Technical Communication (BAS-301)

Unit 1
Fundamentals of Communication and Voice Dynamics: Role and Purpose of
Communication, Types & Flow of Communication, Barriers to Effective Communication,
7 C’s of Communication, Code and Content; Stimulus & Response, Vowel Sounds,
Consonant Sounds, Tone: Rising and Falling Tone.

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction: Communication is the process of exchanging messages or information between

two or more parties. Organizations today are heavily dependent on information to meet
organizational needs. Effective communication plays a key role in fulfilling these needs and
contributes significantly to organizational success. Despite its importance, communication has
not been given enough attention and grown as it should have between civil and military entities
*The word communication has its roots in the Latin word ‘communicare’, which means ‘to
impart’. The reference here is to sharing of information.
*“Communication is essentially the ability of one person to make contact with another in order
to make himself or herself understood.” -John Adoir
*“It is a process by which meanings are exchanged between people through a common set of
symbols”
*“Communication is essentially the ability of one person to make contact with another. It
involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.

Communication is essentially the ability of one person to share ideas with another. It
involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.

Technical Communication means the transmission of facts, figures and ideas and all sort
of scientific and technical information from one individual to another.

Basic features of communication.

1. It is dynamic
2. it is a process
3. it is a meaningful interaction

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 4. it is goal oriented
5. Information sharing and understanding takes place.
6. It is all pervasive
7. It is a two-way process
8. It can take place in verbal and non-verbal ways

Role and Purpose of Communication.

1. to inform
2. to persuade
3. to instruct
4. to motivate
5. to advise
6. to reprimand (to rebuke).

• Effective communication is crucial for the success of individuals as well as

organizations. This is true within the individual organization itself as well as how that
organization communicates with other organizations within its sphere of contact,
influence and competition.
• Communication is a complex two-way process, involving the encoding, translation
and decoding of messages. Effective communication requires the communicator to
translate their messages in a way that is specifically designed for their intended
audience. Creating and delivering an effective message requires a basic understanding
of the communication process. A proposal or presentation require the clear and
unambiguous communication of a message in a way that can be clearly understood by
the recipient.

• It is human nature to assume that when we communicate, we are doing so effectively,

and that if anything goes wrong consequently the responsibility for that must rest with
the recipient.

• Communication is a skill and like any skill it requires practice. It is improvement

through practice that differentiates a skill from other forms of knowledge.

• Understanding the theory of communication and effective presentation will not in itself
make you a brilliant communicator or presenter but should make you aware of how to
maximize the impact of your presentations.

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 • The most important thing to remember is that the message that you intend to
communicate is likely to be misunderstood. Therefore, in addition to carefully
preparing and presenting your message, stay alert for any signs that your audience are
mis-interpreting it. It is up to you, the presenter, to continually check that your message
has been received, understood, correctly interpreted and filed in the receiver’s mind.

The Basic Forms of Communication

The basic forms of communication are of two types such as verbal and non-verbal
communication. It can be in the form of meetings, speeches or writing, gestures or expressions.
Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is a primitive form of communication that does not involve the
use of words. It rather uses gestures, cues, vocal qualities, spatial relationships etc. to convey
a message. It is commonly used to express emotions like respect, love, dislike,
unpleasantness, etc. Non-verbal communication is less structured compared to its verbal
counterpart and is most often spontaneous. As it is not planned, it is sometimes considered
more reliable than verbal communication, as it reflects the communicator’s true feelings.
Non-verbal communication enhances the effectiveness of the message as gestures and body
language are registered easier and quicker with the audience than verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication, when combined with verbal communication, makes a
presentation more effective and has greater impact on the audience. There are many different
forms of nonverbal communication. The main categories of nonverbal cues include:

1. Kinesics (or body movements): These include deliberate hand gestures and head
movements like a thumbs-up or affirmative head shake. The way that you sit or stand
and how open your body is to others around you communicates a lot about your
attitude and emotional state. This is one of the most easily controllable of the
nonverbal forms of communication.
2. Proxemics (or closeness/personal space): This is the measure of physical distance
between people when they communicate. The standard amount of personal space
expected by someone varies depending on setting and is somewhat culture-specific.
3. Eye contact/oculesics: This is one of the primary ways that human beings gauge
interest or disinterest. Wavering eyes tend to communicate unease or even dishonesty.
4. Touch/Haptics: Many interactions begin with an exchange of physical touch like a
hug or a handshake.

