Foundation Class

Welcome to CSPs
Academy, Islamabad
Prof. Wajahat Farooq
03009871223
 Parts of Speech
• 1. Noun: Naming word i.e Ali, Chair, Honesty, Gold, Class, Water.
(Sub/Obj)
• 2. Pronoun: Substitutes noun. 1st P (I, We), 2nd P (You), 3rd P (He, She, It,
They)
• 3. Adjective: Qualifies Noun i.e Happy, Black, Smartest
• 4. Verb: Action or state of being. Ali plays football. Karachi is a big city.
• 5. Adverb: Qualifies Verb, Adjective, Another Adverb. He runs fast. He
looks very beautiful. Alia is talking too loudly.
• 6. Preposition: Relationship between two nouns in a sentence. We are
taking class in the Csps Academy.
• 7. Conjunction: Joins words and sentences. Coordinating Conjunction
(FANBOYS), Subordinating Conjunction (Before, When), Correlative
Conjunction (Neither-nor, Either-or)
• 8. Interjection: Expresses Sudden feelings and emotions. Hurrah! Alas!
 Sentence
• S V O
• Fatima kicks the ball.
• Subject Predicate
• Sentence is a combination of words, which has
subject and predicate and is complete in itself.
• Birds fly.
• We study.
• Amna drives a car.
 Phrase vs Clause
• Phrase is a group of words which acts collectively as a part of speech.
They sit under the tree.
We have mangoes in our hands.
Dr. Shehryar, the scientific man , is my brother.

Clause is group of words which has a subject and a predicate, but it is a

part of a sentence.
She is fond of swimming. (Simple Sentence)
She is fond of swimming but her brother is fond of hiking. (Compound)
Although she is fond of swimming, her brother is fond of hiking. (Complex)
 Tenses

