Calculus

1st Stage Chemical Engineering Students

Prepared by:

Mr. HAYDER HASSAN ABBAS

 Chapter 1
Functions and their curves
Standard curves:
If y depends on, x, then y is said to be a function of x and the relationship is expressed as
y=f(x); x is called the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
In engineering and science, corresponding values are obtained as a result of tests or
experiments. Here is a brief resume of standard curves, some of which have been met
earlier in your study.
 Straight line
The general equation of a straight line is y= m x+ c, where m is the gradient and c is the y-
axis intercept.

Problem 1: Plot the graph y=4x +3 in the range x=−3 to x=+4. From the graph, find (a) the
value of y when x =2.2, and (b) the value of x when y=−3
Solution:
Whenever an equation is given and a graph is required, a table giving corresponding values
of the variable is necessary. The table is achieved as follows:
When x = −3, y = 4x + 3 = 4(−3) + 3= −12 + 3 = −9
When x = −2, y = 4(−2) + 3 = −8 + 3 = −5, and so on.
Such a table is shown below:

The co-ordinates (−3, −9), (−2, −5), (−1, −1), and so on, are plotted and joined together to
produce the straight line shown in Fig. below. (Note that the scales used on the x and y axes
do not have to be the same.)
From the graph:
(a) when x =2.2, y=11.8, and (b) when y=−3, x=−1.5

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Problem 2:
Plot the following graphs on the same axes between the range x=−4 to x=+4, and determine
the gradient of each.
(a) y=x (b) y=x +2 (c) y=x +5 (d) y=x −3
Solution:
A table of co-ordinates is produced for each graph.
(a) y = x

(b) y = x + 2

(c) y = x + 5

(d) y = x – 3

The co-ordinates are plotted and joined for each graph. The results are shown in Fig. 1.
Each of the straight lines produced are parallel to each other, i.e. the slope or gradient is the
same for each. To find the gradient of any straight line, say, y=x −3 a horizontal and vertical
component needs to be constructed. In Fig. 1, AB is constructed vertically at x =4 and BC
constructed horizontally at y=−3.

i.e. the gradient of the straight line y=x −3 is 1. The actual positioning of AB and BC is
unimportant for the gradient is also given by, for example,

The slope or gradient of each of the straight lines in Fig. 1 is thus 1 since they are all
parallel to each other.

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Exercise:
 Plot the following graphs on the same axes between the values x = −3 to x=+3 and
determine the gradient and y-axis intercept of each.
(a) y= 3x (b) y= 3x +7 (c) y=− 4x +4 (d) y= −4x −5
 Determine the gradient of the straight line graph passing through the co-ordinates (a) (−2,
5) and (3, 4) (b) (−2, −3) and (−1, 3)

Practical problems involving straight line graphs:

Problem 1: The temperature in degrees Celsius and the corresponding values in degrees
Fahrenheit are shown in the table below. Construct rectangular axes, choose a suitable scale
and plot a graph of degrees Celsius (on the horizontal axis) against degrees Fahrenheit (on
the vertical scale).

From the graph find (a) the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit at 55◦C, (b) the temperature
in degrees Celsius at 167◦F, (c) the Fahrenheit temperature at 0◦C, and (d) the Celsius
temperature at 230◦F
Solution:
The co-ordinates (10, 50), (20, 68), (40, 104), and so on are plotted as shown in Fig. 2.
When the co-ordinates are joined, a straight line is produced. Since a straight line results
there is a linear relationship between degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit.

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(a) To find the Fahrenheit temperature at 55◦C a vertical line AB is constructed from the
horizontal axis to meet the straight line at B. The point where the horizontal line BD meets
the vertical axis indicates the equivalent Fahrenheit temperature.
Hence 55◦C is equivalent to 131◦F
This process of finding an equivalent value in between the given information in the above
table
is called interpolation.

