Sem 001 Combined Slides

CHAPTER ONE:
THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION
An environment is the surroundings and conditions in which an organization operates, including living systems
(human and others) therein. It embraces constructional works and their general surroundings. An environment can be
natural or man-made.
NATURAL AND MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT
The natural environment is believed to be created by God. It includes climatic factors such as rainfall, wind,
temperature, solar radiation, humidity and all other atmospheric conditions. In addition, are land features (water
bodies), rock features (valleys and plains) and biotic features (plant and animals).
Man-made environment is also referred to as the cultural environment or the built environment. The natural
environment is therefore modified to improve on man’s living standards. The built environment is composed of
buildings, infrastructures (roads, bridges, schools, tunnels, markets, drainage channels and the cultural landscape).
Man and his environment influence each other; for example, the environment most often dictates the language,
religion, occupation, social, cultural habits and preferred house forms of a group of people living in a specific
environment.
ELEMENT OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
There are two aspects of the environment that building occupants react to i.e. the internal environment (micro-climate)
and the external environment (macro-climate).
The internal elements of the built environment are people, objects such as furniture, artificial lights, natural ventilation,
daylight, indoor flowers, circulation space, and air condition units, among others.
The external elements of the built environment are buildings, existing physical features surrounding the building (trees,
hills, valleys), levels and topography of the land, soil and soil pressure, moisture, solar radiation, rainfall, wind,
sunlight, air movement, air temperature, humidity, pollutant noise originating from places such as fields, railways,
motor traffic routes, industry and playgrounds.
The combined effect of the external features of the built environment, especially those of wind, sunshine and rainfall
accelerate the rate at which a building deteriorates and modifies the internal environment within the building. The
perimeter walls of the building is the part of the building having direct contact with the wind, sunshine and rainfall,
called, the building envelope. The building envelope act like the human skin which modifies the effect of the external
environmental factors on the micro-climate within the building.
In a nutshell, understanding the relationship between the building and its environment helps in the orientation and
spacing of buildings, assist in providing the right choice of building materials for the construction of the walls, floors
and roof, it also dictates the size and materials used for openings (doors and windows).
CHAPTER TWO:
EVOLUTION OF BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
Shelter, a basic physical human need has been satisfied in the form of natural habitations such as caves, and tree tops
(from where he could hunt for animals in the thick forests). Constructed habitations thereafter emerged such as
dugouts, huts of varying shapes, bamboo, palm frond and wood houses, igloos (a small round shelter built from blocks
of hard snow) and tents such as wigwams or tepees (cone-shaped tents). Shelter was of primary importance to the
early man, just as it is to the modern man of our time; to protect him from harsh weather, animal predators and
marauders. In other words, every form of shelter is expected to act as barriers and as responsive filters between the
natural environment and the variety of environment required for human activities.
The early man made his shelter using familiar and locally available materials and technology. He made use of natural
materials such as mud, leaves, snow, stones and any such material his immediate environment can afford. The form
of construction man would adopt for his shelter had always been dictated mainly by prevailing geo-climatic conditions
and his socio-cultural beliefs. Today, the concept of building has changed from caves and mere shelter to houses,
offices, public buildings, factories, etc. Skyscrapers are now being built more easily consequent upon a greater
understanding of the behaviour of construction materials and techniques.
The modern-day building is more than mere shelter. A form of shelter plus all the necessary services such as water,
sanitary facilities and lighting, among others make up a building. Such a building effectively acting as shelter and with
all the necessary hardware (especially building fabric and the building services) functioning, is said to fulfill its
functional purpose. Other purposes of a building could be classified as social, symbolic and artistic. A building may
be constructed to fulfill more than one purpose.
THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Old centres of civilization like the Babylonians, the Egyptians, Greek, Assyrians, the Romans, etc. built houses,
temples, mountains, pyramids, bridges, fortifications, etc. Some of the styles of their construction had their origin in
nature itself. For examples, to the Greeks then, ‘Man is a measure of all things’. Hence the buildings or other structures
must be proportionate to man and their appearance must arouse cheerfulness and respect to people in those look at
them. The construction of the Egyptians posts and lintels were inspired by the lotus, the papynis, and the palm which
were found growing beside the Nile River.
The main material used by the Egyptians and Greeks in constructing their temples was stone; they employed beams
(or lintels) and columns (posts) as their main structural elements – elements that carry the loads. Stone has been one
of man’s earliest natural building materials. It is an excellent material for resisting compression. The Egyptian temples
and palaces were the first buildings to use post-and-lintels construction. The pyramids of Egypt were built with cut
stones. The pyramids were built as sepulchre of a dead Pharaoh. A good example are those at Giza, of which the
largest, the Great Pyramid of Cheops, built between 2,560 – 2,475BC is about 147m high (this is the height of modern
45 storey residential building). At the base, the sides are about 233m long. Cut stones of large sizes some of which
weigh more than 100 tons have been used by the Incas to build temple, palace and fortress walls, floors and roads in
Cuzco, Peru more than 600 years ago, many of which still stand today. These structures remain monuments to building
and engineering.
Despite these achievements, the Egyptian builders do not fully understand the structural potential of stone, since stone
is weak in tension; it is therefore a poor material for making beams. To avoid formation of cracks on the tension side
and long span lintel stones at roof level, the beams were made relatively short (up to 25 feet) with the columns placed
at relatively close centres.
The Romans used cast concrete usually faced with brick mainly as their building material. Prominent in their
construction is the use of large-sized arches resting on massive abutments (A support of an arch or bridge, which
usually resists a horizontal force from an arch, as well as its weight). An arch is primarily stressed in compression.
Stone, being a good compression material thus represents an ideal marriage of form and material. The Romans used
arches to build bridges, aqueducts (channels for supplying water by gravity from the surrounding hills to Rome),
vaulted roofs, domes and public baths. The Pantheon was topped by a dome spanning 142 feet.
Between A.D 500 and A.D 1500, called the Dark or Middle Ages, there was a general decline in innovative building
activities. Stone arches were still widely used then as the major building and structural material. However, a class of
buildings of interest in this era are the Gothic Cathedrals. Arched roofs of these cathedrals were supported on tall,
thin walls whose surfaces contained large window openings and were braced by inclined members called flying
buttresses.
Another period in history called the Renaissance witnessed the birth of a major element or component of a building,
the truss. It was believed than an Italian architect; Palladio introduced the use of the truss. The trusses were built
using timber, though wood had long been used before then. The history of development of wood as a building material
goes back to the pre-historic times. Three factors have contributed to the development of building technology using
timber: development of tools for cutting and shaping, methods of connection of cut pieces, and development of
structural forms of bridging spans or enclosing spaces.
From the Stone Age to the 18th century, timber was primarily the structural material for building shell houses. The
Stone Age witnessed the birth of flints and stone axes which for the first time enable man to separate wood fibres
transversely and longitudinally. Then small circular huts and long ridgepole huts could be built. There was an
improvement of the cutting tools and techniques with the ushering in of the Bronze and Iron Age. When man
discovered how to separate metals from rocks and to melt them. The emergence of iron saws enabled more complex
timber frames such as the crack frame, log cabin construction to be developed. Later engines to drive the cutting edges
invented and larger sized wood components could be cut connected and fixed. The use of metal tools has extended
beyond using them as mere weapons and cutting tools. They are now being used as roof coverings.
BUILDING AS A COMMUNAL ACTIVITY
In early times, building was a communal activity. Then there were to professional builders. All the members of a
family would come together to construct a family house. The construction of civic buildings such as town halls,
palaces, fortresses, was the responsibility of either every member or selected members of the community. In the course
of participating in many building projects, certain individuals soon acquire special skills which set them apart from
their fellow men. The recognition of such skills by members of the community led to these individuals being hired as
professional builders. The first professional builder of recorded history was Imhotep, the Grand vizier to King Zoser
of Egypt who built the stepped Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt about 2750BC. Ever since, more and more individuals have
turned professional, beings masters in the trade, constituting themselves into a Guild during the Middle Ages. The
main purpose of the guilds was to protect ingenuous artisanship; they regulated the trade with respect to issues such
as apprenticeship, wages and prices. During this period of the emergence of the Guilds, the professional Builder was
so prominent at that time that Hammurabi even had codes for the builder way back in 2200BC. This oldest ‘Building
Code (Code of Hammurabi, 2200BC, P.83) clearly identifies the Builder as a person directly responsible to the owner.
Similarly, in modern times, the Professional Builder is the only professional in the Building Industry to say that he is
responsible for the fate of the building he has put up.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The early industrial revolution of the 19th century brought about radical changes in the building construction profession
by introducing new materials e.g. steel and cement as well as various developments in multiple storey designs and
construction which was aided with the invention of the hoist brake by Otis. These developments brought in its wake
the emergence of professionals who turned the master builder to a building professional.
CHAPTER THREE:
THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
INTRODUCTION
The word to construct simply means to build or to put or fit together. Construction involves a lot of decision
making processes and consultations, diverse groups of people, everyone make their contribution in their own field of
expertise, use of varieties of materials, techniques and equipment. These wide range of activities are daily being
carried out in this country under one umbrella called the construction industry.
We will be able to have a better understanding of the construction industry in Nigeria by having a good grasp of
issues such as the range of construction activities within the industry, basic operation defining the scope of the
construction activities and the actors/ participants involved in the construction industry.
THE RANGE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
The ranges of activities are basically divided into three; namely building, civil engineering and industrial construction
works.
Building Works
This covers the construction of buildings of all types- bungalows, low-rise, high rise, domestic, commercial,
institutional, religious, social, governmental, cultural, recreational, industrial, etc. The building industry is wholly
concerned with all aspects of planning, design, construction, and maintenance of buildings including production of
building materials
Heavy Engineering or Civil Engineering Works
This covers the construction of dams, bridges, roads, tunnels, railways, airports, highways, harbours, docks, structural
pipelines and a host of other similar works. Basically, while building deals with the provision of shelter and facilities
within, civil engineering covers the provision of the surrounding infrastructures that provide services to the building.
Industrial Construction Works
Included in this group are developments in electrical, electronics and telecommunications industries such as power
generation plants, towers and transmitters, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, etc. Specialists in mechanical
electrical, telecommunication and chemical engineering fields are usually deeply involved in this class of construction
activity.
Irrespective of the type of construction activity, we can recognize two forms or construction demand namely:
Private Sector
➢ New construction works usually comprising housing, commercial and industrial works.
➢ Maintenance of existing works including repairs, replacement, rehabilitation, alteration and refurbishment
works.
Public Sector
➢ The new construction works can be classified either housing or non-housing.