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 5. Chronemics: It is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Time
perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time
can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people
are willing to listen.
6. Paralinguistics: This category covers vocal qualities like loudness or tone of voice.
Paralinguistic signals are any aspect of the sound of a voice outside a direct verbal
translation of words being spoken.
7. Appearance: Nonverbal communication is also thought to be facilitated by the colors
we wear, the clothes we dress up in, the haircuts we have, and other physical
characteristics. Different colors can provoke various emotions, according to research
on color psychology. Physiological responses, assessments, and conclusions can all be
influenced by appearance.

Verbal communication
However, non-verbal communication has its limitations. Many complex ideas, thoughts or
messages have to be communicated sequentially to be meaningful.

• Verbal communication involves the arrangement of words in a structured and

meaningful manner, adhering to the rules of grammar. The message is then conveyed
to the audience in either spoken or written form.

• Effective verbal communication involves the use of both speech and writing to transmit
a message. While oral communication is more effective in reaching a focused target
audience, as it involves interaction and additional non-verbal cues to augment the
speech, written communication is necessary for reaching a large number of scattered
recipients.

• Depending on the situation and the requirements, organizations use both the spoken as
well as written channels for communication.
Code and Content of Communication Skills:
• Any human communication system involves the production of a message by someone,
and the receipt of that message by someone else. To encode a message, one must possess
the necessary encoding skills.

• Languages are codes. A code may be defined as any group of symbols that can be
structured in a way that is meaningful to another person. The English language, like any
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 other language, is a code—it contains element that are arranged in a meaningful order.
A code has a group of elements (vocabulary) and a set of procedures for combining
these elements meaningfully (syntax).

• Next is the message content, i.e., the message that is selected by the source to express
its purpose. Content, like codes, has both element and structure. When more than one
piece of information is to be presented, they should have some order or structure.

• An individual may sometimes be identified by his characteristic way of structuring

messages. This is because the individual communicates in a way that is distinctive to
him. He uses a distinctive way or method, which has become his habit by constant use.

Stimulus and Response of Communication Skills:

• Stimulus and response are the two terms that are frequently used in any discussion on
the communication process. A ‘stimulus’ is anything that a person can receive through
one of his senses. In fact, it is anything that can produce a sensation. And a ‘response’
is anything that an individual does as a reaction to the stimulus.
• These two terms, stimulus and response, are ultimately connected with the whole
learning process. The communication objective of the source is to bring about a change
in the behaviour of the receiver.

The Process of Communication

The whole communication process consists of the following:
1. The sender—the source of the message

2. The encoding process

3. The channel used

4. The decoding process

5. The receiver—the person who receives the message

At each stage of the communication process, there is a possibility of error. Communication

skills help avoid such errors, so that the message can glide easily through all the stages of the
process and reach the receiver.

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1. Source/ Sender:
The source, in any communication process, is the most critical part of the communication
process. The message has to be planned and prepared for features including articulation clarity,
amplitude and modulation, pauses and pitch.

The sender must be conscious that non-verbal components of the communication are also
transmitted through the channel. The source of the message has great responsibility. He should
have an idea about the receiver. It may be also that he wants to convey his message to a group
of persons. Finally, at the end of the communication, he must satisfy himself that the intent of
the communication has been met.

2. The Encoding Process:

As language is a code, the encoding process is of vital importance. What the sender wants to
covey must be encoded correctly. He must have a good vocabulary and good knowledge of
grammar and syntax. Any flaw might distort the meaning of the message he wants to convey.