Prof. Wajahat Farooq

 Diagnostic Test
A. Identify the tense of the italicized verbs.
1. Gary did travel to many sports arenas during his
vacation.
2. Some arenas have been tourist attractions for many
decades.
3. At this very moment, people are visiting famous
sports arenas.
4. Many communities have been trying to build new
arenas.
5. Someday, these arenas will serve as monuments to
our society’s fascination with sports.
B. Identify whether the verbs in following
sentences are in the active or passive voice.
1. Many people have visited the Library of
Congress.
2. The Library of Congress was founded by
Thomas Jefferson.
3. Numerous books are held in storage by the
Library of Congress.
4. Over the years, much information has been
provided by the Library of Congress to Scholars.
5. In 2000, the Library of Congress celebrated its
bicentennial.
 Tenses - Introduction
Read the following sentences:
1. I write this letter to please you. (Present)
2. I wrote this letter in his very presence. (Past)
3. I will write another letter tomorrow. (Future)
 Present Tense
1. I play. (Simple Present)
2. I am playing. (Present Continuous)
3. I have played. (Present Perfect)
4. I have been playing. (Present Perfect
Continuous)
 Past Tense
1. I played. (Simple Past)
2. I was playing. (Past Continuous)
3. I had played. (Past Perfect)
4. I had been playing. (Past Perfect Continuous)
 Future Tense
1. I will play. (Simple Future)
2. I will be playing. (Future Continuous)
3. I will have played. (Future Perfect)
4. I will have been playing. (Future Perfect
Continuous)
 Simple Present Tense - Uses
• To express a habitual action:
He drinks tea every morning.
I get up everyday at five o’clock.
My watch keeps good time.
• To express general truths:
The sun rises in the east.
Honey is sweet.
Fortune favours the brave.
In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple Past
Sohrab now rushes forward and deals a heavy blow to
Rustam.
 Simple Present Tense – Uses (Cont.)
• To express a future event that is part of a fixed
programme:
The next flight is at 7.00 tomorrow.
The match starts at 9 o’clock.
In clauses of time and condition:
I will wait till you finish your lunch.
If it rains we shall get wet.
In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and
there:
Here comes the bus!
There she goes!
Present Continuous Tense - Uses
For an action going on at the time of speaking:
She is singing (now).
The boys are playing hockey.
For a temporary action which may not be happening at
the time of speaking:
I am reading David Copperfield these days.
For a certain or pre-arranged action in the near future:
I am going to the cinema tonight.
My uncle is arriving tomorrow.
 Present Continuous – Uses (Cont.)
The following verbs are not normally used in the
continuous form:
Verbs of Perception, e.g., see, hear, smell,
notice, recognize
Verbs of emotion, e.g., want, wish, desire,
feel, like, love, hate, refuse, prefer
Verbs of appearing, e.g., appear, look,
seem
Verbs of thinking, e.g., think, suppose,
believe, agree, understand, imagine
Verbs of possession, e.g., own, possess, belong to
 Present Perfect Tense - Uses
To indicate completed activities in the immediate past:
He has just gone out.
It has just struck ten.
To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite:
Have you read Gulliver’s Travels?
I have never known him to be angry.
Mr. Ahmad has been to Japan.
To describe past events when we think more of their effect in the present
than of the action itself:
Akram has eaten all the biscuits. (There aren’t any left.)
I have cut my finger. (It is bleeding now.)
To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and continuing up to
the present moment (with since and for):
I have known him for a long time.
He has been ill since last week.
 Present Perfect Continuous Tense -
Uses
It is used for an action which began at some
time in the past and is still continuing:
He has been sleeping for five hours.
They have been building the bridge for
several months.
They have been playing since four o’clock.
 Simple Past Tense - Uses
The simple past is used to indicate an action completed in
the past. It often occurs with adverbs or adverb phrases
of past time:
The steamer sailed yesterday.
I received his letter a week ago.
She left school last year.
Without an adverb of time when the time is implied or
indicated by the context:
I learnt English in London.
I didn’t sleep well. (last night)
Babar defeated Rana Sangha at Kanwaha.
 Past Continuous Tense – Uses
It is used to denote an action going on at some time in
the past. The time of action is generally indicated:
We were listening to the radio all evening.
It was getting darker.
The light went out while I was reading.
When I saw him, he was playing chess.
The Past Continuous and Simple past are used together
when a new action happened in the middle of a longer
action. The simple past is used for the new action. See
the last two examples above.
 Past Perfect Tense – Uses
It describes an action completed before a certain moment in
the past:
I met him in New Delhi in 1996, I had seen him last five
years before.
If two actions happened in the past, it may be necessary to
show which action happened earlier than the other. The Past
Perfect is mainly used in such situations. The Simple Past is
used in one clause and the Past Perfect in the other:
When I reached the station, the train had started.
I had done my exercise when Ahmad came to see me.
I had written the letter before he arrived.
 Past Perfect Continuous Tense – Uses
It is used for an action that began before a
certain point in the past and continued up to
that time:
At the time he had been writing a novel for
two months.
When Mr. Ali came to the school in 1995,
Mr. Adnan had already been teaching
there for five years.
 Simple Future Tense – Uses
It is used to talk about things which we cannot control. It expresses the
future as fact:
I shall be twenty next Saturday.
It will be Eid in a week.
We will know our exam results in May.
We use this tense to talk about what we think or believe will happen in
the future.
I think Pakistan will win the match.
I’m sure Najma will get a first class.
We can use this tense when we decide to do something at the time of
speaking.
it is raining. I will take an umbrella.
“Mr. Jameel is very busy at the moment.” – “All right. I’ll wait.”
 Going + To Infinitive – Uses
We use the going + to infinitive to talk about what
seems likely or certain, when there is something in
the present which tells us about the future.
It is going to rain; look at those clouds.
The boat is full of water. It is going to sink.
It may also express an action which is on the point
of happening.
Let’s get into the rain. It’s going to leave.
Look! The cracker is going to explode.
 Future Perfect Tense – Uses
It is used to talk about actions that will be
completed by a certain future time.
I will have written my exercise by then.
He will have left before you go to see him.
By the end of this month I will have
worked here for five years.
 Future Perfect Continuous Tense -
Uses
It is used for actions which will be in progress
over a period of time that will end in future.
By next March we will have been living
here for four years.
I’ll have been teaching for twenty years
next July.
 The Infinitive
Read these sentences:
I want to go.
They tried to find fault with us.
The infinitive is the base of a verb, often preceded
by to.
To err is human
Birds love to sing.
To respect our parents is our duty.
He refused to obey the orders.
Many men desire to make money quickly.
 The Infinitive (Cont.)
The word to is frequently used with the infinitive but is not an
essential part of it.
Bid him go there.
I bade him go.
Let him sit here.
I will not let you go.
Make him stand.
I made him run.
The infinitive without to is also used after had better, had rather,
would rather, sooner than, rather than.
You had better ask permission.
I had rather play than work.
I would rather die than suffer so.
 The Participle
Read this sentence:
a. Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.
b. Blinded by the dust storm, they fell into
disorder.
Def. A participle is that form of the verb which
assumes the nature both of a verb and of an
adjective.
It has two forms:
1. Present Participle (sentence a.)
2. Past Participle (sentence b.)
 Present Participle – Examples
1. We met a girl carrying a basket of flowers.
2. Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded
admission
3. The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to
cross the road.
4. He rushed into the field, and foremost
fighting fell.
 Participle Adjectives
These are participles used as simple qualifying
adjectives before a noun. Examples:
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
We had a drink of the sparkling water.
His tattered coat needs mending.
The creaking door awakened the dog.
A burnt child dreads the fire.
His finished manners produced a very
favourable impression.
 Past Participle
• Besides the Present Participle, we can form from
each verb another Participle called its Past
Participle, which represents a completed action
or state of the thing spoken of. For example:

– Blinded by a dust storm, they fell into disorder.

– Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope.
– Time misspent is time lost.
– Driven by hunger, he stole a piece of bread.
– We saw a few trees laden with fruit.
 The Gerund
Read this sentence:
Reading is his favourite pastime.
Def. A Gerund is that form of the verb which ends in
–ing and has the force of a noun and a verb.
More examples:
Swimming is my hobby.
They like swimming.
He is fond of reading.
 The Gerund (Cont.)
As both the gerund and the infinitive have the force
of a noun and a verb they may be used
interchangeably.
Teach me to swim.
Teach me swimming.
To give is better than to receive.
Giving is better than receiving.
To see is to believe.
Seeing is believing.
 Compound Gerunds – Examples
1. I heard of his having gained a prize.
2. We were fatigued on account of having
walked so far.
3. They were charged with having sheltered
anarchists.
4. He is desirous of being praised.
 Difference between Gerund and
Present Participle
As both the Gerund and the Present Participle end
in –ing, they must be carefully distinguished.
Gerund:
He is fond of playing cricket.
The old man was tired of walking.
We were prevented from seeing the
prisoner.
The Gerund has the force of a Noun
and a verb; it is a Verbal Noun.
 Difference between Gerund and
Present Participle (Cont.)
Present Participle:
Playing cricket, he gained health.
Walking along the road, he noticed a dead
cobra.
The Present Participle has the force
of an Adjective and a Verb; it is a
Verbal Adjective.
 THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The Sequence of Tenses is the principle in
accordance with which the Tense of the verb
in a subordinate clause follows the Tense of
the verb in the principal clause.

The Sequence of Tenses applies chiefly to

Adverb Clauses of Purpose and Noun Clauses.
 The Sequence of Tenses – Cont.
A Past Tense in the principal clause is followed
by a Past Tense in the subordinate clause ; as,

He hinted that he wanted money.

She replied that she felt better.
I found out that he was guilty.
He saw that the clock had stopped.
He replied that he would come.
 The Sequence of Tenses – Cont.
There are, however, two exceptions to this rule:
i. A Past Tense in the principal clause may be followed by a
present Tense in the subordinate clause when the
subordinate clause expresses a universal truth ; as,

Newton discovered that the force of gravitation makes apples

fall.
Galileo maintained that the earth moves round the sun
Euclid proved that the three angles of a triangle are equal to
two right angles.
He said that honesty is the best policy.
 The Sequence of Tenses – Cont.
When the subordinate clause is introduced by than,
even if there is a Past Tense in the principal
clause, it may be followed by any Tense required
by the sense in the subordinate clause ; as,

He liked you better than he likes me.

He helped him more than he helps his own
children.
I then saw him oftener than I see him now.
He valued his friendship more than he values mine.
 The Sequence of Tenses – Cont.
A Present or Future Tense in the principal clause
may be followed by any Tense required by the
sense ; as,

He thinks that she is there.

He thinks that she was there.
He thinks that she will be there.
He will think that she is there.
He will think that she was there.
He will think that she will be there.
The Sequence of Tenses - Conditionals
• Conditionals describe the result of a certain
condition. The if clause tells you the condition
(If you study hard) and the main clause tells
you the result (you will pass your exams). The
order of the clauses does not change the
meaning. If you study hard, you will pass your
exams.
The Sequence of Tenses - Conditionals
• Zero Conditional: It is used for facts that are
generally true or scientific facts ; as,
If you stand in the rain, you get wet
• First Conditional: A possible situation in the
future ; as,
If you study, you will pass the exam.
The Sequence of Tenses - Conditionals
• Second Conditional: Unreal or improbable situation
now or in future ; as,
– If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the
animals.
– If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Third Conditional: Imaginary situation that did not

happen ; as,
If you had studied, you would have passed the
exam.
If I hadn’t been sick, I would have gone to your
party.
 Phrases

Prof. Wajahat Farooq

 Phrase
A phrase is a group of words that functions in
a sentence as a part of speech.

Two common types of phrases that add to the

meaning of sentences are prepositional
phrases and appositive phrases.
 Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases contain a preposition and
a noun or pronoun called the object of the
preposition. The object may have modifiers
and be compound.
PREP OBJ OF PREP

Examples: on the ancient limestone floor

PREP OBJ OF PREP OBJ OF PREP

beside the underground stream and rocks

Prepositional phrases function as either
adjectives or adverbs.

An adjective phrase is prepositional phrase

that modifies a noun or pronoun by stating
what kind or which one.

Adjective phrases can modify any sentence

part that is acting as a noun.
Examples:

An etching of a cave bear was found.

(What kind of etching?)

I have a fear of the dark. (What kind of fear?)

I sent my friend in Lahore a picture.

(Which friend?)
Adverb Phrases

An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase

that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an
adverb by pointing out where, when, in what
way, or to what extent.

When modifying a verb, an adverb phrase may

come before or after the modified word.
Modifying a Verb:
In Mammoth Cave National Park, you can tour
the caves. (Can tour where?)
Except for one section, the cave had been
mapped. (Was mapped to what extent?)

Modifying an Adjective:
I am angry beyond belief. (Angry to what extent?)

Modifying an Adverb:
The shovel bit well into the earth. (Well where?)
He climbed slowly over the mountain.
 Exercise:
Identify the prepositional phrases in the following
sentences. Then, further identify each prepositional phrase
as adjective or adverb.
Example: Have you ever been to the cave?
to the cave (adverb phrase)
1. Caves occurring in nature can be formed in different ways.
2. Caves formed by the long-term effect of acidic water are
called solution caves.
3. Most of these caves are formed from limestone, which
dissolves easily in slightly acidic water.
4. In certain geographic areas, water tends to absorb large
amounts of carbon dioxide and other acidic compounds.
5. Over time, this acidic ground water eventually eats away
at the rock, leaving an underground chamber, or cave.
Appositives and Appositive Phrases
Appositives
When you name something and then
immediately rename it to give further
information, you are using an appositive.

