Why did some parts of the ancient world, for example, the ancient Assyria and Persia,

India and China, constructed ideas of governance within the structures and possibilities
of monarchy, whereas some parts like ancient Athens and the ancient republic of Rome
deliberately avoided monarchy? Explore the historical causes and the sociopolitical
plus economic reasons behind the various systems of governance. Are there any
similarities that can be traced between monarchical and non-monarchical societies of
the ancient world?

The ancient world was typically different in some aspects. There were no universal
motives for the governing decisions in the ancient world. Each society had unique
historical backgrounds, cultures, and social contexts that contributed to the progress and
development of its several systems of society. Moreover, several ancient societies
experimented with several forms of government from time to time. Their political
systems also change as a result of changing rules and influences. The decision between
governance systems like monarchy and non-monarchy, republics, or democracies was
heavily impacted in each of the societies. These systems were normal at that time as like
chains for the people, and society. Additionally, these factors include several historical
contexts and philosophical, cultural, economic, political, and geographic structures. The
political system for each society was unique by setting. Furthermore, several cultures at
that time tied with different types of administration, and their outcomes were also mixed.
In some aspects, the historical tradition of monarchies played a significant role where
long-term rulership, and centralized authority were created. The ancient civilizations of
Mesopotamia including Assyria and Persia, China, and India had these types of powerful
monarchies. These were mainly controlled centrally where diverse empires were created
and there were much more effective administrations. The cultural beliefs were set by the
governance choices and the monarchy here was seen as a stable and continuous process.
In Chinese culture, the concept of ‘Mandate of Heaven’ was like rules and power which
was also ordered. Though in monarchies time there were some incidents like in times of
crisis, some rulers took instant and active actions. But as we see this monarchy system
started in these regions, and they also formed strongly over time. As in China's history,
regional power was decentralized and also included strong centralized rules. In India,
 they had a variety of royal empires and kingdoms. On the other hand, both Athens and
Romans were experienced with forcing oppressive rule that influenced them to establish
their political development. Athens had a history of autocratic rule and Romanian also
experienced the autocratic time of the Etruscan kings which influenced them to establish
governance. Moreover, in ancient Athens, there were more philosophical thoughts where
scholars like Plato and Aristotle said several drawbacks of different governance systems
and for that limited the power of autocratic single rulers. Day by day, both in Athens and
Rome the political system was stable where participation of the citizens was increased
and limited the power of a single ruling system. This essay will analyze several factors
historical, socio-economic, cultural, and geographical of the establishment of the two
different systems of governance in the Ancient world through the differences between the
idea of monarchy and non-monarchy in some points such as various perspectives of the
society with the effect of religion, similarities between the monarchical and non-
monarchical societies on several perspectives, forming of the governing system based on
several structures.