3. The Channel:
Messages are conveyed through various channels. Any written communication such as emails,
organization memos and formal letters are examples of channels. Face-to-face meetings, video
conferencing, telephonic conversation, PC-to-PC communication, webcast etc., are different
communication channels.

4. The Decoding Process:

Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding. Here the person decoding the
message through a particular channel such as a letter, e mail, telephone, etc., must be capable
of deciphering or understanding that message. He must have enough knowledge to understand
that message.

5. The Receiver:
The person receiving the message should be prepared for the message. Often, the receiver, upon
receiving the message. Visual reaction to a message takes on the role of a sender and responds.
At other times, the receiver of the message may show his visual reaction to the message through
non-verbal communication

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 FLOW OR CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

To succeed, an organization shares information with people both internally and externally.
Information flows in an organization both formally and informally. To function in a team- based
organization, it is necessary that information must travel down, up, and across an organization’s
formal hierarchy.

Channels of communication
It is of two types:
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal communication
Formal Communication
Formal Communication refers to communication that follows the official
hierarchy and is required to do one’s job. It flows through formal
channels.
Advantages of Formal Communication
1. orderly flow of information and ideas
2. identified source
3. authentic informatiom
4. justification of authority
5. answerability for action
6. control
Disadvantages of Formal communication
1. Expensive
2. Time consuming
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3. lack of personal touch
4. Distortion
This type of communication can flow in various directions a.
Downward Communication
b. Upward Communication
c. Lateral Communication/Horizontal Communication
d. Diagonal or Crosswise Communication

DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the
organizational hierarchy.

Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward
communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of
command is a downward communication. An example of such could be a memo.

This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the
employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and
for meeting the expectations of their managers. The purposes of Downward communication
are-

Objectives
1. To give instructions about what to do and how to do.
2. To explain organizational policies, programmes and procedures.

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3. To know how effectively a person is doing his job
4. To motivate employees to improve their performance
5. To train subordinates in performing their job
Limitations of Downward Communication
1. Distortion
2. Incomplete information
3. Time Consuming
4. Filtration of information

UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the
organizational hierarchy. Upward communication occurs when individuals of lower status
communicate with individuals of higher status. Communication that flows to a higher level in
an organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the
organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their
problems and performances to their superiors. It can also be used by the employees to share
their views and ideas and to participate in the decision-making process.

Objectives
1- To develop faith/trust for the superiors in the hearts of the subordinates so that they can
communicate freely.

2-provide a feedback.

3-Sharing information of an organization helps to achieve organizational goals.

Limitations
1. fears and apprehensions
2. filtrations
3. time consuming
4. Inattention by superiors
5. Low morale

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HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral
communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or
between any horizontally equivalent organizational members.

Crosswise communication includes the horizontal flow of information, among people on the
same or similar organizational levels, and the diagonal flow, among persons at different levels
who have no direct reporting relationships.

Advantages

1- It helps the employees to share information.

2- It makes the co-ordination among the employees.
3- Whenever a department comes across with some problem, it may contact another
department of the organization for its possible solution.

Limitations
1. Personal likes and dislikes among members of different work groups can obstruct free
flow of information among them
2. Differences in perception and attitudes of functional heads can be in horizontal
communication.
3. In the modern age, functional heads are so highly specialized in managing activities of
their departments that they lack knowledge of other functional areas. This hampers
communication at the horizontal level.

Diagonal or Crosswise Communication

It takes place when people working in an organization interact with those working at a higher
or lower level of organization hierarchy and across the boundaries of their reporting
relationship. It cuts across all functions. The best example is increasing use of emails.
Advantages
1. Brings about co-ordination through informal meetings, formal conferences, lunch hour
meetings, general notices etc.
2. Helps to boost their morale and further of lower level workers and further commitment to
the organization.
3. Important for operations efficiency and emergency situations.