➢ Maintenance of existing works as outlined above.
OPERATION DEFINING SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
The need for new development or the renewal of existing buildings as a result of change in modernization,
improvement in technology, deterioration of facilities as a result of exposure to sunshine and rainfall. To satisfy these
needs, some specialists do come together as a team and carry out some sequence of operations in relation to their fields
of expertise. Though these functions sometimes overlap, however, we can distinguish clearly five functions defining
the scope of a construction activity whether building, civil engineering or industrial in nature. They are:
➢ Planning - determining the manner in which an area of land (in a town, city, region, etc.) should be developed
and the types of sites suitable for particular forms of development (residential, commercial, industrial, etc. to
provide a balance between the built and natural environments
➢Designing - determining the shape and size of the structure and its components suitable for intended use,
working out a general architectural and structural concept that will meet functional, aesthetic and
performance requirements and specifying durable, strong, economic, maintenance – effective materials of
construction.
➢ Constructing - preparing the site, purchasing specified materials, components and equipment and
assembling them on site within limits set by design proposals and conditions of contract.
➢ Commissioning - involving handing-over of the constructed facility to the owner.
➢ Maintaining - taking care of the structure after it has been constructed to prevent quick wearing out and
decay and to ensure serviceability (that is, being able to serve its intended purpose) and improving them when
necessary.
PEOPLE AND SUB-SECTORS INVOLVED IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
The industry is made up of diversified operators. These include; Federal and State Ministry of Works and Housing
which sometimes use direct labour force in their employment to undertake direct construction work of major types of
government ministries or parastatals, State Housing Corporations which sometimes undertake direct building works
on behalf of themselves and their customers, Private Construction Companies, Private Promoters with their in-
house construction outfits, Material and Equipment Mnufacturers, Material and Equipment Wholesale and
Retail Distributors and Suppliers, Financial institutions, Clients or Owners of projects which may include private
individuals or households, private and public organizations.
CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYEES
The industry also employed diverse people which can be categorized as follows:
Professionals
These are highly skilled personnel at the top of the pyramid of the employment range. They are usually involved in
organization and decision-making processes aimed at providing solutions to problems of facilities provision in the
industry. This group is made up of Town Planner, Architects, Professional Builders, Quantity Surveyors, Land
Surveyors and Engineers (Structural, Building Services, Electrical and Mechanical). They are responsible for the
design and documentation of the client’s requirement within limits set by given time frame, cost level and quantity
level.
Becoming a professional first involves first graduating from a tertiary institution, then admission, after passing all the
necessary examinations and interviews, into a professional institution as a corporate member. Examples of such
professional institutions in Nigeria include:
NITP – Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, NIOB – Nigerian Institute of Building, NIA – Nigerian Institute
of Architects, NSE – Nigeria Society of Engineers, NIQS – Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors, NIESV –
Nigerian Institute of Estate Surveyors and Valuers, NIS – Nigerian Institute of Surveyors.
Sub-Professionals and Technicians
These are usually holders of certificates of National Diploma (ND) or Higher National Diploma (HND) or their
equivalents. When employed to work on building sites, they are mainly involved in passing across design and
construction information from the professionals to the operatives. Some of their activities on site include: Site
surveying, which involves making and recording measurements of distance and relative height levels referred to a
particular topographical feature called the datum level on site or near the site, supervising operatives under them
during construction operations, inspecting and making records of materials delivered, assessing standards of
workmanship as construction progresses, ensuring safety plans, precautions and procedures are followed during site
operations.
Craftsmen or Artisans
These are people that do skilled work either on construction sites or in workshops and factories, they work with their
hands. They have expertise in specific trade areas related to the material or technical system which they have
developed skills. Examples are bricklayers, carpenters, concretors, painters, plasterers, plumbers etc.
Unskilled and Semi-Skilled Operators
Unskilled workers or labourers do not possess skill in any technical system or in the use of any construction material.
They have no expertise in any specific trade. Their job mainly is to assist the craftsmen in work sections like mixing
components and transporting them, lifting of objects, clearing site and cleaning of buildings and its surroundings in
readiness for occupation.
Semi-skilled workers have only a limited amount of training usually in handling of materials, health and safety issues
as they affect some particular trades, for example, in installation of manufacturers’ systems such as fencing and pairing
systems, erosion of scaffolds and roof-covering systems and electrical installation systems.
PROBLEMS FACING THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Some of these problems include dearth of qualified managerial and technical manpower, rising cost of materials
leading to frequently high cost of construction, adverse weather conditions, contract overruns and project
abandonment due to inadequate pre-construction planning, too much reliance on the traditional system of project
execution where design process is separated from the actual construction process. (note that this lack of integration
has been leading to less cost-effective, inefficient and less quality-consciousness).
In addition, inadequate funding by promoters leading to abandonment of projects, too much reliance on foreign
(though indigenized on paper) construction companies, few numbers of indigenous contractors to compete with their
multinational counterparts also contribute to the above discuss.
Following from the above, is inadequate patronage of indigenous contractors and professionals even by the Federal
and State Government. Other factors include unhealthy rivalry between the professionals instead of cooperating in
areas where their functions overlap, inadequate mechanization of the construction process and the non-implementation
of the National Construction Policy.
Fundamentals Of Building
Design For Human Habitation
SEM 001
(2 Units)
1
(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 2
Course Outlines
• Module 1: The Built Environment
• Module 2: Evolution of Buildings
• Module 3: Construction Technology
• Module 4: Economic Forces and Physical
Development
• Module 5: Building Science
• Module 6: Building Services and
Infrastructures
• Module 7: Building Maintenance
•

Title
• Module 1: The Built Environment

Contents of Module 1
• The following topics will be discussed in
this course;
• Concept of environment.
• Natural and man made environment.
• Man and his environment.
• Buildings and the environment.
• Elements of Built environment.

Objectives
• At the end of this topic, students must be
able to understand;
• the concept of environment.
• different types of environment.
• State the aspects of designs and construction
which affects the environments.
• describe the relationship between man
and his environment.

Definitions of terms
• Building is an enclosure for the protection
of mankind.

• Behavioural environment is the portion of
environment in which man lives, works,
plays and carries out similar activities.

• Environment is the surroundings and
conditions in which an organization
operates, including living systems.

The Built Environment
• In relation to buildings and their design,

this refers to the elements which surround
a building including the climate.
• It can be natural, man-made or a
combination of these.
• When an environment is man-made, with or
without the aid of natural environment, it is
termed the built environment.

The Environment
• Environment can be defined as the
surrounding or condition in which an
organization operates including living system.
• Man’s environment is best pictured as a
complex network of highly interactive
beings and events.
• It is the summation of all external influences
and conditions effecting the existence of
man and animals or the physical entities
housing man such as building.
Types of Environments
• Natural environment can be described as
the environment that is created by God.
• Examples are rainfall, wind, temperature,
solar radiation and humidity.

Types of Environments
• Man-made environment is when the
environment is modified to improve
living standard.
• Examples are roads, bridges, tunnels and drainage.

• There are two aspects of the environment
that building occupants react to.
• These are:
• The internal environment or the microclimate and
• the external environment or the macroclimate.

Organization
• Organization consists of Living organism
and non-living organism which can be
natural or man-made.

Types of Organization
• Organization as the subset of environments
also consists of some elements.
• This includes;
• the internal environment or
the microclimate and
• the external environment or
the macroclimate.
• Examples of Natural organizations are
climatic
factors such as rainfall, wind, temperature,
solar radiation, humidity and all other
atmospheric conditions.
Types of Organization (cont’d)
• The man-made organization constitutes
development and embraces houses, roads,
bridges, aqueducts, tunnels, drainage
channels and planting trees.

