 𝐶0 = 𝐵0

Tangential B.C:-

On solving above two equations:

𝛽x1 − 𝛽x2
𝐶0 = 𝐴0 ( ) = 𝐴0𝛤ER
𝛽x1 + 𝛽x2
2𝛽x1
𝐵0 = 𝐴0 ( + 𝛽 ) = 𝐴0𝛤ET
𝛽x1 x2

Where 𝛤ET= Transmission Coefficient

And 𝛤ER= Reflection Coefficient

When both 𝛽x1 & x2 are real, it is clear that the reflected wave C is in phase with the incident
wave A. But after critical angle for total internal reflection, 𝛽x2 becomes imaginary, but 𝛽x1
remains real.

So,
𝛽x1 + 𝑗𝜉2
𝐶0 = 𝐴0 ( ) = 𝐴0 exp 2𝑗𝛿E
𝛽x1 − 𝑗𝜉2

Now, here we observe there is a phase shift of the reflected wave relative to the incident
wave. This is signified by E which is given by:-

𝜉22
tan 𝛿E = 𝛽
x1

A similar analysis may be applied for TM modes at the interface, which leads to
𝐶=𝐴 𝛽x1𝜂2 − 𝛽x2𝜂2
1
0 0 ( 2 + 𝛽 𝜂2 ) = 𝐴0𝛤HR
x1 x2
2 1
 2𝛽x1𝜂2
𝐵0 = 𝐴 0 ( 2 2) =𝐴 𝛤
𝛽x1𝜂2 + 𝛽
x2 0 HT
2 1

𝐶0 = 𝐴0𝑒𝑥𝑝2𝑗𝛿H
2
tan 𝛿H = ( 1 ) tan 𝛿 E
𝜂2

Thus the phase shift obtained on total internal reflection is dependent upon both the angle of
incidence and the polarization (either TE or TM) of the radiation.

Evanescent Field

Before the critical angle for total internal reflection is reached, and hence when there is only
partial reflection, the field in the cladding is of the form given by

𝐵 = 𝐵0 exp(−𝑗𝛽x2𝑥) exp[𝑗(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]

However, when total reflection is reached, 𝛽x2becomes imaginary, the transmitted wave in
cladding becomes

𝐵 = 𝐵0 exp(−𝑗𝜉2𝑥) exp[𝑗(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]

Thus the amplitude of the field in the cladding is observed to decay exponentially in the x-
direction. Such a field, exhibiting exponentially decaying amplitude, is referred to as an
evanescent field.

A field of this type stores energy and transports it in the direction of propagation (z) but does
not transport energy in the transverse direction (x). Nevertheless, the existence of an
evanescent field beyond the plane of reflection in the lower index medium indicates that
optical energy is transmitted into the cladding.

Fig: - The exponentially decaying evanescent field in the cladding of the optical waveguide

The penetration of energy into the cladding underlines the importance of the choice of cladding
material. It gives rise to the following requirements:
 1. The cladding should be transparent to light at the wavelengths over which the guide is to
operate.
2. Ideally, the cladding should consist of a solid material in order to avoid both damage to the
guide and the accumulation of foreign matter on the guide walls. These effects degrade the
reflection process by interaction with the evanescent field. This in part explains the poor
performance (high losses) of early optical waveguides with air cladding.
3. The cladding thickness must be sufficient to allow the evanescent field to decay to a low value
or losses from the penetrating energy may be encountered. In many cases, however, the
magnitude of the field falls off rapidly with distance from the guide–cladding interface. This
may occur within distances equivalent to a few wavelengths of the transmitted light.

Goos-Haenchen Shift
The phase change incurred with the total internal reflection of a light beam on a planar
dielectric interface may be understood from physical observation. Careful examination shows
that the reflected beam is shifted laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray theory
analysis, as shown in Figure. This lateral displacement is known as the Goos–Haenchen shift,
after its first observers.

Fig:- The lateral displacement of a light beam on reflection at a dielectric interface (Goos–Haenchen
shift)

Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Exact solutions of Maxwell’s equations for a cylindrical dielectric waveguide-very
complicated and complex result.

In common with planar waveguide, TE and TM modes are obtained within dielectric
cylinder. A cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions, therefore, two integers, l
and m to specify the modes, TElm and TMlm modes

These modes from meridional rays propagation within guide

Hybrid modes where EZ and HZ are nonzero – results from skew ray propagation within the
fiber. Designated as HElm and EHlm depending upon whether the components of H or E make
the larger contribution to transverse field.

Analysis simplified by considering fibers for communication purposes.

Satisfy, weakly guided approximation, ∆<<1, small grazing angles θ.

Approximate solutions for full set of HE, EH, TE and TM modes may be given by two
linearly polarized (LP) components

 Not exact modes of fiber except for fundamental mode, however, as ∆ is very
small, HE-EH modes pairs occur with almost identical propagation constants
→ Degenerate modes

 The superposition of these degenerating modes characterized by a common

propagation constant corresponds to particular LP modes regardless of their
HE, EH, TE or TM configurations.

 This linear combination of degenerate modes → a useful simplification in

the analysis of weakly guiding fibers.

Correspondence between the lower order in linearly polarized modes and the traditional exact
modes from which they are formed.