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Limitations
1. Fear of violation of law
2. Resistance to compliance
3. Anarchy or disturbance

Informal Communication or Grapevine Communication-

Informal communication represents communication among people through informal contacts.
They are not laid down by the management. They are used by the organizational members out
of their desire to socialize and for the sake of convenience. This communication between
individuals and groups are not recognized officially. It is also known as grapevine.

Employees have casual conversations on various matters. It is an informal system of

information flow. This system is uncontrollable, unpredictable and complex. It feeds on
rumours and gossips which form a significant part of personal conversation. A good
professional must know how to use it for the good of organization.
Types of grapevine channels
1. Single strand chain- flows like a chain
2. Gossip- A non-selectively communicates with everyone
3.Probability(random)- A communication randomly with others according to the law of
probability
4.Clusters-A selection communication with people of same interest
Merits of grapevine or informal Communication
1. speedy transmission as it works faster than formal communication
2. Feedback value
3. Support to another channels
4. Psychological satisfaction
5. Avenue of expression
Demerits of grapevine or informal Communication
1. Incomplete information
2. Distortion
3. Unreliability
4. Leakage

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5. Lack of authenticity
6. Problem in fixing responsibility

Barriers to Communication
The factors which obstruct the effectiveness of communication is known as Communication
Barriers. The process of communication is susceptible to many barriers. These barriers can
occur at any stage of the communication process. The barriers to communication can be
broadly classified as:

1. Semantic Barriers
2. Psychological Barriers
3. Organisational Barriers
4. Personal Barriers

1. Semantic Barriers: The branch of science that deals with the meaning of words and
sentences is known as Semantic. The problems and obstructions in the process of encoding and
decoding message into words or impressions is known as Semantic barriers. This barrier
arises because different words mean different things to different people. A breakdown in
communication can occur when two individuals attach different meanings to a word. For
example, for organisations, ‘Profits’ may mean growth and efficiency, but for employees, it
may mean excess funds generated by paying inadequate wages and benefits.
Some of the common forms of Semantic Barriers are as follows:

• Badly Expressed Message: When a message lacks clarity and precision, it is said
to be a badly expressed message. Communication becomes ineffective when the

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 language of the message is vague, imprecise, or there is the use of wrong words or
omission of needed words.
• Symbols with Different Meanings: The same words may carry different meanings
to different people, and can convey different meanings under different situations.
For example, words like effect and affect, ideal and idle, advice and advice, bear
and bare, etc., sounds similar, but they have different meanings.
• Faulty Translations: Sometimes, people do not understand the language in which
a message is given by the sender. In such cases, it becomes necessary to translate
the message into a language, which is understandable by the receiver. The translator
should be proficient enough to translate the language, otherwise, this can also be a
barrier to communication.
• Unclarified Assumptions: The receiver may have different assumptions if the
sender does not clarify the assumptions about the message. For example, a boss may
say, ‘Complete the work’. Here, the boss has not mentioned the day and date when
the work has to be completed. He may mean to complete the work by tomorrow, but
subordinates may understand it as a week’s target.
• Technical Jargon: Technical Jargon or terminology are used by many experts and
specialists to communicate messages. Such jargon is not understood by the common
people, which leads to poor communication.
• Body Language and Gesture Decoding: Non-verbal or gestural communication is
also an effective means of communication. Facial expressions, gestures, body
language, etc., should correspond to the language. The receiver may get confused
and can misunderstand the message if verbal language does not match the body
language.

2. Psychological Barriers: Barriers which arise on the account of emotional and

psychological status of the sender and receiver of the message are known as Psychological
Barriers. For example, a person who is under stress cannot communicate properly.