EVOLUTION OF BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
Shelter, a basic physical human need has been satisfied in the form of natural habitations such as
caves, and tree tops (from where he could hunt for animals in the thick forests). Constructed
habitations thereafter emerged such as dugouts, huts of varying shapes, bamboo, palm frond and
wood houses, igloos (a small round shelter built from blocks of hard snow) and tents such as
wigwams or tepees (cone-shaped tents). Shelter was of primary importance to the early man, just
as it is to the modern man of our time; to protect him from harsh weather, animal predators and
marauders. In other words, every form of shelter is expected to act as barriers and as responsive
filters between the natural environment and the variety of environment required for human
activities.
The early man made his shelter using familiar and locally available materials and technology. He
made use of natural materials such as mud, leaves, snow, stones and any such material his
immediate environment can afford. The form of construction man would adopt for his shelter had
always been dictated mainly by prevailing geo-climatic conditions and his socio-cultural beliefs.
Today, the concept of building has changed from caves and mere shelter to houses, offices, public
buildings, factories, etc. Skyscrapers are now being built more easily consequent upon a greater
understanding of the behaviour of construction materials and techniques.
The modern-day building is more than mere shelter. A form of shelter plus all the necessary
services such as water, sanitary facilities and lighting, among others make up a building. Such a
building effectively acting as shelter and with all the necessary hardware (especially building
fabric and the building services) functioning, is said to fulfill its functional purpose. Other purposes
of a building could be classified as social, symbolic and artistic. A building may be constructed to
fulfill more than one purpose.
THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Old centres of civilization like the Babylonians, the Egyptians, Greek, Assyrians, the Romans, etc.
built houses, temples, mountains, pyramids, bridges, fortifications, etc. Some of the styles of their
construction had their origin in nature itself. For examples, to the Greeks then, ‘Man is a measure
of all things’. Hence the buildings or other structures must be proportionate to man and their
appearance must arouse cheerfulness and respect to people in those look at them. The construction
of the Egyptians posts and lintels were inspired by the lotus, the papynis, and the palm which were
found growing beside the Nile River.
The main material used by the Egyptians and Greeks in constructing their temples was stone; they
employed beams (or lintels) and columns (posts) as their main structural elements – elements that
carry the loads. Stone has been one of man’s earliest natural building materials. It is an excellent
material for resisting compression. The Egyptian temples and palaces were the first buildings to
use post-and-lintels construction. The pyramids of Egypt were built with cut stones. The pyramids
were built as sepulchre of a dead Pharaoh. A good example are those at Giza, of which the largest,
the Great Pyramid of Cheops, built between 2,560 – 2,475BC is about 147m high (this is the height
of modern 45 storey residential building). At the base, the sides are about 233m long. Cut stones
of large sizes some of which weigh more than 100 tons have been used by the Incas to build temple,
palace and fortress walls, floors and roads in Cuzco, Peru more than 600 years ago, many of which
still stand today. These structures remain monuments to building and engineering.
Despite these achievements, the Egyptian builders do not fully understand the structural potential
of stone, since stone is weak in tension; it is therefore a poor material for making beams. To avoid
formation of cracks on the tension side and long span lintel stones at roof level, the beams were
made relatively short (up to 25 feet) with the columns placed at relatively close centres.
The Romans used cast concrete usually faced with brick mainly as their building material.
Prominent in their construction is the use of large-sized arches resting on massive abutments (A
support of an arch or bridge, which usually resists a horizontal force from an arch, as well as its
weight). An arch is primarily stressed in compression. Stone, being a good compression material
thus represents an ideal marriage of form and material. The Romans used arches to build bridges,
aqueducts (channels for supplying water by gravity from the surrounding hills to Rome), vaulted
roofs, domes and public baths. The Pantheon was topped by a dome spanning 142 feet.
Between A.D 500 and A.D 1500, called the Dark or Middle Ages, there was a general decline in
innovative building activities. Stone arches were still widely used then as the major building and
structural material. However, a class of buildings of interest in this era are the Gothic Cathedrals.
Arched roofs of these cathedrals were supported on tall, thin walls whose surfaces contained large
window openings and were braced by inclined members called flying buttresses.
Another period in history called the Renaissance witnessed the birth of a major element or
component of a building, the truss. It was believed than an Italian architect; Palladio introduced
the use of the truss. The trusses were built using timber, though wood had long been used before
then. The history of development of wood as a building material goes back to the pre-historic
times. Three factors have contributed to the development of building technology using timber:
development of tools for cutting and shaping, methods of connection of cut pieces, and
development of structural forms of bridging spans or enclosing spaces.
From the Stone Age to the 18th century, timber was primarily the structural material for building
shell houses. The Stone Age witnessed the birth of flints and stone axes which for the first time
enable man to separate wood fibres transversely and longitudinally. Then small circular huts and
long ridgepole huts could be built. There was an improvement of the cutting tools and techniques
with the ushering in of the Bronze and Iron Age. When man discovered how to separate metals
from rocks and to melt them. The emergence of iron saws enabled more complex timber frames
such as the crack frame, log cabin construction to be developed. Later engines to drive the cutting
edges invented and larger sized wood components could be cut connected and fixed. The use of
metal tools has extended beyond using them as mere weapons and cutting tools. They are now
being used as roof coverings.
BUILDING AS A COMMUNAL ACTIVITY
In early times, building was a communal activity. Then there were to professional builders. All the
members of a family would come together to construct a family house. The construction of civic
buildings such as town halls, palaces, fortresses, was the responsibility of either every member or
selected members of the community. In the course of participating in many building projects,
certain individuals soon acquire special skills which set them apart from their fellow men. The
recognition of such skills by members of the community led to these individuals being hired as
professional builders. The first professional builder of recorded history was Imhotep, the Grand
vizier to King Zoser of Egypt who built the stepped Pyramid at Saqqara, Egypt about 2750BC.
Ever since, more and more individuals have turned professional, beings masters in the trade,
constituting themselves into a Guild during the Middle Ages. The main purpose of the guilds was
to protect ingenuous artisanship; they regulated the trade with respect to issues such as
apprenticeship, wages and prices. During this period of the emergence of the Guilds, the
professional Builder was so prominent at that time that Hammurabi even had codes for the builder
way back in 2200BC. This oldest ‘Building Code (Code of Hammurabi, 2200BC, P.83) clearly
identifies the Builder as a person directly responsible to the owner. Similarly, in modern times,
the Professional Builder is the only professional in the Building Industry to say that he is
responsible for the fate of the building he has put up.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The early industrial revolution of the 19th century brought about radical changes in the building
construction profession by introducing new materials e.g. steel and cement as well as various
developments in multiple storey designs and construction which was aided with the invention of
the hoist brake by Otis. These developments brought in its wake the emergence of professionals
who turned the master builder to a building professional.
THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA
INTRODUCTION
The word to construct simply means to build or to put or fit together.
THE RANGE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
The ranges of activities are basically divided into three; namely building, civil engineering and industrial construction
works.
Building Works
This covers the construction of buildings of all types- bungalows, low-rise, high rise, domestic, commercial,
institutional, religious, social, governmental, cultural, recreational, industrial, etc.
Heavy Engineering or Civil Engineering Works
This covers the construction of dams, bridges, roads, tunnels, railways, airports, highways, harbours, docks, structural
pipelines and a host of other similar works.
Industrial Construction Works
Included in this group are developments in electrical, electronics and telecommunications industries such as power
generation plants, towers and transmitters, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, etc.
OPERATION DEFINING SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
we can distinguish clearly five functions defining the scope of a construction activity whether building, civil
engineering or industrial in nature. They are:
➢ Planning -
➢ Designing -
➢ Constructing -
➢ Commissioning -
➢ Maintaining –
PEOPLE AND SUB-SECTORS INVOLVED IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
The industry is made up of diversified operators. These include;
Federal and State Ministry of Works and Housing
State Housing Corporations Private Construction Companies,
Private Promoters
Material and Equipment Mnufacturers,
Material and Equipment
Wholesale and Retail Distributors and Suppliers,
Financial institutions,
Clients or Owners
CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYEES
The industry also employed diverse people which can be categorized as follows:
Professionals
Examples of such professional institutions in Nigeria include:
NITP – Nigerian Institute of Town Planners, NIOB – Nigerian Institute of Building, NIA – Nigerian Institute
of Architects, NSE – Nigeria Society of Engineers, NIQS – Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors, NIESV –
Nigerian Institute of Estate Surveyors and Valuers, NIS – Nigerian Institute of Surveyors.
Sub-Professionals and Technicians
Craftsmen or Artisans
Unskilled and Semi-Skilled Operators
PROBLEMS FACING THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Some of these problems include dearth of qualified managerial and technical manpower,
rising cost of materials leading to frequently high cost of construction,
adverse weather conditions,
contract overruns and
project abandonment due to inadequate pre-construction planning