(b) To find the Celsius temperature at 167◦F, a horizontal lineEF is constructed as shownin
Fig. 2. The point where the vertical line FG cuts the horizontal axis indicates the equivalent
Celsius temperature.
Hence 167◦F is equivalent to 75◦C

(c) If the graph is assumed to be linear even outside of the given data, then the graph may
be extended at both ends (shown by broken line in Fig. 2).
From Fig. 2, 0◦C corresponds to 32◦F

(d) 230◦F is seen to correspond to 110◦C.

The process of finding equivalent values outside of the given range is called extrapolation.

Exercise 1:
In an experiment on Charles’s law, the value of the volume of gas, V m3, was measured for
various temperatures T ◦C. Results are shown below.

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Plot a graph of volume (vertical) against temperature (horizontal) and from it find (a) the
temperature when the volume is 28.6m3, and (b) the volume when the temperature is 67◦C

 Quadratic graphs:

A general quadratic equation is of the form y=ax2 +bx +c, where a, b and c are constants
and a is not equal to zero. A graph of a quadratic equation always produces a shape called a
parabola. The gradient of the curve between 0 and A and between B and C in Fig. 3 is
positive, whilst the gradient between A and B is negative. Points such as A and B are called
turning points. At A the gradient is zero and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve
changes from positive just before A to negative just after. Such a point is called a
maximum value. At B the gradient is also zero, and, as x increases, the gradient of the
curve changes from negative just before B to positive just after. Such a point is called a
minimum value.

Fig.3

The simplest example of a quadratic graph, y=x2, is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig.4

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Quadratic graphs:
(i) y = a x2
Graphs of y=x2, y=3x2 and y=1/2 x2 are shown in Fig.5. All have minimum values at the
origin (0, 0).

Figure 5
Graphs of y=−x2, y=−3x2 and y=−1/2 x2 are shown in Fig. 6. All have maximum values at the
origin (0, 0).

Figure 6

When y=ax2, (a) curves are symmetrical about the y-axis, (b) the magnitude of ‘a’ affects
the gradient of the curve, and (c) the sign of ‘a’ determines whether it has a maximum or
minimum value.

(ii) y = ax2 +c
Graphs of y=x2 +3, y=x2 −2, y=−x2 +2 and y=−2x2 −1 are shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 7

When y =a x2 +c,
(a) curves are symmetrical about the y-axis, (b) the magnitude of ‘a’ affects the gradient of
the curve, and (c) the constant ‘c’ is the y-axis intercept.

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(iii) y=a x2 +b x +c
Whenever ‘b’ has a value other than zero the curve is displaced to the right or left of the y
axis.
When b/a is positive, the curve is displaced b/2a to the left of the y-axis, as shown in Fig.8
(a). When b/a is negative the curve is displaced b/2a to the right of the y-axis, as shown in
Fig.8(b).

Figure 8

The x values of the points of intersection give the required solutions since at these points
both y=0 and ax2 +bx +c=0. The number of solutions, or roots of a quadratic equation,
depends on how many times the curve cuts the x-axis and there can be no real roots (as in
Fig. 8(a)) or one root (as in Figs 6 and 7) or two roots (as in Fig. 8(b)).

Problem: Plot the graph y= 4x2 +4x −15 in the range x=−3 to x=+2. From the graph,
determine also the co-ordinates and nature of the turning point of the curve

Solution:
Let y=4x2 +4x −15. A table of values is drawn up as shown below:

A graph of y=4x2 +4x −15 is shown in Fig. 9. The only points where y=4x2 +4x −15 and y=0
are the points marked A and B. This occurs at x=−2.5 and x=1.5 and these are the solutions
of the quadratic equation 4x2 +4x −15=0. (By substituting x=−2.5 and x =1.5 into the
original equation the solutions may be checked). The curve has a turning point at (−0.5,
−16) and the nature of the point is a minimum.

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 Figure 9

Exercise:
Plot the graph y= −5x2 +9x +7.2 in the range x=−1 to x=+3. From the graph, determine also
the co-ordinates and nature of the turning point of the curve

 Cubic equations :
The general equation of a cubic graph is y=a x3 +b x2 +c x +d. A cubic equation of the
form ax3 +bx2 +cx +d =0 may be solved graphically by: (i) plotting the graph y=ax3 +bx2
+cx +d, and (ii) noting the points of intersection on the x-axis (i.e. where y =0). The x-
values of the points of intersection give the required solution since at these points both y=0
and ax3 +bx2 +cx +d =0. The number of solutions, or roots of a cubic equation depends on
how many times the curve cuts the x-axis and there can be one, two or three possible roots,
as shown in Fig. 10.