Some of the common forms of Psychological Barriers are as follows:

• Premature Evaluation: The tendency of forming a judgement before listening to

the entire message is known as premature evaluation. This distorts understanding

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 and acts as a barrier to effective communication. This can also lead to prejudices
against communication.
• Lack of Attention: Communication can be less effective, and the message can be
misunderstood if proper attention is not given to it. This inattention may arise due
to the preoccupied mind of the receiver. For example, a superior gave instructions
to operate a new software, however, the subordinate was preoccupied with other
personal issues. Such lack of attention makes the communication process one-way
and ineffective.
• Loss by Transmission and Poor Retention: There is loss of or transmission of
inaccurate information when communication passes through various levels or
channels in the organisation. It is more common in the case of oral communication.
Poor retention also acts as a barrier when people are unable to retain the information
for a long time.
• Distrust: Lack of mutual trust between the sender and the receiver also acts as a
barrier to communication. Parties involved in communication cannot understand the
message in an original sense when they do not believe each other.

3. Organisational Barriers: In an organisation, communication has to pass through

various levels and channels, hence it may not reach the same place as it was sent by the sender.
Organisation structure, rules and regulations, authority relationships, etc., act as a barrier to
effective communication.

Some of the Organisational Barriers are as follows:

• Organisational Policy: Effectiveness of communication is affected by

organisational policy. The communication process is hampered if the policy is not
supportive of the free flow of communication. For example, in a centralised
organisation, free communication is not encouraged, and communication has to
follow through a proper channel only.
• Rules and Regulations: The process of communication is affected by rigid and
cumbersome rules and regulations. The channels and the subject matter are already
prescribed through, which the messages are to be communicated. These prescribed
rules, regulations, and channels are rigid and can act as barriers.

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 • Status: Psychological distance is created between superior and subordinate because
of status. Such statuses stand in the way of true and accurate communication.
Subordinates are also not allowed to express their feeling freely if the manager is
status conscious.
• Complexity in Organisation Structure: Organisation structure can also act as a
barrier to communication. If there are many managerial levels in an organisational
structure, then communication gets delayed and distorted.
• Organisational Facilities: If facilities like frequent meetings, conferences,
suggestion boxes, complaint boxes, etc., are absent in an organisation, then effective
communication is hampered.
4. Personal Barriers: The effectiveness of communication is influenced by the personal
factors of both sender and the receiver.

Some of the Personal Barriers are as follows:

• Fear of Challenge to Authority: If a superior fears that a particular communication

can hamper his authority, then he may withhold such communication, as he always
wants to maintain a higher position and prestige in the organisation.
• Lack of Confidence of Superior on his Subordinates: When superiors do not
have faith or confidence on the competence of their subordinates, then
communication is said to be hampered. When there is a lack of trust and confidence
in subordinates, the superior may not take advice or suggestions from the
subordinates.
• Unwillingness to Communicate: Unwillingness to communicate can be another
reason for ineffective communication. Many times, subordinates do not
communicate with their superiors because they believe that if the information is not
correct or appropriate, it will adversely affect them.
• Lack of Proper Incentives: Subordinates also do not take initiative to
communicate, when there is no motivation or incentives for communication. For
example, if there is no reward for the suggestion given by the subordinates, then
they will not take initiative.

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Dealing with Communication Barriers

There are a few guidelines for overcoming communication barriers. These guidelines are listed
below:-

Adopt an Audience-centered approach

Adopting an audience based approach means focusing on audience in order to make a

meaningful communication. The communicator should try to know about the education, age,
status and other relevant particulars of the receiver’s personality. A message, written while
keeping in view the receiver , may be understood and accepted easily.

Foster an open communication climate

In order to foster open communication climate the number of the organizational levels should
be modified. Communication should flow freely in all directions upward, downward and
lateral.

Commit to Ethical Communication

Ethical communication means to observe transparency in working. No deceptive tactics are to

be used for profit. Even negatives information is to be made public and graphic data presented
fairly.

Create Lean, Efficient Message

If the useful and useless information are put together, they result in the audience’s lose of
interest and he falls in concentrating upon the useful message. In order to avoid overloading

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 of information on communication network, some suggestions mention below should be taken
into consideration-

• The number of message should be reduced.

• To make efficient messages avoid jokes and chitchats.

• Distractions- physical as well as emotional should be avoided.