ECONOMIC FORCES AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Economics in general is about the choice of the way in which scarce resources are and ought to be allocated between
all their possible users. A study of economics in its broadcast sense entails consideration of how people behave in
their activities of producing, exchanging and consuming, and the motivating forces behind these activities.
Economic theory is competitively established price as the keyword and concluded that since consumer desire and
producer capacity tended towards a balance at any moment in time, the most efficient allocation of resources is ever
present though out market forces.
In principle, modern economic theory began with the question of capital accumulation of which the two basic
aspects of its concept were:
i. The stock of buildings and plant and equipment, which permit workers to produce marketable goods,
commodities and services.
ii. The command of finance which enhances the production of goods, commodities and services which
can then be marketed at a profit margin by employers’ organizations.
Economic efficiency is achieved when society has secured the best allocation of its limited resources in the sense
that the maximum possible satisfaction is obtained.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The primary objective of economic analysis is to secure cost effectiveness for the client. In order to achieve this, it is
necessary both to identify and evaluate the probable economic outcome of a proposed construction project. The
analysis may be evaluated in the following terms:
i. To achieve maximum profitability from the project concerned which is the desire of the client as the
final outcome. The client will usually be seeking for a scheme that is likely to be most profitable and
the cost economist too should assist him in having value for his money and this must also be done on
time.
ii. To minimize construction costs within the criteria set for design quality and space. The client prefers to
pay as little as possible for the construction and this still achieve his aim as per his requirements and
this he wishes to know in advance. The quantity surveyor is responsible for keeping the cost of his
project within the expected price by method of cost control from inception to completion.
iii. To maximize any social benefit. This concerns most public project where the aim is to enjoy the social
benefit. Any public project carried out must achieve the aim.
iv. To maximize risk and uncertainty.
v. To maximize safety, quality and public image.
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Environmental Economics is defined as the study of forces affecting the use of assets and resources in satisfying
man’s need for shelter and a properly managed environment. The professional’s skill should not be confined to the
measurement of physical features but should be extended to measure the forces, which are at work in the
deployment or changed use of the resources, which shape our environment.
CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS
This is a small part of a much larger subject of environmental economics. This is concerned with the study of man’s
needs in connection with shelter and the suitable and appropriate conditions in which to live. It seeks to ensure the
efficient use of available construction work in the most efficient manner.
BUILDING ECONOMICS
Construction industry includes both building and civil engineering works, building work varies enormously in its
scope and nature from the erection of large multi-storey blocks to the execution of works of minor repair and
maintenance. Building economics can be defined as the allocation of the various resources available to construction
industry to get the maximum results when considering or focusing building works. It includes a study of the
followings:
⮚ A client’s requirement: This involves a study of client’s wants and needs and ensuring that the design of the
project is kept within the available funds to be provided by the client.
⮚ The possible effects on the surrounding areas if the development is carried out.
⮚ The relationship of space and share. This evaluates the cost implication of the design variable and considers
those aspects of a particular design and their effect on cost.
⮚ The assessment of the initial cost. This factor seeks to establish an initial estimate that is sufficiently
accurate for advice purposes and can be used for comparison purposes throughout the building process.
⮚ The reasons for, and methods of controlling cost. The method used for controlling the cost will vary
depending on the type of project and nature of the client.
⮚ The estimation of the life of buildings and materials.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Development is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 as the carrying out of building, engineering,
mining or other operations in, on, over or under land, or the making of any material change in the use of any
buildings or other land.
Every development whether it be for a public authority, industrialist or private investor, has a ‘market value’ which
is a potential worth or earning power. This cost above which it is not reasonable or feasible to build. With certain
limits of aesthetics, function and performance, the most economic development is that which shows the greatest
return to the community for the minimum capital invested.
Development is as the response to changes in conditions of demand and supply. As a result of such generates, some
structural change of buildings. This may take different forms: a. Modification of the existing building through
conversion b. Redevelopment where existing buildings are demolished and replaced by new ones.
Physical development can be seen as development of physical structures which may include archaeological
structures, geographical structures, constructional structures etc., but mainly, the focus here will be on construction
activities particular building structures. Building products are major part of physical development as they form part
of human needs.
FACTOR INFLUENCING PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
There is a wide range of factors influencing the development of a building site, from the physical characteristics of
the site itself to legal restrictions, planning controls and building regulations.
Land Ownership: Legally persons hold interest in land but do not own it, as all land is held from the government.
The number of years held determines the extent which it may be developed.
Site Characteristics: Each site has its own characteristics, which have an important influence on its suitability for
development for a particular purpose. The main ones are considered:
⮚ Soil Conditions: The subsoil should have a reasonable load bearing capacity as poor soils create
foundation problems and increase constructional cost.
⮚Ground Water: It is desirable that the site should be well above the highest groundwater level and free
from the possibility of flooding. Working in wet conditions is difficult and a permanent wet site can give
rise to unhealthy conditions for occupants and deterioration of the building.
⮚ Contours: A reasonably level site will reduce constructional costs particularly where the buildings cover
large areas as with factories. Steeply sloping sites required steeped foundations and extensive site works to
remove potential hazards.
⮚ Obstructions: These may take various forms and all involve additional expenditure in site clearance work.
⮚ Services: the availability of essential services crossing a site will entail costly diversion works.
⮚ Access: satisfactory access to the site must be available and some types of development will require good
access road leading to the site with adequate sight lines at the junction with an existing road.
⮚ Aspect: Ideally the site should be on a gentle slope facing in a southerly direction to securely maximum
sunlight and protection from the cold northerly and easterly winds. In practice the ideal site is rarely
obtainable.
⮚ Site Boundaries: the type and condition of site boundaries and their ownership needs identifying together
with the evaluation of any constructional problems likely to arise from building adjoining the site as the
project progress.
⮚ Area of Site: There needs to be adequate space available on the site for the storage of plant and materials,
the erection of temporary buildings and sufficient workspace.
EFFECT OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY ON PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Building development of any kind requires a plot of land on which it can take place and which once used, will no
longer be available for any other development, unless the first one is either demolished or converted. This makes
building development quite different from other enterprises, because no development can start work until the firm or
organization has paid an interest in the land on which the development is to stand. This has all sorts of economic
consequences, because the supply of land is largely fixed.
Like the prices of other commodities, land values are affected by the cost of supply and demand. However, unlike
other commodities, the amount of land available in any one area is finite and cannot be increased at times of high
demand by manufacturing at a higher rate, or importing from outside. This means that if there is a high demand in a
particular area, the prices of land in the locality will rise very steeply, even though similar land may still be cheap
fifty miles away.
EFFECT OF ECONOMIC FORCES ON PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Environmental studies deal with the planning, design, construction and management of the human habitat. The
functions of the various disciplines, which are involved with the human habitat, are concerned with the ordering of
the surfaces of the earth so as to make it functional appropriately, aesthetically and culturally balanced while at the
same time optimizing the available resources.
Over the years, the most current word on writings and speeches made about physical development is economy and
economics being described as the study of people in ordinary business of life, it has profound impact on the day to
day activities of individual and collective units, either directly or indirectly by its linkage with various economic
problems which is being looked at as economic forces on physical development. These include inflation,
unemployment, government policies or legislative forces, trade unionism, industrial production balance of payment,
level of economic growth, interest rates and other market forces as will be discussed below.
A very important economic force which has a great impact on physical development particularly construction
(activities) is that of inflation. In recent years, uncontrollable inflation has become a basic fact of life and this
introduces a strong element of uncertainty into economic decisions. This is particularly evident in construction,
which by its nature is a volatile industry to manage. Essentially most construction projects take relatively long time
to execute, an unpredictable inflation rates make the budgetary function of planners very difficult if not impossible
possible and any venture extremely risky in conceptualization, planning, execution and completion.
Rising or falling of interest rates also affect the cost of all building work to a greater or lesser degree and will
consequently influence a decision on whether or not build by the client or contractor. The availability of mortgages
or loans of all kinds will also have a profound influence on the state of building market.
Also, in evaluating the effect of economic forces on construction activities and costs, the role of market as economic
exchange unit is very essential. This is more so as we live in an environment in which the question of what is to be
produced, how it shall be produced and for whom it shall be produced are typically determined by a system of
prices. The market can thus be considered as an interface between firms supplying substitutable goods and potential
purchasers or consumers of these products.
For most goods including construction products, a crucial determinant of the quality supplied or purchase by the
consumer is its price. A supply function indicates the quantity of a given commodity that a supplier is willing and
able to supply at any possible price during a specified period of time. It is defined only for a given period of time
that is neither short enough to prevent producer from supplying their desired quantities of the goods nor long enough
to allow cost, technology input, prices and other factor to change.
Government policy or legislative forces can be other influential force on physical development. Central government,
directly or indirectly, has a great influence on the amount of work that is available within the construction industry,
which in turn affects the cost. Availability of work will surely result in expected return or turnover. As public sector
spending on the construction of schools, housing, public buildings and roads can be cut back, so also, it could
equally well be increased by an upturn in the economy and/or a change in government policy.
Conclusively, as a result of the relationship between the construction industry and the economic policies of the
government, the industry is responsive to the economic situations in the country and the economic policies of the
government. Thus, when the economy is strong, the construction industry will be highly active because the
government and the society will have much money to spend. On the other hand, when the economy is weak, the
industry will be inactive because the government and the society will have little to spend.
So since factors within and outside the industry are the cause of increase in construction cost as seen earlier, the
services of construction economists to both private and public clients have become indispensable so as to achieve
the main aim of value for money. For increased performance and efficiency, there must be mutual respect the
government who is major client and the operators of the construction industry.
BUILDING SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
Building science or building physics is a broad term that refers to our knowledge of the physical behaviour of
buildings and their impact on energy efficiency, comfort, health, safety, durability and so on. It is the application of
the principles of physics to the built environment. An understanding of the building science is vital if the design of
building is to be optimized and the performance of buildings is maximized. Building science applies empirical
techniques to design problems and explain why buildings work and why they fail.
MODE OF OPERATION
Building science considers buildings as a system - an integrated assembly of interacting elements, designed to carry
out comparatively a predetermined function. This is important as buildings are generally complex, one-off
prototypes and it is only by considering them as a series of interacting system that standardized analysis become
possible. Building science is concerned with the full cycle of buildings from planning and designing through to
construction, facilities management, conservation and demolition. It is a collaborative process that can involve
disciplines such as architecture, civil and structural engineering and building science engineering, and specialist field
such as acoustics, lightning, etc.
Aspects of building design that might be considered building science include: a. Climate and weather b. Façade
engineering c. Building materials d. Building structure e. Passive building design f. Heating, ventilation and air
condition g. Natural and artificial lightning h. Building acoustic i. Fire engineering j. Systems integration k.
Physiology and thermal comfort l. Sound building technology m. Sustainability issues n. Resistance to climate
change o. Life cycle assessment p. Energy modelling
FUNCTIONS OF BUILDING
We build houses to create safe and comfortable living environment so that we may be comfortably sheltered from
the outside environment. We want our houses to be warm when its cold outside cool when its hot outside, dry when
it’s raining, light when we are awake, secured under turbulent wind and comfortable at all times, filled with fresh air
when the doors and windows are closed against inclement weather, enlivened with sunlight and resistant to
earthquake and other natural events. We also want this to be long lasting, affordable to build and economical to
operate. These forces affect the durability, comfort and energy efficiency of houses. Understanding the energy, air
and moisture flow, presents the principles that are the foundation for construction technology. This principle is
therefore, the first step toward building quality housing.
THE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING
. The designer must look at the building as a system of interconnected components in a subsystem, each of which
contribute to a unified whole. These subsystems include the building envelope, mechanical systems, building
occupants, and the external environment. These subsystems must operate in equilibrium for a change in any of these
components will have an effect on the performance of all other parts of the system. Understanding all these concepts
of building science provides the foundation for designing a building as a system.
BUILDING AS A SYSTEM
The total performance of the building as a system depends on creating a balance between the building envelope,
mechanical systems, and the occupants. All these parts of the house affect the flow of heat, air and moisture into and
out of the building. There is therefore, the need to understand and incorporate in the design, construction and
maintenance phases information such as; the effect of heat through solar radiation, sunrise and set through the
horizon, water/ moisture movement in and outside the building, creating a balance between heat conduction from
inside the building to the outside by specifying and ensure the use of appropriate building materials and minimizing
or eliminating direct heat impact in and out of buildings.
BUILDING SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Building Services are those domestic systems which affect human health, safety and comfort as well as building
form construction. Paramount among these services is water, electricity, fire protection and waste disposal services.
WATER SERVICES
One of the primary sources of water supply is precipitation in the form of either rain or snow fall, surface water
(river, sea, lake, etc.) and ground water supplies. These underground reservoirs of water are called aquifers.
Rainwater is one of the purest sources of water available. Rainwater can provide clean, safe, and reliable water if it
is collected by rain water gutters (eaves gutters) and then given appropriate treatment for intended uses.
Groundwater is collected by digging either shallow or deep wells. When the depth of the well is less than 7.5m, it is
called a shallow well. Such wells can be dug, driven, or drilled. Wells deeper than 7.5m are called deep wells. These
wells are either bored or drilled through the earth and rocks.
Water Treatment and Purification