Linearly polarized Exact

𝐿𝑃01 𝐻𝐸11
𝐿𝑃11 𝐻𝐸21, 𝑇𝐸01, 𝑇𝑀01
𝐿𝑃21 𝐻𝐸31, 𝐸𝐻11
𝐿𝑃02 𝐻𝐸12
𝐿𝑃31 𝐻𝐸41, 𝐸𝐻21
𝐿𝑃12 𝐻𝐸22, 𝑇𝐸02, 𝑇𝑀02
𝐿𝑃lm 𝐻𝐸2m, 𝑇𝐸0m, 𝑇𝑀0m
𝐿𝑃lm(𝑙 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 1) 𝐻𝐸l+1,m, 𝐸𝐻l–1,m
Fig:- The electric field configurations for the three lowest LP modes illustrated in terms of their
constituent exact modes: (a) LP mode designations; (b) exact mode designations; (c) electric field
distribution of the exact modes; (d) intensity distribution of Ex for the exact modes indicating the
electric field intensity profile for the corresponding LP modes

Field strength in the transverse direction is identical for the modes which belong to the same
LP mode.

Solutions of Wave Equation

The scalar wave equation for homogeneous core waveguide under weak guidance conditions
is:-

𝑑2𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑2𝑇
+ + 2 2 + (𝜂2𝑘2 − 𝛽2) = 0
𝑟 𝑑𝜑 1
𝑑𝑟2 𝑟𝑑
𝑟

Where 𝑇 is the field (E or H)

The propagation constant for the guided modes β lie in the range

𝜂2𝑘 < 𝛽 < 𝜂1𝑘

Solution of wave equation for cylindrical fiber has the form:-

cos 𝑙𝜑
𝑇 = 𝐸(𝑟){ 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)}
sin 𝑙𝜑

Here, 𝑇 represents the dominant transverse electric field component. The periodic
dependence on 𝛷 gives a mode of radial order l. Hence the fiber supports a finite number of
guided modes.

Introducing the solution to wave equation results in a differential equation:-

𝑑2𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸 𝑙2
+ + [(𝜂1𝑘2 − 𝛽2) − ]𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑟2 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑟2

For a SI fiber with constant RI core, it is a Bessel differential equation and the solutions are
cylinder functions. In the core region the solutions are Bessel functions denoted by Jl damped
oscillatory functions w.r.t. r.

The field is finite at r =0 and is represented by the Zero order Bessel function J0.

However, the field vanishes as r goes to infinity and the solutions in the cladding are
therefore modified Bessel functions denoted by Kl. These modified functions decay
exponentially w.r.t. r.
Fig:- (a) Variation of the Bessel function Jl (r) for l = 0, 1, 2, 3 (first four orders), plotted against r. (b)
Graph of the modified Bessel function Kl (r) against r for l = 0, 1

Bessel Function Solutions

The electric field is given by

Where G is amplitude coefficient and R=r/a is the normalized radial coordinate when a is the
radius of fiber core; U and W are eigen values in the core and cladding respectively , which
are defined as:-

The sum of squares of U & W defines a very useful quantity usually referred to as normalized
frequency V

V-Number
Normalized Frequency, V may be expressed in terms of NA and ∆ as:-
Normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and simply called V-number
or value of the fibre.
It combines in a very useful manner the information about three parameters, a, ∆
and λ.
Limiting parameter for single and multimode propagation in optical fiber.
→ V <=2.405 for SM operation.
The Total number of modes in a Multimode fiber is given by:
 w.e.f: Feb., 2015
ABES Engineering College, Ghaziabad Form No. Acad-006

Department of ECE

Session: 2023-24 Semester: 5th Section: A, B

Subject Code: KEC-058 Subject Name: Optical Communication

Practice questions
1. Draw the block Diagram Optical Fiber Communication System. Enlist the advantages of
optical Communication.[13-14] [11-12] [12-13]
2. What do you mean by the Acceptance Angle of an Optical Fiber? [11-12] [13-14] [12-13]
[15-16]. derive an expression for Numerical aperture of an Optical Fiber. [13-14] [12-13].
[15-16]. Show how acceptance angle is related to refractive index of the fiber core. [11-
12]
3. What is Total Internal Reflection? Explain Snell’s Law. [13-14]
4. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by a ray
diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive index
of 1.5 and cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine
(a) Critical angle at core cladding interface
(b) NA for the fiber[16-17]
(c) Acceptance angle[14-15] [15-16]
5. An optical has a numerical aperture of 0.344.What is the acceptance angle of meridional
rays? Calculate the acceptance angle for skew rays which changes direction by 1000 at
each reflection. [14-15]
6. A multi mode step index fiber has a relative refractive index of 1% and core refractive
index of 1.5 the number of modes propagating at a wavelength of 1.3 micrometers is
1100. Estimate the diameter of fiber core. [14-15]
7. What is the difference between step index and graded index fiber? [16-17] [14-15]How
does the ray of light propagate through the graded index fiber? [14-15]
8. Explain mode field diameter and normalized propagation constant. [14-15] [11-12]
9. A graded index fiber has a core with parabolic refractive index profile and diameter of
40μm.Numerical aperture of 0.2. Estimate the total number of guided modes for the
wavelength of 1μm. [11-12] [12-13].
10. Differentiate between Skew rays and meridional rays. An optical fiber in air has NA0.4;
compare the acceptance angle for skew rays which changes direction by 1000 at each
reflection. [11-12] [15-16] [16-17]