Examples:
My dog, a pointer, stood silently outside the
cave.
She did not care for his hobby, spelunking.
Appositives are set off by commas only when the
appositive contains nonessential (or
nonrestrictive) material – that is, material that
can be removed from the sentence without
altering its meaning. If the material is essential
(or restrictive), no commas are used.

Example:
My friend Naveed enjoyed the tour of the cavern.
 Appositive Phrases
When an appositive is accompanied by one or
more modifiers, it becomes a phrase.

One-word adjectives, adjective phrases, or other

groups of words acting as adjectives can modify
an appositive

Example:
The explorer, a daring scientist, braved the dark
recesses of the cave.
Appositives and appositive phrases can modify or
rename any sentence part that is acting as a
noun.
With a Subject: My jacket, a windbreaker, keeps
me perfectly warm in the cool, damp cave.

With a Direct Object: I bought a book, an atlas of

famous caves.

With an Indirect Object: The man gave his fellow

caving enthusiast, his friend for ten years, a
brand-new flashlight.
With an Objective Complement: I called my
friend Caruso, the name of a famous operatic
tenor, because he likes to sing in the caves.

With a Predicate Nominative: She is an

archaeologist, a historic explorer.

With the Object of a Preposition: In a shady

area, a small cave in the side of the hill, I ate
my lunch.
Use appositives and appositive phrases to
tighten your writing. Often, two sentences can
be combined by turning the information in
one sentence into an appositive.

Two Sentences: Tarantulas were hiding in the

cave. Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders.

Sentence with Appositive Phrase: Tarantulas –

large, hairy spiders – were hiding in the cave.
 Complement
• A complement is something which completes.
A. Subjective Complement
• He looks. (Incomplete predication)
• He looks happy. (Completes meaning of subj)
B. Objective Complement.
• They made Shoaib. (Incomplete predication)
• They made Shoaib the captain. (Obj Comple)
Exercise: Combine each pair of sentences by turning one
into an appositive or appositive phrase.
Example:
Islamabad is fascinating. It is our capital.
Islamabad, our capital, is fascinating.
1. Carlsbad Caverns is located in southeast New Mexico. It
is a national park.
2. Carlsbad Caverns is very interesting. It contains one of
the largest caves in the world.
3. Jim White explored the caves in the 1890’s. He was a
cowboy.
4. A group of scientists first explored the caves in 1924.
They were members of the National Geographic Society.
5. Today, tourists flock to Carlsbad Caverns. It is a beautiful
vacation spot with much to see.
 Exercise 3
Combine each group of sentences by turning one or more into a
prepositional phrase or an appositive phrase.
Example: Bats live throughout the United States. Caves are home to
many of them.
Bats live in caves, home to many of them, throughout the United
States.
Throughout the United States, many of bats live in caves.
1. Their seclusion makes them seem more mysterious. Caves are
where they are secluded. People wonder about them.
2. Two main groups of bats exist in the world. The two main groups
are Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera.
3. While most ‘megabats’ have excellent eyesight, ‘microbats’ rely on
echolocation to find their way. Echolocation is a form of natural
sonar.
4. The smallest bat weighs about two grams. Its size resembles a
bumblebee’s. Its weight is less than a dime’s.
 Verbals and Verbal Phrases
A verbal is a word derived from a verb but
used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

Like verbs, verbals may be modified by

adverbs and adverb phrases or have
complements. A verbal with modifiers or
complement is called a verbal phrase.
Participles and Participial Phrases
A participle is a form of a verb that can act as an
adjective.
Example: A devastating fire swept through the
valley.
A frightened doe bounded into the woods.

Forms of Participles:
Participles come in three forms: present
participles, past participles, and perfect
participles.
Kinds of Forms Examples
Participles
Present Ends in –ing The burning embers fell to the ground.
Participle The barking dog woke up the entire
neighborhood.
Past Usually ends in The scorched forest eventually regenerated
Participle –ed; sometimes itself.
–t, -en, or The exhausted firefighter didn’t hear the
another irregular alarm.
ending
Perfect Includes having Having tested the smoke detector, I replaced
Participle or having been it cover.
before a past Having been asked, he gave his opinion.
participle
Participles precede or follow the words they
modify, answering Which one? or What kind?
as do on one-word adjectives.
A verb has a subject and expresses the main
action; a participle acting as an adjective
describes a noun or pronoun.
Functioning as a Verb Functioning as a Participle
The firefighter’s muscles are The firefighter rubbed her
aching. aching muscles.

The firefighters respected The respected chief had the

their chief. firefighters’ support.
 Participial Phrases
A participial phrase is participle modified by
an adverb or adverb phrase or accompanied
by a complement. The entire phrase acts as an
adjective.
The following examples show different modifiers
and complements that a participial phrase can
have.

With an Adverb: Burning brightly, the fire lit up

the room.

With an Adverb Phrase: The bone, broken in two

places, healed slowly.

With a Direct Object: Holding the high-pressure

hose, I struggled to stand still.
A comma usually sets off a participial phrase
at the beginning of a sentence. Within a
sentence, however, a participial phrase is set
off by commas only if it is nonessential to the
sentence.

Nonessential Participial Essential Participial

Phrase Phrase
Mr. Sharp, driving that The man driving that fire
fire engine, is well engine is well trained.
trained.
Participial phrases can be used to combine the
information in two sentences into one sentence.