Water obtained from surface becomes contaminated as a result of transport silt and clay, decaying algae and other
organic matter. Biological contaminants (protozoa and bacteria) occur naturally in surface water. Treatment and
purification of surface water is therefore necessary to provide portable that is safe form chemical and bacteriological
points of view. Domestic water should also be free from unpleasant taste and smell, and improved for human health.
Water supply for human consumption and process usage should be conditioned by utilizing different treatment
processes before it is delivered to the building system.
Purification of water is needed to remove organic impurities and to reduce the hardness of water by calcium and
other minerals in the water. The standard operations include: storage of raw water (dam), screening (to remove
particles), lifting the water through a low lift pump to the aeration chamber (to remove minerals such as iron and
manganese, flocculation (addiction of alum to coagulate and allow settlement in the sedimentation tank),
sedimentation (removal of suspended particles from the water), filtration, disinfection (addition of chlorine) and
distribution to consumers through interconnectivity of pipe works.
WATER SUPPLY ACCESSORIES AND CONTROL
Water supply accessories and controls help to regulate the flow of water through pipes. Some helps to cut off or
prevent back flow. They include valves and taps.
Types of Valves
These includes ball and gate valve (to start or stop flow), non-returned valve (allow flow in one direction), pressure
reducing valve and relieve pressure valve.
Taps
They are used to control the supply of water to sanitary appliances. They include pillar tap (for fixing to holes in the
sanitary appliance: sinks, baths and wash basin); bib tap (for fixing on the wall over a sanitary appliance).
Fitting
Fittings are used to join a segment of pipe to another segment, their purpose is to: a. Lengthen the pipe run b.
Change the size (diameter) of the pipe run c. Change the direction of pipe run.
Types of Fittings
Fittings used to attach two segments of pipe without changing direction or size. They include couplings (to connect
two pipes) unions (to attach pipes to valves) and flanges. b. Fitting used to change the size of pipe run e.g. a reducer
or adapter c. Fittings to change the direction of a pipe run or to branch out from an existing pipe d. Elbows are
1
commonly used to connect two pipes at an angle of 22 2 ,º, 45o, or 90o.
Traps
This is essentially a dip in the drain line filled with water and seals the line against the passage of sewer gas from
the drainage system through the plumbing fixture into the rooms of the building.
SANITARY APPLIANCES AND SANITARY PIPE WORK/DRAINAGE

Sanitary appliance is divided into two main groups:
⮚ Soil Appliances are those used to remove soil waste water and human excreta e.g. water closet, urinal,
bedpan washer.
⮚ Waste Appliances are appliances which are used to remove the waste water from washing and food
preparation e.g., wash basin.
i. Wash Basin: Used for washing upper part of the body. A 12mm pipe is fixed to or over wash basins. A
P trap with a 75mm water seal is fitted to wash basin with a 32mm pipe ii. Baths is 18mm pipe supply
cold or hot water to the bath. A 75mm seal trap is fitted to the bath waste and connected to the 38mm
waste iii. Showers is 18mm pipe supply cold or hot water, and a 75mm seal trap is fitted to the tray
and connected to a 38mm waste pipe iv. Sinks is 12mm drinking supply from the service main and a
75mm seal trap is fixed to the sink outlet and connected to the 38mm waste v. Soil Pipes take the
discharge from soil appliance e.g. A 100mm pipe collects discharge from W.C. The minimum diameter
for a soil drain is 100mm vi. Waste Pipes take the discharge from waste appliances. The minimum
diameter for waste pipe is 75mm.
Sanitary pipe work installations can be done in one of the following ways:
⮚ Two Pipe System: Soil appliances are connected to the drain while waste appliances discharge into a
separate vertical pipe or stack.
⮚ Fully Ventilated Two-Pipe System: Same as above but vented to the atmosphere.
⮚ One Pipe System: Soil waste appliances discharge into single pipe and vented.
⮚ Single Stack System: Employs only one main discharge stack and no vent provided.
⮚ Drainage System in homes is usually done using septic tank and soak away.
⮚ Soakaways: A Soakaways is a rubble-filled pit in the ground which absorbs water quickly. It should be at
least 3 metres from the building.
⮚ Septic Tank: A septic tank is an individual waste system for households in areas that are not connected to a
municipal treatment system. It consists of a tank for primary treatment of waste and a method of filtration
of the effluent as secondary treatment (filter body). The system works by allowing waste water to separate
into layers and decomposing the organic matter while it is contained within the tank. Anaerobic bacteria
naturally present in the septic systems digest the solids that settle out at the bottom of the tank. The
overflow or effluent, from the tank is then given a secondary treatment.
FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS
Definition
Fire protection is the protection of the occupants, contents and structure of a building from the risks associated with
fire. The purpose of fire protection is to protect life, goods and activities by inhibiting the combustion materials and
by preventing the spreading of fire within the building and between buildings.
The achievement of these objectives depends on: 1. The type of material selection for building structure in relation
to fire resistance 2. The coordination of spaces, suitable planning of the building internally and in relation to
adjacent building 3. Fire precaution practices with the objectives of reducing the frequency and losses from fire
outbreak 4. Ensuring that the elements of combustion fulfil their functions for a sufficient length of time during a
fire, the occupants are able to escape and the fire brigade is given time to deal effectively with the outbreaks and
thus limit the total outbreak.
CAUSES OF FIRE
1. Carelessness due to electrical faults as a result of overloading, short circuit, earth fault. These includes: a.
Smoking materials b. leaving lighted mosquito coils, candles and paraffin lamp unattended to c. trash
burning and uncontrolled bush burning d. The role of services and appliances in starting fire – gas lines in
home, leakage due to inadequate scaled joint or corroded pipes worn-out or defective valves and fitting e.
Over-heated machinery which might be in contact with combustible material f. Storage of explosives and
highly flammable materials in home e.g. petrol g. Unextinguished fire left by crampers and hunters.
2. Accidental. These includes: a. Sparks from various sources which might be from machinery in industries b.
Spontaneous combustion, common in warehouses where chemicals are stored.
3. Wilful Act/Intentional: Arson is the unlawful and wilful act of setting fire to any building structure as a
result of a. Embezzlement b. Religious fanaticism c. Profit/insurance claim d. Arson for spite e. Arson for
satisfaction in which arsonist enjoys seeing property on fire (Psychological problem).
CLASSES OF FIRE
Class A – Caused by materials of an ordinary nature e.g. paper and wood. Requires the cooling and quenching
action of water, multipurpose dry chemical.
Class B – They are caused by flammable materials and combustible liquids – (petroleum products). Extinguishing
agents are Carbon dioxide (CO2), foam and dry chemical sand bucket.
Class C – Occurs in energized electrical equipment. Carbon dioxide (CO2) fire extinguisher can be used.
Class D – Caused by combustible meals e.g. Magnesium, Titanium. Extinguished by the use of specially formulated
dry type of fire extinguishers.
FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL
Fire protection involves two basic concepts. They are: i. Fire prevention and control ii. Fire precaution
Fire Prevention and Control: These are steps taken to restrict the risk of an outbreak.
Fire Precaution: Both preventive and protective taken to reduce the fire risks, include escape of the occupants and
to minimize the spread of fire. Fire precaution can be organized into:
Passive Control: Planning of building both in relation to one another and their internal layout and proper choice of
materials.
i. Control of combustion process
ii. Control of fire spread by construction materials
iii. Means of escape and life safety
iv. Access for fire fighting
v. Compartmentation
Active Control: Installation of equipment for fighting an outbreak of fire.
i. Portable or hand extinguishers
ii. Fixed apparatus
a. Hydraulic Hose Reel: They are usually fitted on domestic main. There must be at least one
hydraulic hose reel on each floor. It is laid that no part of the floor shall be more than 6m from the
nozzle of a hose.
iii. Detection and Alarm Systems: Fire detection and alarm systems notify the occupants of building of an
emergency so they take action to escape.
ELECTRICAL SERVICES
Electricity, in the first instance, is generated by an alternator which comprises an electromagnet rotating in triple
stationary windings, current being generated in each winding. The magnet can be turned by waterpower, or steam
turbine, the steam being made by coal, gas or from the heat of nuclear reactions. The power authority by a system of
transmission and distribution network (national grid) gets electrical energy (electricity) to building premises.
The main distribution network is by overhead cables carried on pylons Voltages are high for economic reasons,
being 132kv on the primary grid and 275kv on the super grid. At points along the lines, the voltage is stepped down
and transformer stations to 66kv. The voltage is further stepped down to 33 and 11kv lines. The 11kv substations
serve the domestic and industrial premises.
BUILDING ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Electrical distribution systems for buildings consist of: a. Service Entrance: This included main disconnecting
devices, distribution panel boards, metering equipment, and conduit and wiring b. Feeder System: A system of
heavy duty conduits and wiring that carries electric power from the service entrance equipment to the various
lightning and power panel boards that are strategically located through a building c. Lighting and Power Panel
Board: Metal enclosures which house the circuit breakers, fuses, and fused switches to which all branch circuits
connect and which give electrical protection to those branch circuits d. Branch Circuits: The wiring circuits that
receive power in a controlled manner from the lightning and power panel board and carry that power to all the many
items of electrical equipment that constitutes the electrical load of the building e. Electrical Load: Consists of a wide
range of electrically operated equipment including lightning fixtures, electric motors, heaters, signal systems of
many types, etc.
For an effective electricity supply to buildings, it is important to have an electrical layout drawing designed by
Building Services Engineer from architectural drawing. This drawing shows the position of socket outlets, switches,
lightning points etc. by symbols on plans making it easier for electrical wiring to commence and conclude.
The conductors used in building installations are called cables and consists of a conductor of low resistance such as
copper of aluminum surrounded by an insulator of high resistance. Cable sizes are known by the nominal
cross-sectional area of the conductor and up to 2.5mm2 are usually of strand. Larger cables consist of a number of
strands to give them flexibility. All cables are assigned a rating in amperes which is the maximum load the cable can
carry without becoming overheated.
Buildings are wired either using surface or concealed method using ring/radial circuit method.
Domestic Electrical Installations
Most domestic premises receive a single-phase supply of electricity from the Electricity Distribution Companies
cable at a rating of 240volts. The cable from which the domestic supply is taken, consists of four lines, three lines
each carrying a 240volts supply and the fourth is the common return or neutral which is connected to earth at the
transformer or substation as a safety precaution should a fault occur on the electrical appliance.
Each line or phase is tapped in turn together with the neutral with a service cable to provide the single-phase 240v
supply for domestic electricity consumption. The supply in the house passes through the meter, which records the
electricity consumed to a distribution panel called a consumer control unit as shown. The supply branches inside the
unit to feed several small cables which form the circulation for lights and electrical equipment.
Each wiring circuit in the consumer unit is protected by a fuse which has a fixed value 5amp, 10amp, 20amp,
30amp. The fuse value should be matched to the anticipated current in the circuit. Cookers are 30amps, water
heaters 15amps, power sockets on a ring main are 30amps and lightning circuits are 5amps.
BASIC ISSUES IN HOUSING PROVISION
INTRODUCTION
In common parlance shelter and housing are sometimes used synonymously and interchangeably, though in reality
their meanings differ. Housing is a more encompassing term, while shelter is only a subset or an element of housing.
Though the difference between them may be as such as that between water and moisture, shelter is the dwelling unit
or shell which protects man from the natural elements of rain, sunshine etc. therefore when man lives in caves, those
caves serve shelter. To those that live in their vehicles in Lagos such vehicles are their shelter. Huts, canopies
overhead bridges, all serve as shelters when men live under them. They shield men from rain, sunshine etc.
Housing is widely perceived as being more than shelter. It involves the provision of structurally stable shelter
equipped with infrastructures to provide satisfactory internal environment, aesthetics and protection against external
weather elements and invasion. Beyond this, the United Nations claims housing is not shelter or household facilities
alone but comprises a number of ancillary services and utilities which link the individual and his family to the region
in which he/she grows and progresses.
Housing goes beyond provision of human accommodation but includes amenities and facilities in and around
individual and group of homes, access to social infrastructural facilities, such as health, education, shops, open
space, employment, organization of collection and disposal of garbage, access to physical facilities such as water
and electricity, telecommunications and roads. In later years the United Nations further added to its earlier claim on
housing, by regarding it as a collection of facilities for intensive services in one physical location and its meaning
varies with different social, economic and familiar conditions. Thus, shelter may be viewed as the totality of the
environment of man’s dwelling including the dwelling unit. It comprises the basic elements which connect and relate
the dwelling unit to the larger environment and open the inhabitants of the units to opportunities, both far and near
with which they enhance their daily living.
Elements of Housing
The elements of housing include shelter, family life, economic stability, family participation in community life, and
access to community facilities. The first significance of housing is related to sanitary shelter. This need like that of
food is universal and basic to all humans. Second, the dwelling is the major setting for family life it should offer
adequate space for both group and individual activities such as eating sleeping, relationing etc. Housing also has
significance for the economic stability and well being of the family. The proximity of the dwelling to employment
opportunities is a major consideration for inhabitants. The dwelling itself may be the site for primary economic
activities and it also possess economic significance as an investment. The influence of housing also enables the
family to participate in community activities under which the dwelling is. It is an aid to economic well being and a
source of friendship and linkage to personal social life. Housing also gives occupants accessibility to communal
facilities such as health facilities, schools, shopping areas and places of worship.
Importance of Housing
Housing provides the setting for many biological and social processes necessary to sustain human life. Its role is to
provide shelter from distinctive extremes in the environment. Humans need shelter not only to preserve for example
body temperature within a certain range, but also to permit healthy growth and development of the young.
Housing is also meant to satisfy the psychological needs of man; such as personality needs in the form of
self-fulfillment, privacy etc. Housing has also been confirmed by research to be a major contributor to healthy living
of the family. Housing also reflects cultural values and tendencies and also been seen to have economic significance
as an investment and as a major form of savings protecting its value from being dissipated by inflation.
HOUSING NEEDS
The need for housing presents itself in several problems: such as overcrowding, inadequate social amenities,
unsatisfactory and unwholesome environmental conditions and urban squalor. These manifestations are not peculiar
to third world nations but occur globally. The global effect was what prompted the United Nations to declare
housing as a fundamental human right and also organized two major world conferences to tackle the same issue. The
conferences produced lofty resolution aimed at sustainable housing in urban locations of the world. But inspite of
these lofty intentions, housing needs have assumed monumental status.
Housing problems in Nigeria could be categorized as either rural or urban. Rural problems arise from houses that are
of low quality from the use of low-quality materials bad workmanship and lack of appropriate facilities required to
provide conducive human environment. The urban housing problem is characterized by inadequate housing quality
which resulted in overcrowding of houses and increased pressure and deterioration of infrastructural facilities. The
problem could be further summarized as follows: First, rise in population has over stripped our developed resources
such as roads, water, fuel supply (petrol) and housing. Second, due to creation of more states and local governments,
many of the small towns have metamorphorsized into cities with their housing needs. Third, the high growth rate in
the headquarters of local governments and state capitals has stretched infrastructure beyond limit of endurance.
Census figures show that state such as Lagos, Oyo and Anambra have urban population of 94%, 69% and 67%
respectively. Fourth, urban housing space competes with other land uses which give higher return on investment.
Other manifestation of housing needs in Nigeria are inadequate mortgage finance, inaccessibility to mortgage loans,
high rent in housing market, inflated real estate values and general lack of planning.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HOUSING IN NIGERIA
THE COLONIAL PERIOD