The various perspectives of the society and influence of religion in Ancient Assyria and Persia
played a significant role in the culture, history, and governance of these empires in several ways.
Assyria was well known for its militaristic preferences for growth. This society had a strong
martial culture. Their religion also represents various parts of life such as governance and the
king who is the representative of the Gods in this world which also looks like a divine figure.
which also normalizes monarchy. Moreover, they believed that oppressed fear of their assistants
would create more power in the empire. Also, they were well known for their architecture which
was religious, gods, and kings which represents the religious aspects, gods, and royal parts of
time. On the other hand, in the Persian Empire, under the rule of Cyrus, rulers were easier to
govern. They also respected several aspects like cultures, religions, histories, etc in the empire.
In the Persian empire, Zoroastrianism was a dominant religion that also worshiped the idea of
true God. It also promotes concepts through morality, truth, and the struggle between good and
bad. Compared to Assyria, the Persian Empire had a more stable social structure where several
classes could grow by their abilities and performance in the state. So both the Assyrian and
Persia two empires had different approaches. Assyrians were much fearable and Persia was
easier for the people and the state. India is such a country that has a rich history of monarchy
with several empires ruled in the subcontinent. Sometimes here political leaders took the power
of monarchies. Through the caste system, the outlook of India was represented in society. In the
period of Maurya and Gupta, the ‘dharma’ played an important role in shaping the relationship
between the king, and rulers to be righteous. It is the birthplace of several important religions
such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. In shaping the social, cultural, and ethical values in
society these played a significant role. In China, there was a long tradition of monarchy and
various rules. Here the emperor is sometimes known as the ‘Son of Heaven’. The society was
made by the principles of Confucious which also oppressed the monarchy. Here monarchy was
needed because all of the people there would kill each other if there was no monarchy. So, to
impose the law they need a monarch. Moreover, many philosophers like Confucius also thought
the same way. Moreover, to maintain a perfect society moral structures must be imposed because
this will make a society more perfect. On the other hand, Buddhism which was formed in India
but also had some influences in China maintains ethical education, learning, and pleasant to each
other which influenced to change the behavior of the rulers too. On the other hand, Ancient
Athens and the Roman Republic are two regions that are examples of ancient societies that
avoided monarchy systems and formed alternative forms of governance. They took several steps
to avoid this monarchy system. Here both the Athens and Roman Republic had experienced the
autocratic rules in the early days. Through these, they were influenced to make or form a
governance system which led them to end the ruling system of ‘Thirty Tyrants’ in Athens.
Moreover, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers in Athens and Rome
contributed by taking several significant roles to the development of the governing system here.
Both the Athens and Roman Republics motivated the citizens to attend to social activities,
voting, political affairs, etc. In Rome, there was a system like the ‘Senate’ which was also
appreciated because it was free for the citizens. As Greek’s social outlook wasn’t like that of
Chinese outlook which would kill each other. Moreover, they also tried to make a system for
collaboration. That was also a basic idea of the police. Common agreement on the form of
governance was important here. Also, the Republic thought that it was a logical, political
innovation that the Republic sort of manifested itself to the Roman Republic. The Athenian
democracy was also the same because the people agreed to form a governance system rather than
giving power to one institution.

As we can see both monarchical and non-monarchical societies are quite different from several
perspectives like political structures and others but there are also various similarities on different
aspects like gender, culture, religion, history, etc. Gender roles are mainly influenced by social,
and cultural factors instead of political systems. Though in both of the societies, traditional
gender roles are found, also they vary among historical and cultural times. From the cultural
aspects music, art, languages, etc exist independently of the governance system. Both
monarchical and non-monarchical had several cultures by which they were identified. Rather
than the governmental system, religious beliefs, historical aspects, cultural beliefs, and state
characteristics impact on cultural norms. Religious ideas and practices also vary in both
monarchical and non-monarchical societies. As we know, a society's religious angle is formed by
geographical and historical perspectives and it is not dependent on the structure of governance.
Religion plays an important role in civilization, ethical and moral guidelines, cultural unity, and
belonging together. A society's historical development can be attributed to a variety of elements
such as geography, surroundings of the region, economic condition, etc. Moreover, monarchy
and non-monarchical societies also shared these historical events which also impacted them.
Despite a society's governance structure, such types of historical events like wars, trades,
migrates and exchanges in cultures affect their ultimate goals. Both of the monarchical and non-
monarchical societies may have similar economic conditions. However, it depends on their
geographical and historical conditions, locations, etc. Both of them may adopt various economic
structures in agriculture, business, trading, technology, and industries. If the political situation
remains stable the economic activities, trading, and business can run a society's activity with
more progress. Both monarchical and non-monarchical have their social hierarchies, divisions of
class, and several structures. Moreover, financial security, wealth, and social status are important
for shaping the hierarchies. All types of citizens may exist everywhere in the society and social
differences might stay independent of the structure of the governance. In both societies,
advanced technology was not linked to the governance system. Technical growth and innovation
were formed in both monarchy and non-monarchical societies. These are the outcomes of the
creativity of humans, study, research, development, etc rather than the governing system. As we
can see similarities exist but also it should be understood that there are some differences in both
monarchical and non-monarchical societies in aspects of political conditions, governance
systems, and way of decision-making methods. Moreover, societies were active in several
political, cultural, and historical elements engaging to produce unique attributes.