Two Sentences: The fire marshal’s speech expressed

her opinion about several important issues. It
convinced many people to vote for her.

Combined Sentence: The fire marshal’s speech,

convincing many people to vote for her, expressed her
opinions about several important issues.
The fire marshal’s speech, expressing her opinions
about several important issues, convinced many
people to vote for her.
 Nominative Absolutes
A nominative absolute is a noun or pronoun followed
by participle or participial phrase that functions
independently of the rest of the sentence.
The following examples show nominative absolutes.
Time: Precious minutes having been lost, I(S)
decided(V) to call the fire department.
Reason: My stomach growling with hunger, I(S)
made(V) a sandwich.
Circumstance: Many cadets(S) missed(V) final exams,
the flu epidemic having struck at the end of the
semester.
 Nominative Absolute (Cont..)
The participle being is sometimes understood
rather than expressed in some nominative
absolutes.
Example: The camera [being] out of film, we
stopped taking pictures of the forest fire.

Do not mistake a nominative absolute for the

main subject and verb in a sentence. As a phrase,
a nominative absolute cannot stand
independently as a complete sentence.
 Exercise 4
Write the participle or participial phrase in each sentence. Then
label it present, past, or perfect.
Example: Led by the captain, the firefighters ran to the building.
Led by the captain (past)
1. Besieged by drought for several months, the city of Chicago
was ripe for a major fire in the fall of 1871.
2. On September 30, 1871, the Burlington Warehouse burned
down, causing $600,000 damage.
3. A few days later, a devastating fire destroyed four city blocks.
4. Having battled both of these blazes, the firefighters were
exhausted.
5. Mrs. O’Leary’s cow was once blamed for accidentally starting
the Great Chicago Fire on October 8, having knocked over a
lantern in the barn at 8:30 P.M.
 Exercise 5
Revise the following sentences by changing the underlined verb
into a participial phrase.
Example: The town elected a fire chief, and he is a fearless leader.
The fire chief elected by the town is a fearless leader.
1. On the morning of April 18, 1906, a massive earthquake rocked
San Francisco and destroyed much of the city.
2. The earthquake lasted approximately one minute but caused
extensive damage.
3. Gas mains, stoves, and fireplaces were soon initiating fires all
across the city, and these fires contributed to a larger blaze.
4. More than fifty small fires contributed to the larger blaze and
resulted in the Great San Francisco Fire.
5. The firemen responded to the numerous fires, but they were
hampered by broken water mains and high winds.
 Exercise 6
Write each sentence, showing the subject, the verb, and
the nominative absolute.
Example: Lightning having struck the dry forest(NA), a
fire(S) swept(V) through twenty acres.
1. The freighter Grandcamp having docked at Texas City,
Texas, workers were loading its cargo on April 16, 1947.
2. The ship having transported a cargo of ammonium nitrate,
an onboard fire caused a tremendous explosion.
3. Most townspeople having been far enough away,
casualties in the town were kept to a minimum.
4. Most people having left, a second explosion did not cause
many casualties.
5. The dock engulfed in flames, the ship High Flyer
eventually exploded early next morning.
 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases
A gerund is a form of a verb that acts as a
noun.
Examples: Training is the fire department’s
favorite activity.
Climbing is an important part of the job.
 The Function of Gerunds in Sentences
By themselves, gerunds function in sentences
like any other nouns.
SOME USES OF GERUNDS IN SENTENCES
As a Subject Firefighting is often dangerous.
As a Direct Object A successful firefighter must enjoy firefighting.
As an Indirect Object He gives studying all of his attention.
As a Predicate Her favorite pastime is reading.
Nominative

As an Object of a Check the smoke detector before leaving.

Preposition

As an Appositive One field, engineering, has made great advances in fire safety.
 Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase is a gerund with modifiers or
a complement, all acting together as a noun.
 In the following chart, notice the variety of
different kinds of modifiers and complements
that a gerund phrase can contain.

With Adjectives His loud, persistent snoring disrupted the entire

fire station.

With an Adjective Worrying about the next fire prevented the

Phrase captain from sleeping.

With an Adverb Phrase Fishing from the pier is permitted.

With Indirect and Direct The teacher suggested writing the firemen a
Objects letter.
 Exercise 7
Write the gerund or gerund phrase in each sentence. Then,
identify its function in the sentence.
Example: Taking this shortcut will save firefighters time.
Taking this shortcut (subject)
1. Fighting fires is a dangerous profession that requires
courage and dedication.
2. The job of the fire department is protecting buildings and
people from the ravages of a fire.
3. Arriving at a fire within a few minutes is the goal of the
fire department.
4. Risking their lives is a regular part of firefighters’ jobs.
5. They completely extinguished the flames before leaving.
6. Handling a fire hose is difficult because the water is under
such high pressure.
Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive is a form of a verb that generally
appears with the word to and acts as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb.

Examples: The firefighter would like to sleep.

The instructor gave them an assignment to do.
Forms of Infinitives
There are two kinds of infinitives – present
infinitives and perfect infinitives.
Kinds of Forms Examples
Infinitives

Present To plus the base form I like to debate.

Infinitives of a verb To concede is to lose.

Perfect To have or to have I would have liked to have gone.