The housing activities of government, during this period, focused on the provision of quarters called Government
Residential Areas (GRA) for the expatriate staff, a few African quarters for the specialized indigenous staff like the
clerical officers, railway workers, policemen, etc. and none for the public either for rental or sale. The Lagos
Executive Development Board (LEDB) was created in 1928 as a result of the bubonic plague which ravaged Lagos
in 1920. This resulted in the following schemes in 1954.
i. Workers’ Housing Estates in Surulere, Akinsemoyin and Eric Moore and
ii. Freehold and site services schemes in Surulere, Apapa, Ikoyi, Ilupeju and Isolo.
The following were also established between 1956 and 1960.
i. The Nigerian Building Society (NBS) was established in 1956 to provide mortgage loans through the
savings scheme. This programme failed because of limited financial resources arising from poor
response to the savings scheme from the public.
ii. The African Staff Housing Fund was introduced by the colonial government in 1956 to encourage
African Civil Servant to own houses.
iii. State Housing Corporations were also established by the regional governments before independence to
provide housing for the general public. These corporations would not extend their services to the
low-income group. However, they formed the nuclei of the modern housing estate in Nigeria.
THE POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD (1960 – 1979)
a. 1960 – 1970: The give yearly Development Plans established during this period neglected housing. The
civil war that started in 1967 also contributed to housing deterioration. However more state Housing
Corporations were established but their contributions to housing during this period was insignificant.
b. 1971: National Council on Housing comprising of all the State Housing Commissioners was established.
The first significant intervention by the federal government led to the establishment of National Housing
programme in 1972 through an enabling decree to construct 59,000 dwelling units (15,000 in Lagos and
9,000 in each of the other 11 states).
c. 1972: The functions of the African Staff housing scheme were taken over by the staff housing boards to
grant loan N40,000.00 maximum) to civil servants. The Federal Housing Authority (FHA) was established
in 1973 to coordinate the National Housing Programme. The Festac Town resulting from FESTAC 1977
was also overseen by the FHA.
d. The 3rd National Development Plan (1975 – 80) saw another significant intervention by the Federal
government who budgeted N2.6Billions to construct 202,000 housing units; 50,000 in Lagos and 8,000
each in the other 19 states. However, less than 15% was completed at the end of the programme. The
Federal Ministry of Housing, Urban Development and Environment was established to initiate and
coordinate various housing policies. This led to creation of the following:
i. Committee on standardization of house types and policies in 1979 directed at solving the housing
problems of the low-income earners.
ii. Anti-inflation Task Force in 1976 to examine inflationary trend, identify the causes and proffer
solutions to them.
iii. Rent Panel in 1976 to review the structure and level of rent in the country. This led to the establishment
of State Rental Tribunals which turned out to be ineffective in controlling rent.
iv. Land Use Panel in 1977 to examine the various land tenure and ownership systems in the country. This
led to the promulgation of the land use decree in 1978 which passed the ownership of land to the
government with the aim of making land readily available for development.
e. The Nigerian Building Society was converted to the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria in 1976 to also give
loan to the tune of N80,000.00 through Savings Scheme. The impact was however not felt as the bulk of the
loans went to the middle and high-income groups.
THE SECOND CIVILIAN (SHAGARI) ADMINISTRATION (1979 – 83)
The focus of this regime was the low-cost housing programme based on the concept of affordability and citizen
participation. This led to the provision of two categories of houses – one-bedroom houses for low-income earners
(with salaries of up to N5,000.00 and N8,000.00 per annum). 40,000 units were to be 80% to the low-income and
20% to the middle income. By June 1983, 32,000 units were completed overall achievement was mere 20%.
The Shagari Housing scheme failed due to the following reasons:
i. The adoption of same design for the entire country irrespective of the varied climate and culture.
ii. The distribution of houses and choice of sites bore little or no relationship to the effective demand for
houses.
iii. Most state governments politicized the whole affair by offering land to the Federal government in
remote areas with poor terrain. This delayed the implementation of the programme and increase the
cost of the building and infrastructures considerably.
iv. The appointment of contractors, sub-contractors and suppliers was based on party patronage instead of
capability and experience. This let to fraud and non- performance.
v. The chairmen of States’ Allocation Committees were politicians and they ended up allocating houses
to party members who neither had the need for them nor belong to the categories they were designed
for.
In addition to the government direct construction programme:
i. The Federal Housing Authority (FHA) was mandated to construct houses on commercial bases for the
medium and high-income groups. 350 units were to be constructed in Abuja and each of the states.
These houses located in remote areas with negative effect on demand were abandoned at various stages
of completion.
f. The state Housing Corporations were mandated to construct low- and middle-income houses based on the
sectoral allocation of N1.1Billion in the 4th NDP. The scheme had significant impact in four states.
POST SHAGARI REGIMES (1983 TO DATE)