Tips for Effective Communication

▪ Create an open communication environment ▪ Always keep the receiver in mind

 Avoid having too m any transfer stations.
 Do not communicate when you are emotionally disturbed.
 Be aware of diversity in culture, language, etc.
 Use appropriate non-verbal cues.
 Select the most suitable medium. ▪ Analyze the feedback

7 Cs of Communication
1. Clear
Effective communication depends on the clarity of the message. The more precise your
message, the easier it is for the receiver to decipher it in accordance with your actual purpose.
Many barriers to effective communication occur due to a lack of clarity in the message.

2. Concise
In order to make effective communication, the message must be to the point. The message
must be more about its content rather than its length. Do not add irrelevant information. As a
result, it will be easier for the receiver to grasp the exact message. Furthermore, it will make
your conversation less time-consuming.

3. Concrete
Effective communication requires specific, tangible and valid information. The message you
transfer must be supported with facts for increased credibility. It helps your receiver or
audience to understand the broader picture of your message. Concreteness reduces the
possibility of misunderstanding, builds trust, and encourages constructive criticism.

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4. Correct
For effective communication, the language should be accurate. Also, the grammar and syntax
should be correct. It increases the authenticity and credibility of the message. Any errors can
degrade the clarity of your message, cause vagueness, and raise doubts. They may also have
an adverse effect on the overall interpretation of the message. This may give a clumsy or
negligent impression to your receiver.

5. Considerate
Effective communication must be judgement free. You and your receiver must consider each
other’s background and perception. For example, if your message conveys double meaning,
sounds disrespectful. Therefore, it might affect the receiver emotionally, and they might see it
in the wrong way. 6. Complete

Effective communications are complete because the receiver receives all the information.
Giving a complete message helps them digest and act on the message correctly. Likewise, the
message should have all the information to act upon. A complete message minimises the need
for follow-up questions. It also makes the communication process run more smoothly.

7. Courteous
Courtesy is the act of respecting the culture, values and beliefs of the receiver. In a way, it is
like consideration. The message should avoid any kind of judgment or discrimination that
might hurt other persons’ feelings. Instead, give a message that sounds genuinely polite and
unbiased.

Voice Dynamics

Voice dynamics includes components of speech delivery that relate to your voice. These include
rate, volume, pitch, articulation, pronunciation, and fluency. Our voice is important to consider
when delivering our speech for two main reasons. First, vocal delivery can help us engage and
interest the audience. Second, vocal delivery helps ensure that our ideas are communicated
clearly.

Speaking for Engagement: We have all had the displeasure of listening to an unengaging
speaker. Even though the person may care about his or her topic, an unengaging delivery that
doesn’t communicate enthusiasm will translate into a lack of interest for most audience

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members. Although a speaker can be visually engaging by incorporating movement and
gestures, which we will discuss more later, a flat or monotone vocal delivery can be sedating
or even annoying. Incorporating vocal variety in terms of rate, volume, and pitch is key to being
a successful speaker.

Pace: Pace of speaking refers to how fast or slow you speak. If you speak too fast, your
audience will not be able to absorb the information you present. If you speak too slowly, the
audience may lose interest. The key is to vary your pace of speaking in a middle range, staying
away from either extreme, in order to keep your audience engaged.

In general, a higher pace of speaking signals that a speaker is enthusiastic about his or her topic.
Speaking slowly may lead the audience to infer that the speaker is uninterested, uninformed,
or unprepared to present his or her own topic. These negative assumptions, whether they are
true or not, are likely to hurt the credibility of the speaker. Some people naturally speak faster
than others, which is fine, but we can all alter our pace of speaking with practice.

Volume

Volume refers to how loud or soft your voice is. As with speaking rate, you want to avoid the
extremes of being too loud or too soft, but still vary your volume within an acceptable middle
range. Softer speakers are sometimes judged as meek, which may lead to lowered expectations
for the speech or less perceived credibility. Loud speakers may be seen as overbearing or
annoying, which can lead audience members to disengage from the speaker and message.

Speak a couple steps above your regular volume for speeches that occur in typically sized
classrooms or meeting rooms that seat twenty to forty people. A microphone may be necessary
for larger groups or rooms.