Infinitives been plus a past To have been mentioned would
participle have sufficed.
Do not mistake prepositional phrases for
infinitives. In an infinitive, a verb follows the
word to. In a prepositional phrase beginning
with the word to, a noun or pronoun follows
the word to.
Infinitives: to fight, to have excelled
Prepositional Phrases: to them, to a friend
Sometimes infinitives do not include the word
to. After the verbs dare, hear, help, let, make,
please, see, and watch, the to will usually be
understood rather than stated.
Examples:
The student helped extinguish the fire.
No one dared rush into blazing building.
 Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase is an infinitive with
modifiers, a complement, or a subject, all acting
together as a single part of speech.
With an Adverb: The firefighters at the scene
needed to act quickly.
With an Adverb Phrase: They hoped to finish
within a few minutes.
With a Complement: They tried to confine the
blaze.
 The Function of Infinitives in Sentences
The flexibility of infinitives enables them to be used in almost
any capacity. They can be used as nouns, adjectives, or
adverbs.

As a Subject To play with matches is wrong.

As a Direct Object The fire inspector decided to leave the scene.
As a Predicate Nominative Our best protection against a fire was to have been
prepared.
As an Object of a I was about to speak.
Preposition
As an Appositive The fire department’s intention, to save the house,
intensified quickly.
As an Adjective The fireman gave us some safety advice to follow.
As an Adverb Fires are hard to contain.
 Exercise 8
Revising Sentences by Using Verbal Phrases On your paper,
rewrite each sentence that follows using the directions in
parentheses.
1. A fire damaged and destroyed much of London in 1666.
(Change damaged to a present participle.)
2. The fire started in a bakery, and the smell of burnt bread
soon filled the air. (Change the first clause into a
nominative absolute.)
3. Londoners who lived nearby saw the blaze. The sight
frightened them. (Change frightened into a participle.)
4. London’s citizens were unprepared to battle the fire. They
stood by helplessly. (Combine by using a participial
phrase.)
5. We discovered that very few people died in the fire. That
was amazing. (Combine with an infinitive subject.)
 Clauses

Prof. Wajahat Farooq

 Contents
1. Clauses
2. Independent Clauses
3. Subordinate Clauses
i. Adjective Clauses
ii. Adverb Clauses
iii. Noun Clauses
4. Exercises
 Clause
A clause is a group of words with its own
subject and verb.

There are two basic kinds of clauses:

independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
 Independent Clause
An independent clause has a subject and a
verb and can stand by itself as a complete
sentence.

The flag will be lowered at sundown.

SUBJECT VERB
 Subordinate Clause
A subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as
a complete sentence: it is only part of a
sentence.

Within sentences, subordinate clauses act as

either adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
 Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a noun or pronoun.

The flag, which was created in 1847, is striped.

There was a time when the flag had only
thirteen stars.

Usually begins with a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, or

whose) or with a relative adverb (before, since, when, where, or
why)
Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause that is not essential to the basic

meaning of a sentence is set off by commas. An
essential clause is not set off.

Nonessential Adjective Essential Adjective Clauses

Clauses
The tattered flag, which He that climbs too high is
inspired Francis Scott Key, sure to fall.
was on display at the
museum.
 Combining Two Sentences Using
Adjective Clause
TWO SENTENCES: “The Star-Spangled Banner” is a
patriotic song about the American flag. It became
the national anthem in 1931.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: “The Star-Spangles Banner,”

which became the national anthem in 1931, is a
patriotic song about the American flag.
 Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a
verbal.

It does this by pointing out where, when, in what

way, to what extent, under what condition, or why.
 ADVERB CLAUSES
Modified Examples
Words
Verb We saluted because the flag had been raised.

Adjective The veteran appeared proud as he saluted the flag.

Adverb The flag ceremony ended sooner than we expected.

Participle The flag, flapping in the wind as I attempted to do my

studies, made concentration impossible.
Gerund I relax by sitting under the flagpole after I study.

Infinitive I wanted to visit the museum while “The Star-

Spangled Banner’ was still being displayed.
 Combining Two Sentences Using
Adverb Clauses
Adverb clauses can be used to combine two sentences into
one to show relationship between ideas.

TWO SENTENCES: The design was used by the

king. It was added to the flag in 1924.

COMBINED: The design was used by the kind

before it was added to the flag in 1924.
 Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that acts
as a noun in a sentence.

It can perform any function in a sentence that any other kind

of noun can.
 Uses of Noun Clauses in Sentences
Function in Sentences Examples

Subject Whatever information you need can be found in this

book.

Direct Object The soldiers carried whichever flag belonged to

their country.

Indirect Object The group sent whoever requested information a

brochure about the history of flags.

Predicate To change the design of the ensign is what I would

Nominative like.

Object of a I will cut the banner to whatever length you desire.