The governing system of the ancient societies was formed with several structures of power. The
historical and cultural background of each of the empires was established in the governance
system of Assyria and Persia, where several power systems were formed. The Assyrian
governance system strictly followed the strong monarchical societies. Here the king was in a
high position which was highly regarded as God. Moreover, the governance system was
centralized where all types of governing systems, military, tax, law, and administration were
formed by the king. Also the locals were under the control of the king. As Assyria formed
military rules, the power of the military was in the king's hands. Also, he used this power to
expand his power. From the elite class to the lower class, the Assyrian government created a
forceful autocratic system. On the other hand the Persian Empire, under some rulers like Cyrus,
Darius, and other leaders created an imperial system with a more structural way of power. The
emperors here created such a situation where respect for religion and cultures was normal.
Moreover, they supported people's culture, religious aspects, language, etc. Through these social
stability was maintained. The emperor created such a situation to rule over every region that was
under his control and formed the Persian government. Moreover, the workers related to the
government also faced the autonomy of the king. Both the Assyrians and Persians had a large
territory where they had to manage huge resources. To control the local areas they created
structures for administration. Moreover, in Assyria, they wanted to have an idea of assimilation
that their political imagination was that everyone will be Assyrian. There will be no other form
of identity. That’s why Assyrians used political treaties to control the local political scenario.
Also they used several tricks to buy local political leaders, and religious leaders to control over
that region. To manage and govern they used military intervention. On the other hand, Athens
wasn’t ruling any other region except their city. They followed the Oligarchy and formed a
democratic government. Political participation of the citizens was held in that society. They
created such direct democracy where the citizens had the right to participate in making decisions.
Moreover, people have a higher political class than those who joined the military. They also
created several institutions like courts, councils for the administration, and justice of the people.
But in Athens, people who were involved in slavery had no political rights and a democratic
system. Furthermore, in Rome, they formed a republic governance system. They were practicing
imperial democracy. For the development of government, the Roman Republic has emerged. It
was a complex system with a separation of power where the assembly, senate, and magistrates
were included. To make the balance in the societies they created individual rights, laws, and
justice for the citizens. Also in some assemblies, citizens participated to make their decisions.
Moreover, the republic granted citizenship to many people to live in the society. So we can say
that Athenians created such a policy of direct democracy system and in Rome, they created such
a complex structure where citizens participated with their rights. Furthermore, India is a country
that has a long and extensive history with multiple empires, and kingdoms. From time to time
various governing systems were formed here. In ancient Vedic India, a combination of social,
cultural, and religious aspects like Kotilya’s Arthashastra, Manu smriti, and metaphysical ideas
to dominate the warrior class of the Brahmanical structure helped to form the monarchy. By
these, we can see a monarchical system in Vedic India which was governed with law, and justice
and protected their elements. Moreover, philosophical thinking, religious beliefs, and cultural
thoughts influenced them to establish this monarchy in Vedic India. On the other hand, China’s
governing system followed a different long history by the principles of Confucianism and the
imperial structures. The emperors were seen as the ‘Son of Heaven’ here who had the most
power. Though the king here was both a political and religious leader. Confucianism played a
significant role in China's political, and social structures. Moreover, it focused on the morality
and the kindness of the ruler. China’s government system followed an imperial and Confucian
structure which mainly followed a party state. The several structures of power shaped this
nation's political system too.

In the ancient world, we can see several approaches in the several governing systems with
different social, political, historical, and cultural factors. As we can see Assyria, Persia, India,
and China strictly followed the structure of monarchy. On the other hand, ancient Athens and the
Roman Republic followed the opposite and avoided the former. By these various conditions of
governance, we can establish the fundamental differences in each form of governance. In the
monarchical system, some were formed structures to maintain historical legacies, a centralized
system to control the whole region. The similarities between both monarchical and non-
monarchical systems reflect the various aspects of human cultures, societies, and the
development of the governing systems.
Carrier, A. S. (1889). Tiele on Babylonian-Assyrian Culture. I. The Old Testament Student, 8(5),
170–176. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3156815

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