Pitch

Pitch refers to how high or low a speaker’s voice is. As with other vocal qualities, there are
natural variations among people’s vocal pitch. Each person still has the capability to
intentionally change their pitch across a range large enough to engage an audience. Changing
pitch is a good way to communicate enthusiasm and indicate emphasis or closure. In general,

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our pitch goes up when we are discussing something exciting. Our pitch goes down slightly
when we emphasize a serious or important point. Lowering pitch is also an effective way to
signal transitions between sections of your speech or the end of your speech, which cues your
audience to applaud and avoids an awkward ending.

Intonation/Tone
Tone is the melodic pattern of an utterance. Tone is primarily a matter of variation in the
pitch level of the voice, but in such languages as English, stress and rhythm are also
involved. Intonation conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger,
wariness).

• Pitch or musical tone, determined chiefly by the rate of vibration of the vocal cords,
may be level, falling, rising, or falling–rising. In counting one, two, three, four, one
naturally gives level pitch to each of these cardinal numerals. But if people say I want
two, not one, they naturally give two a falling tone and one a falling–rising tone. In the
question One? rising pitch is used.
• Word tone is called accent, and sentence tone is referred to as intonation. Intonation is
the melodic pattern of an utterance. It describes how the voice rises and falls in speech.
The three main patterns of intonation are:-

Falling Intonation (↘) - It is used in completed statements, direct commands, and sometimes
in general questions unanswerable by yes or no (e.g., I have nothing to add; keep to the right;
who told you that?).

• Falling intonation describes how the voice falls on the final stressed syllable of a phrase
or a group of words. A falling intonation is very common in wh-questions. For eg:
Where’s the nearest p↘ost-office?

Rising tone (↗) - It is frequently used in open-ended statements made with some reservation,
in polite requests, and in particular questions answerable by yes or no (e.g., I have nothing more
to say at the moment; let me know how you get on; are you sure?).

• Rising tone describes how the voice rises at the end of a sentence. Rising intonation is
common in yes-no questions. For eg: Are you th↗irsty? Fall-Rise Intonation (↘↗)

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Fall-rise tone (↘↗ ) describes how the voice falls and then rises. We use fall-rise tone at the
end of statements when we want to say that we are not sure, or when we may have more to add.
For eg: Is this your cam↘er↗a?

• First falling and then rising pitch, is used in sentences that imply concessions or
contrasts (e.g., some people do like them [but others do not]; don’t say I didn’t warn
you [because that is just what I’m now doing]).

Speaking for Clarity:

In order to be an effective speaker, your audience should be able to understand your message
and digest the information you present. Audience members will make assumptions about our
competence and credibility based on how we speak. As with other aspects of speech delivery,
many people are not aware that they have habits of speech that interfere with their message
clarity. Since most of our conversations are informal and take place with people we know, many
people don’t make a concerted effort to articulate every word clearly and pronounce every word
correctly, and most of the people we talk to either don’t notice our errors or don’t correct us if
they do notice. Since public speaking is generally more formal than our conversations, we
should be more concerned with the clarity of our speech.

Articulation

• Articulation refers to the clarity of sounds and words we produce. If someone is

articulate, they speak words clearly, and speakers should strive to speak clearly. Poor
articulation results when speakers do not speak clearly. For example, a person may say
gonna instead of going to, wanna instead of want to, or hunnerd instead of hundred.

• Unawareness and laziness are two common challenges to articulation. As with other
aspects of our voice, many people are unaware that they regularly have errors in
articulation. Recording yourself speak and then becoming a higher self-monitor are
effective ways to improve your articulation. Laziness, on the other hand, requires a little
more motivation to address. Some people just get in the habit of not articulating their
words well. I’m sure we all know someone who mumbles when they speak or slurs their
words together.