Preposition
 Exercise 1.
Pick out each Adjective Clause in the following
sentences and say which noun or pronoun in the
independent clause it qualifies.
1. This is the house that Jack built.
2. She sleeps the sleep that knows no waking.
3. We obeyed the order the teacher gave us.
4. Servants that are honest are trusted.
5. We love those who love us.
6. The moment that is lost is lost forever.
7. They never pardon who have done the wrong.
8. We are such stuff as dreams are made of.
 Exercise 2.
Pick out the Adverb clauses in the following
sentences, and point out the word in the
independent clause which it modifies.
1. Forgive us as we forgive our enemies.
2. We sow so that we may reap.
3. He did it as I told him.
4. If I were you, I would do it at once.
5. If this story was false, what should you do?
6. I will die before I submit.
7. Wherever I went, was my dear dog, Tray.
 Exercise 3.
Point out the noun clause in each sentence.
1. That he will succeed is certain.
2. How long I shall stay here is doubtful.
3. All depends on how it is done.
4. The law will punish whosoever is guilty.
5. Whoever came was made welcome.
6. I do not know how I can deal with this rascal.
Common Language Errors by
Students
Prof. Wajahat Farooq
 Errors of Subject-Verb-Agreement
Wrong: He speak.
Right: He speaks.

Wrong: They speaks.

Right: They speak.

Wrong: The quality of the mangoes were not good.

The knowledge of Pakistani vernaculars are
far beyond the common.
Right: The quality of the mangoes was not good.
The knowledge of Pakistani vernaculars is far beyond
the common.
 Fragment
Wrong: Excessive deforestation which is the biggest
cause of high carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
Right: Excessive deforestation is the biggest cause
of high carbon dioxide in atmosphere.

Wrong: His slanderous remarks that cut his life

short.
Right: His slanderous remarks cut his life short.
 Incomplete sentence (missing clause)
Wrong: As humans are felling trees.
Right: As humans are felling trees, global warming is
increasing. Or
Global warming is increasing as humans are felling
trees.

Wrong: When corruptions is rampant.

Right: When corruption is rampant, poverty increases.

Wrong: Because he was poor.

Right: Because he was poor, he could not afford a car.
 Past Simple or Present Perfect
Wrong: America has emerged as a superpower
after World War II.
Right: America emerged as a superpower after
World War II.

Wrong: The plane has landed this morning.

Right: The plane landed this morning.
Present Continuous or Present Perfect
Continuous
Wrong: Pakistan is facing poverty since its
inception.
Right: Pakistan has been facing poverty since its
inception. Or
Pakistan has faced poverty since its inception.
 Modals
Wrong: With current population growth, Pakistan
may becoming/becomes world’s most populous
country.
Right: With current population growth, Pakistan
may become world’s most populous country.

Wrong: Inordinate burning of fossil fuels may

rendered/rendering/renders earth inhospitable.
Right: Inordinate burning may render earth
inhospitable.
Nouns (Singular/Plural ; Collective)
Wrong: Childrens are future of the country.
Right: Children are future of the country.

Wrong: Government must take steps to educate peoples for

making democracy a success.
Right: Government must take steps to educate people for
making democracy a success.
But
Wrong: People of Afghanistan and Pakistan have close cultural
ties.
Right: Peoples of Afghanistan and Pakistan have close cultural
ties.
Wrong: The teacher censured all the student.
Right: The teacher censured all the students.

Wrong: These all causes have led Pakistan towards poverty.

Right: All these causes have led Pakistan towards poverty.

Wrong: One of the factor of Japan’s success is quality

education.
Right: One of the factors of Japan’s success is quality
education.
 Sequence of Tenses
Wrong: Pakistan was founded in 1947 and it
becomes/become member of UN the next
year.
Right: Pakistan was founded in 1947 and it
became member of UN the next year.

Wrong: He hinted that he wants money.

Right: He hinted that he wanted money.
 Indirect Questions (that + Question
Word)
Wrong: He asked me that what was I doing?
Right: He asked me what I was doing.

Wrong: He asked me that if I would listen to

such a man?
Right: He asked me if I would listen to such a
man.
 Subject-Verb Agreement
or
Agreement of the Subject with Verb
Prof. Wajahat Farooq
THE VERB : PERSON AND NUMBER
1. The Verb, like the Personal Pronouns, has
three Persons – the First, the Second and the
Third. Thus we say:

1. I speak. 2. You speak. 3. He speaks.

We thus see that the Verb takes the same Person

as its Subject; or, that the Verb agrees with its
Subject in Person.
THE VERB : PERSON AND NUMBER
2. The Verb, like the Noun and the Pronoun, has two
Numbers: the Singular and the Plural. Thus we
say:

1. He speaks. 2. They speak.

This is because of the difference in Number of the

Subjects (as both the subjects are of third person).
We thus see that the verb takes the same number as its
subject ; or, the verb agrees with its subject in number.
3. But we have already seen that the verb also
agrees with its subject in Person ; hence we
have the important rule:
The Verb must agree with its Subject in
Number and Person ; the verb must be of the
same number and person as its subject.
First Person Third Person Third Person
Singular Plural
I am here. He is here. They are here.
I was there. He was there. They were there.
I have a bat. He has a bat. They have bats.
I play cricket He plays cricket. They play cricket.
4. Often, by what is called the ‘Error of
Proximity’, the verb is made to agree in
number with a noun near it instead of with its
proper subject. This should be avoided:
The quality of the mangoes was not good.
The introduction of tea, coffee and other such
beverages has not been without some effect.
His knowledge of Pakistani vernaculars is far beyond
the common.
The state of his affairs was such as to cause
anxiety to his creditors.
If it was possible to get near when one of the
volcanic eruptions takes place, we should see
a grand sight.
The results of the recognition of this fact are
seen in the gradual improvement of the diet
of the poor.
5. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns
joined by and require a plural verb ; as,

Gold and silver are precious metals.