Launching of the new National Housing, the focus of the regimes was to ensure decent housing at affordable costs
for all by the year 2000AD in line with the United Nations (UN) resolution. The objectives of this policy are:
i. To encourage and promote active participation in housing delivery by all tiers of government.
ii. To strengthen institutions within the system to render their operations more responsive to demand.
iii. To emphasize housing investment which will satisfy the basic needs.
iv. To encourage greater participation by the private sectors in housing development.
To achieve these objectives the following strategies were to be adopted:

i. The establishment of appropriate institutional framework to facilitate effective planning in housing
development.
ii. The restricting of all existing public institutions involved in housing delivery at the Federal and State
levels.
iii. The upgrading of low-quality houses.
iv. The provision of site and services scheme.
v. The mobilization of savings through the National Housing Fund using the voluntary, mandatory and
government budgetary and financial transfer schemes. The mandatory scheme involves the savings of
2.5% of workers’ earning above N3,000.00 per annum to the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria at 4%
interest rate. The government budgetary allocation and financial transfer affect the banks and the
Insurance Firms. The banks are to invest 10% of their profits at 1% interest rate. The insurance firms
are to invest 20% of their non-life funds and 40% of their funds with not less than 50% through the
Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria at 4% interest rate.
No tangible result could be said to have been gained from this policy due to lack of patronage and the fact that the
cost of the house types has always been increasing from one regime to the other due to the economic situation in the
country. This has continuously taken the houses out of the reach of the masses.
ESTABLISHMENT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

The Federal Government set up Urban Development Bank. The bank is expected to intervene in urban development
through its loans to both private and public sector organizations.
Establishment of Ministry of Urban Development and Housing

The new Ministry of Housing has the following responsibilities:
a. Ensure early completion of all abandoned housing units and associated infrastructures within two years of
operation.
b. Encourage partnerships between the Ministry, Developers, Estate companies, financial institution and
Building materials manufacturers.
c. Ensure that the Housing Policy Council is invigorate for monitoring of Housing delivery nationwide.
d. Facilitate access to house building land.
e. Encourage the organized private sector towards creation of satellite towns with private financing.
f. Provide social housing for the poor.
g. Promote formation of housing cooperation and
h. Encourage the use of social Building materials
CERTIFICATION OF REAL ESTATE DEVELOPERS
The Federal Government set up a presidential technical committee on urban development and housing to find further
solutions to problems of housing delivery. The committee in collaboration with the Federal Ministries of Works and
Housing is to put in place a scheme for the certification of Real Estate Developers capable of developing a minimum
of twenty houses with complete infrastructures for sale to the public.
LOCAL MATERIALS UTILIZATION IN MASS HOUSING
The early man made his home from materials locally available to him using the level of technology he knew well.
He was able to make his huts, eaves, wood houses and even igloos based on these two principles of local material
utility and technology. This notion continued through time until the period of international trade and colonization
when cross cultural exchanges began to alter the nature of the materials and technology available to a people,
thereby influencing the trend of local architecture and construction. This colonial domination and alteration can be
seen in our tin/asbestos cement roofs, cement/concrete blocks and steel/aluminum construction.
Unlike Europe and America where the industrial revolution transformed whole continents, the alteration of the local
material consumption pattern in Africa did not alter the level of local technology to produce the materials consumed.
The result is that the local building materials were reduced to low class materials fit only for people of small means,
or no means at all living majorly in the rural areas or in the urban ghettos.
CONCEPTS OF BUILDING
This has changed from caves and mere shelter to houses, office buildings, public buildings, factories, refineries etc.
The developmental structure can be telephones, roads/bridges, barracks space shuttle, etc. The accompanying
buildings can be bungalows, storey building, skyscrapers, (e.g. greater than 7 storeys). The highest storey building
has been a 132-storey building. Greater heights are now being constructed in Indonesia. These buildings are
basically used for domestic, administration/commercial and manufacturing purposes.
CONCEPT OF MATERIALS
Material is a natural or artificial resource or matter employed in producing physical entities such as cars, house,
rocket etc.
Sources
i. Minerals; found from the earth’s crust
ii. Biodegradable; that can be formed from photosynthesis materials
iii. Synthetic; e.g. by product of refiner
A. Processing of Materials
There are three important factors to be considered namely: Conservation, Recycling and Efficient Utilization.
There are two methods of processing:
a. Single stage b. Multiple stage
BUILDING MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
The study of Building Maintenance may be divided into two complementary segments – Management and
Technology. Whereas the latter addresses technical issues bordering on deterioration and techniques of rectifying
defects, management focuses on the organization and coordination of the maintenance operation to achieve
optimal solutions often measured in economic terms. B.S. 3811 defines building maintenance as work done to
keep a building in or restore it to an acceptable standard.
Be it preventive or corrective, the two major lines of action associated with maintenance are repairs and or
replacement. Repairs is a loose term which describes the art of putting a failed item in a functional state comparable
to the initial state with no “new” or “foreign” component introduced. It is important to note that not all building
components or elements are repairable. Some such as burnt lamps, broken louver blades, etc. can only be replaced.
Replacement infers the import of a “foreign” item into the system for functionality.
PARAMETERS DEFINING AN ACCEPTABLE BUILDING STANDARD
The standard of a building seems tobe a subjective issue, but in practical terms this may be related to statutory
provisions contained in Acts, Byelaws, Codes or Regulations. These statutory requirements, which may be used as
parameters to determine the standard of buildings, are summed up as follows;
Structural stability, dimensional stability, freedom from damp, resistance of composite materials to deterioration,
adequate level of illumination, fire protection, adequacy of sanitary facilities including potable water, good internal
arrangement, quality of materials of construction and general level of cleanliness.
REASONS WHY BUILDING MAINTENANCE IS IMPORTANT

Building maintenance is carried out to satisfy any of the conditions listed below:
a. To enhance the value of the property in terms of beauty, economy and convenience.
b. To fulfill specific legal obligations as may be contained in lease agreements.
c. To perpetuate the life of a building.
d. To avert danger to life and property.
FORMS OF BUILDING MAINTENANCE

To achieve any or a combination of the above listed objectives, maintenance works could be in the form of
conversions (actions involving a change and use) alterations (mere changes in design for the same use), extensions
(to increase the accommodation provided) rehabilitation (to restore dilapidated structures) and demolition (to give
room for total replacement).
MEANS OF CARRYING OUT MAINTENANCE
These activities may be executed through direct labour in the case of large establishments or contract where the
scope is beyond the capacity of direct labour. The contractual process is similar to any form of construction works
viz: direct labour, outsourcing, open tendering, selective and package deal.
In the case of direct labour the organizational structure is important, as this should reflect the various aspects of an
estate. Typical among such are the building works, road maintenance works, mechanical and electrical works
(Building services) and the landscaping or grounds. Following management norms, there is the need for a pyramidal
responsibility setting from the upper echelon to the operatives at the base.
One major advantage of the direct labour is the early realization of defects through periodic inspections which
facilitate the preparation of schedules of dilapidation. A typical schedule gives a vivid description of the defect, and
the precise mode of redress in relation to, materials, plant, and workmanship (procedure). The quantities and costs
are also inserted against each item.
Equally important in a direct labour setting is the capacity to prepare maintenance profiles. Maintenance profiles are
graphical representation of maintenance requirements over given periods of time. Usually maintenance cost is
plotted against age. The periodic cost (annual or more usually qvin qvennnial sums) required to effect maintenance
throughout the life span of a structure. This is particularly useful for budgeting purposes.
MAINTENANCE TECHNOLOGY
In this segment the issues that are considered include: sources and causes of building deterioration, nature or form of
failure of some specific elements and conventional maintenance techniques.
Agencies that cause decay of buildings and nature of defects
These may be broadly divided into two groups viz: those from man (owners or occupiers licenses and even
trespassers) and those from environmental agencies
Man Oriented Decay
Man oriented decay may result from any or a combination of the following factors:
● wear and tear on materials and components upon normal or abnormal usage,
● vandalization (fire, graffiti, or demolition, destruction as of war periods),
● neglect (failure to repair as and when due),
● change in taste, technology or character of demand resulting in functional obsolescence,
● design and construction flaws e.g. non-accessible components or elements, un-protected components such
as cover to reinforcement or sufficient eaves to protect external wall surfaces, poor mix-design ratios,
stripping of forms before the development of working strength etc. These could be due to faulty design
or lack of supervision to ensure good workmanship.
Environmental Agencies
The Building environment as had been defined in chapter one is the summation of all external influences and
conditions affecting the existence of the building. It comprises of component such as sun, wind, moisture, termites,
etc. that negatively impact the physical state of the building even in the most conducive environment. The effect of
these negative impacts is environmental degradation. Because environmental agencies and building are inseparable,
building live all their lives under their influence and cannot be totally protected from their influence.
Building materials used as finishes or for the fabric of the building are (frequently) adversely affected by their
contact with environmental agents and thus deteriorate. These environmental forces therefore constitute a major
class of causes of maintenance needs as a result of their ever presence nature with buildings.
Material components of the fabric of the built environment comprises natural, synthesized and composite materials
such as wood, polymers, stone, sand crete blocks, glass, metals and alloys. Inherent in these materials is the
recognized tendency to degrade with the passage of time when in contact with environmental agencies. Wood rots;
plastics warp, stonework erodes, steel corrodes and paint flakes. The rates at which the agencies act on the building
materials vary. Sometimes attack is rapid and readily visible, often it is slow, unnoticed and insidious.
The term ‘degradation’ encompasses all phenomena which result in the material changing in such a way during
service that a component is no longer able to fulfill the function for which it was designed. There are usually three
effects namely: a. Volume of component increase: This leads to buckling or bursting. Examples are swelling of
polymers, moistures absorption in timber and chemical reaction in surface layers as in stone b. Volume is constant,
but the internal integrity is reduced. This reduces the ability to support the service design loads either by cracking or
by loss of toughness which results in fracture under some kind of shock or impact. Examples are biological attack in
timber and creep effects in concrete c. Volume of component is reduced, that is, the useful load bearing area is
reduced. Examples include corrosion and oxidation of metals, solvent attack on plastics, spalling (thermal shock) in
concrete.
SPECIFIC DEGRADATION AGENCIES