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 • When combined with a low volume, poor articulation becomes an even greater
problem. Doing vocal warm-ups or tongue twisters can help prime your mouth, lips,
and tongue to articulate words more clearly. When you notice that you have trouble
articulating a particular word, you can either choose a different word to include in your
speech or you can repeat it a few times in a row in the days leading up to your speech
to get used to saying it.

Pronunciation

Unlike articulation, which focuses on the clarity of words, pronunciation refers to speaking
words correctly, including the proper sounds of the letters and the proper emphasis.
Mispronouncing words can damage a speaker’s credibility, especially when the correct
pronunciation of a word is commonly known. I have actually heard someone, presenting on the
topic of pronunciation, mispronounce the word pronunciation, saying “pro-NOUN-ciation”
instead of “pro-NUN-ciation.” In such a case, it would not be unwarranted for the audience to
question the speaker’s expertise on the subject.

We all commonly run into words that we are unfamiliar with and therefore may not know how
to pronounce.

• Three suggestions when you are facing this problem. The first is to look the word up in
an online dictionary. Many dictionaries have a speaker icon with their definitions, and
when you click on it, you can hear the correct pronunciation of a word. If a word doesn’t
include an audio pronunciation, you can usually find the phonetic spelling of a word,
which is the word spelled out the way it sounds.

• There will occasionally be words that you can’t locate in a dictionary. These are
typically proper nouns or foreign words. In this case, the suggestion is “phone-a-friend”
strategy. Call up the people you know who have large vocabularies or are generally
smart when it comes to words, and ask them if they know how to pronounce it. If they
do, and you find them credible, you’re probably safe to take their suggestion.

• The third option is to “fake it ‘til you make it” and should only be used as a last resort.
If you can’t find the word in a dictionary and your smart friends don’t know how to
pronounce it, it’s likely that your audience will also be unfamiliar with the word. In that

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 case, using your knowledge of how things are typically pronounced, decide on a
pronunciation that makes sense and confidently use it during your speech. Most people
will not question it. In the event that someone does correct you on your pronunciation,
thank him or her for correcting you and adjust your pronunciation.

Fluency

Fluency refers to the flow of your speaking. To speak with fluency means that your speech
flows well and that there are not many interruptions to that flow. There are two main
disfluencies, or problems that affect the flow of a speech. Fluency hiccups are unintended
pauses in a speech that usually result from forgetting what you were saying, being distracted,
or losing your place in your speaking notes. Fluency hiccups become a problem when they
happen regularly enough to detract from the speaker’s message.

Verbal fillers are words that speakers use to fill in a gap between what they were saying and
what they’re saying next. Common verbal fillers include um, uh, ah, er, you know, and like.
The best way to minimize verbal fillers is to become a higher self-monitor and realize that you
use them. Many students are surprised when they watch the video of their first speech and
realize they said “um” thirty times in three minutes. Gaining that awareness is the first step in
eliminating verbal fillers, and students make noticeable progress with this between their first
and second speeches. If you do lose your train of thought, having a brief fluency hiccup is better
than injecting a verbal filler, because the audience may not even notice the pause or may think
it was intentional.

Common Causes of Fluency Hiccups

• Lack of preparation. Effective practice sessions are the best way to prevent fluency
hiccups.

• Not writing for speaking. If you write your speech the way you’ve been taught to write
papers, you will have fluency hiccups. You must translate the written words into
something easier for you to present orally. To do this, read your speech aloud and edit
as you write to make sure your speech is easy for you to speak.

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• A poorly prepared speaking outline. Whether it is on paper or note cards, sloppy
writing, unorganized bullet points, or incomplete/insufficient information on a speaking
outline leads to fluency hiccups.

• Distractions. Audience members and the external environment are unpredictable.

Hopefully audience members will be polite and will silence their phones, avoid talking
while the speaker is presenting, and avoid moving excessively. There could also be
external noise that comes through a door or window. A speaker can also be distracted
by internal noise such as thinking about other things.

• Vowel sounds:-

• Consonant sounds chart:-

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 Unit I ends here…
Notes by: Prof. Jigyasa Chaudhary

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