Fire and water do not agree.
Knowledge and wisdom have of times no
connection.
Are your father and mother at home?
In him were centered their love and ambition.
He and I were playing.
But if the nouns suggest one idea to the mind, or
refer to the same person or thing, the verb is
singular ; as,

Time and tide waits for none.

The horse and carriage is at the door.
Bread and butter is his only food.
Honour and glory is his reward.
The rise and fall of the tide is due to lunar
influence.
My friend and benefactor has come.
The novelist and poet is dead.
6. Words joined to a singular subject by with, as
well as, etc., are parenthetical. The verb should,
therefore, agree with the First Noun; as,

The house, with its contents, was insured.

The mayor, with his councilors, is to be present.
The ship, with its crew, was lost.
Silver, as well as cotton, has fallen in price.
Sanskrit, as well as Arabic, was taught there.
Justice, as well as mercy, allows it.
The guidance, as well as the love of a mother,
was wanting.
7. Two or more singular subjects connected by
or or nor require a singular verb ; as,

No nook or corner was left unexplored.

Our happiness or our sorrow is largely due to
our own actions.
Either the cat or the dog has been here.
Neither food nor water was to be found there.
Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him.
But when one of the subjects joined by or or
nor is plural, the verb should agree with the
noun closer to it; as,

Neither the chairman nor the directors are

present.
8. When the subjects joined by or or nor are of
different persons, the verb agrees with the
nearer ; as,

Either he or I am mistaken.
Either you or he is mistaken.
Neither you nor he is to blame.
Neither my friend nor I am to blame.
But it is better to avoid these constructions,
and to write:

He is mistaken, or else I am.

You are mistaken, or else he is.
He is not to blame, nor are you.
My friend is not to blame, nor am I.
9. Either, neither, each, everyone, many a, must be
followed by a singular verb ; as,

He asked me whether either of the applicants was

suitable.
Neither of the two men was very strong.
Each of these substances is found in Pakistan.
Everyone of the prisons is full.
Everyone of the boys loves to ride.
Many a man has done so.
Many a man does not know his own good deeds.
Many a man has succumbed to this temptation.
10. Two nouns qualified by each or every, even
though connected by and require a singular
verb ; as,

Every boy and every girl was given a packet of

sweets.
11. Some nouns which are plural in form, but
singular in meaning, take a singular verb ; as,

The news is true.

Politics was with him the business of his life.
The wages of sin is death.
Mathematics is a branch of study in every
school.
12. Pains and means take either the singular or
the plural verb, but the construction must be
consistent ; as,

Great pains have been taken.

Much pains has been taken.
All possible means have been tried.
The means employed by you is sufficient.
In the sense of income, the word means
always takes a plural verb ; as,

My means were much reduced owing to that

heavy loss.
His means are ample
13. Some nouns which are singular in form, but
plural in meaning take a plural verb ; as,

According to the present market rate twelve

dozen cost one hundred rupees.
14. None is construed in the singular or plural as the
sense may require ; as,

None are so deaf as those who will not hear.

Cows are amongst the gentlest of breathing creatures ;
none show more passionate tenderness to their young.
Did you buy any mangoes? There were none in the
market.
Have you bought me a letter? There was none for you.
14. A Collective noun takes a singular verb when the
collection is thought of as one whole ; plural verb when
the individuals of which it is composed are thought of ;
as,

The committee has issued its report.

The committee are divided on one minor point.

But we must be consistent. Thus, we should say:

The committee has appended a note to its report.

15. When the plural noun is a proper name for
some single object or some collective unit, it
must be followed by a singular verb ; as,

Arabian nights is still a great favourite.

The United States has a big navy.
Plutarch’s Lives is an interesting book.
Gulliver’s Travels was written by Swift.
16. When a plural noun denotes some specific
quantity or amount considered as whole, the
verb is generally singular ; as,

Fifteen minutes is allowed to each speaker.

Ten kilometers is a long walk.
Fifty thousand rupees is a large sum.
Three parts of the business is left for me to do.
Exercise: In each of the following sentences supply a
Verb in agreement with its Subject:

1. To take pay and then not to do work ___ dishonest.

2. The cost of all these articles ____ risen.
3. The jury ____ divided in their opinions.
4. That night every one of the boat’s crew ___ down with
fever.
5. One or the other of those fellows ___ stolen the watch.
6. The strain of all the difficulties and vexations and
anxieties ____ more then he could bear.
7. No news ___ good news.
8. The accountant and cashier ____ absconded.
9. A good man and useful citizen ____ passed away.
10. The famous juggler and conjurer ____ too unwell
to perform.
11. The Three Musketeers ____ written by Dumas.
12. Each of the suspected men ___ arrested.
13. The ebb and flow of the tides ____ explained by
Newton.
14. Ninety rupees _____ too much for this bag.
15. The cow as well as the horse ____ grass.
16. Neither his father nor his mother ____ alive.
17. There ___ many objections to the plan.
18. Two-thirds of the city ____ in ruins.
19. The formation of paragraphs ____ very important.
20. Man’s happiness or misery ____ in a great measure
in his own hands.