a. Solar Radiation: A mean temperature of 30oC in the tropics is enough to cause paints to fade, damage
asphalt or bitunminous surfaces. It also causes warping and splitting of timber. Ultra Violet rays also affect
plastic materials in a significant way.
b. Moisture: Minerals generally swell upon absorption of moisture. This leads to disintegration, fungal attack,
and dimensional changes. Moisture may come from ground water where the water table is high through
capillary action. It may be from rainfall (particularly driving rain). Other sources include floods and general
surface water, condensation including interstitial condensation, vapour, and frost.
c. Wind: Winds of high speed are known to damage structures either through the direct force or through the
creation of areas of suction particularly on roof tops. This uplifts and removes the roof structure.
d. Frosts: In the non-tropical environment this particularly damages block/brick work and also water pipes
(water expands when it freezes).
e. Earth Movements: Geological and geomorphological phenomena such as faults, earthquakes/tremors, etc.
usually cause significant damage to building. Mining subsidence or settlement of built-up underly of soil
falls in this category. So also movement resulting from tree roots and swelling of clay soils due to moisture
absorption.
f. Biological Attack: This group covers the following: i. Fungus: The dry rot and the wet rot ii. Insects: e.g.
the powder post furniture beetle, etc. iii. Plants: e.g. moss, ivy, lichens particularly on concrete surfaces iv.
Moulds and dote v. Fungal attack vi. Insect attack vii. Plant life
g. Chemical Attack: This may act to structure through soluble salts from the ground resulting in efflorescence
if it dries up on the surface or cryptofloresence if within. Sulphate salts also have the ability to disintegrate
Ordinary Portland Cement concrete. Chemical attack also manifests in form of corrosion, electrolytic, or
galvanic action on metal components of buildings.
h. Acts of God: Examples include lightning, flood, etc.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Any building consists of interconnected principal elements called components namely foundations, walls, columns,
beams and floors.A combination of these principal elements each of which serves its own functions makes up the
fabric of the building.
Building components may be divided into two broad classes; namely load-bearing structure and space-enclosing
to their own weight. The latter carry no load other than their own weight and primarily serve to divide the building
into rooms and to give shelter from the weather. Some load-bearing structures (e.g. floors) also serve
space-enclosing functions.
FOUNDATION
Building element is a major functional part of a building, made up from compounds or materials e.g. columns, floors
etc. This is also known as the substructure of a building, that is, the part of a building below the ground level. (The
upper part of a building above the ground level is called the superstructure). It transmits all the building loads
safely to ground. The bottom surface of the substructures in direct contact with the soil is commonly called
foundation base.
Types
A. Strip Foundation: This is classified according to the width of the foundation in relation to wall thickness.
W > 3t: Wide strip b. W = 3t: Normal strip c. W < 3t: Narrow strip
Where t = thickness of wall and W = width of foundation
Common thickness of walls is 6 inches (150mm) and 9 inches (225mm). A wide strip of foundation will normally be
reinforced with steel bars. These steel reinforcements are commonly termed “iron bars” by laymen on building
sites.
Materials for making strip foundations are: 1. Concrete 2. Bricks/blocks 3. Stone 4. Timber
Strip foundation is commonly used for bungalows and some one-storey buildings on good soil in Nigeria.
B. Pad Foundation
Used in both simple and multi-storey buildings. This is the foundation to a base of a column/pillar. Materials
commonly used for pad foundations are steel and concrete.
Pad foundation is used as footing for bill boards, street and traffic light, mast and residential buildings
C. Raft Foundation
Used for multi-storey buildings on weak soil or in marshy terrain. Material for its construction is concrete, timber
(as moulds or formwork) and reinforcement bars.
D. Pile Foundation
Used to carry the load of multi-storey and high rise buildings to strong deeper layers of soil. They are also used
when buildings on water terrain, reclaimed sites, refuse dump sites and bridges. Materials include concrete,
reinforcement bars, steel stanchions and timber.
WALL
A wall is called:
a. Interior Wall: When it divides the enclosed space within a wall.
b. Exterior Wall: When it encloses the perimeter of the building and is in direct contact with weather.
c. Load-bearing Wall: When it carries load e.g. if walls only support floor slabs.
d. Self-supporting/Self-sustaining/non-load-bearing/space-enclosing: When it carries only its own weight.
e. Separating Wall: When it separates two different occupancies under the same roof e.g. in a flat.
f. Party Wall: When it separates two different occupancies that are not under the same roof i.e. though the
wall is common to them, the two roofs are constructed by different people.
g. Fire Walls: Are built to restrict spread of fire from one part of the building to another.
Any dividing wall within a building either load-bearing or not is called a partition.
Materials for wall construction include: bricks/blocks, timber, plastics, glass, concrete, metals, etc.
FLOORS
Floors perform the following functions; divide buildings into storeys and support partition. A storey is the space in a
building between floor levels or between a floor and a roof above.
A basement is the lowest storey of a building lying partly or entirely below the ground level. The no of storeys in a
building is either: a. Reckoned above the ground level (American System) or b. Reckoned above the first floor
(British System).
Thus a 2-storey building in American terminology is a 1-storey building in British terminology. Unfortunately, there
is no standard “Nigerian terminology to describe storeys.”
Material used for construction of floors: Concrete, steel, timber, bricks, glass and clay pots.
ROOF
There are two parts namely: a. Roof structure or roof carcass b. Roof covering.
Function: The functions of the roof are to throw off rain and to protect the enclosed space against wind and sun.
Materials for roof construction and covering include timber, steel, roof covering (aluminum, zinc, alu - zinc, clay
shingles, reinforced concrete.
STAIR
A stair is a series of steps or flights of steps, connected by loadings, which (1) permit passage between two or more
floor levels and (2) serve as emergency exits, say, in case of a fire.
⮚ The space in a building occupied by the stair is called the stairway.
⮚ The vertical shaft formed by bearing walls enclosing a stair is called stairwell.
Stairwell
Stairwell and stairway are commonly used synonymously. The interior walls enclosing the stair well are not, for fire
safety reasons, allowed to have any openings other than doors. Stairs should be exposed to daylight admitted
through windows in the exterior walls of the stairwell.
Materials used for stair construction: Timber, metals, concrete and glass.
Windows
Openings in exterior walls of a building to admit light and air. Materials include: timber, steel, aluminum, glass and
PVC.
Doors
Permit passage between rooms or between the outside and inside of a building. Materials include: steel, timber
plywood, glass, and aluminum.

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CHAPTER ONE:

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL AND MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT

ELEMENT OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

BUILDING AS A COMMUNAL ACTIVITY

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

THE RANGE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

Heavy Engineering or Civil Engineering Works

Industrial Construction Works

➢ The new construction works can be classified either housing or non-housing.

Sub-Professionals and Technicians

Unskilled and Semi-Skilled Operators

PROBLEMS FACING THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 3

• Module 1: The Built Environment

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 4

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 5

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 6

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 7

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 8

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 9

• In relation to buildings and their design,

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 10

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 12

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 13

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 14

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 15

(c) 2012 Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 17

The word to construct simply means to build or to put or fit together.

THE RANGE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

Heavy Engineering or Civil Engineering Works

Industrial Construction Works

OPERATION DEFINING SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

PEOPLE AND SUB-SECTORS INVOLVED IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

The industry is made up of diversified operators. These include;

Federal and State Ministry of Works and Housing

State Housing Corporations Private Construction Companies,

Material and Equipment Mnufacturers,

Material and Equipment

Wholesale and Retail Distributors and Suppliers,

Examples of such professional institutions in Nigeria include:

Sub-Professionals and Technicians

Unskilled and Semi-Skilled Operators

PROBLEMS FACING THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

rising cost of materials leading to frequently high cost of construction,

adverse weather conditions,

contract overruns and

project abandonment due to inadequate pre-construction planning

FACTOR INFLUENCING PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

EFFECT OF ECONOMIC FORCES ON PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

THE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING

Water Treatment and Purification

WATER SUPPLY ACCESSORIES AND CONTROL

SANITARY APPLIANCES AND SANITARY PIPE WORK/DRAINAGE

FIRE PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS

FIRE PROTECTION AND CONTROL

BUILDING ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Domestic Electrical Installations