Figure 10

The simplest example of a cubic graph, y=x3, is shown in Fig.11.

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 Figure 11

Problem:
Plot the graph y= 4x3 −8x2 −15x + 9 in the range x=−2 to x=+3. From the graph, determine
also the co-ordinates of the turning points and distinguish between them.

Solution:
Let y=4x3 −8x2 −15x +9. A table of values is drawn up as shown below:

A graph of y = 4x3 −8x2 −15x +9 is shown in Fig.12. The graph crosses the x-axis (where
y=0) at x=−1.5, x= 0.5 and x=3 and these are the solutions to the cubic equation 4x3 −8x2
−15x +9=0. The turning points occur at (−0.6, 14.2), which is a maximum, and (2, −21),
which is a minimum.

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 Figure 12
Exercise:
1- Plot the graph of y=2x3 −7x2 +4x +4 for values of x between x=−1 and x =3. Hence
determine the roots of the equation: 2x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 4 = 0
Answer: [x=+2.0, −0.5]
2- Plot the graph y=4x3 +4x2 −11x −6 between x=−3 and x =2 and use the graph to solve
the cubic equation 4x3 +4x2 − 11x −6=0 Answer: [x=−2.0, −0.5 or 1.5]
3- By plotting a graph of y=x −2x −5x +6 between x=−3 and x =4 solve the equation x3
3 2

−2x2 −5x +6=0. Determine also the coordinates of the turning points and distinguish
between them.
Answer: [ x=−2, 1 or 3, Minimum at (2.1,−4.1), Maximum at (−0.8, 8.2) ]

 Trigonometric functions:
By drawing up tables of values from 0◦ to 360◦, graphs of y =sin A , y = cos A and y = tan A
may be plotted. Values obtained with a calculator (correct to 3 decimal places—which is
more than sufficient for plotting graphs), using 30◦ intervals, are shown below, with the
respective graphs shown in Fig. 13.

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 Figure 13

From Fig. 13 it is seen that:

(i) Sine and cosine graphs oscillate between peak values of ±1.
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(ii) The cosine curve is the same shape as the sine curve but displaced by 90◦.
(iii) The sine and cosine curves are continuous and they repeat at intervals of 360◦; the
tangent curve appears to be discontinuous and repeats at intervals of 180◦.

Graphs of sine and cosine waveforms:

(i) A graph of y=sin A is shown by the broken line in Fig. 14 and is obtained by drawing
up a table of values as in Section up. A similar table may be produced for y=sin 2A.

Figure 14
(ii) A graph of y= sin 1/2 A is shown in Fig. 15 using the following table of values.

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 Figure 15

Logarithmic function

Figure 22a

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 Figure 22b
y=ln x and y=ln -x are both of the general shape shown in Fig. 22c.

Figure 22

 Exponential functions :
Values of ex and e−x obtained from a calculator, correct to 2 decimal places, over a range
x=−3 to x =3, are shown in the following table.

Figure 23 shows graphs of y=ex and y=e−x

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 Figure 23

Exercise:
1. Plot a graph of y=3e0.2x over the range x=−3 to x =3. Hence determine the value of y when
x =1.4 and the value of x when y=4.5 Answer: [3.95, 2.05]
−1.5x
2. Plot a graph of y= 1/2 e over a range x=−1.5 to x =1.5 and hence determine the value
of y when x=−0.8 and the value of x when y=3.5 Answer: [1.65,
−1.30]

Further Exercise:
Sketch the following graphs, showing relevant points:
1. y=3x −5 2. y=−3x +4 3. y=x2 +3 4. y=(x −3)2 5. y=(x −4)2 +2 6. y=x − x2
7. y=x3 +2 8. y=1+2 cos 3x 9. y=3− 2 sin ((x + π)/4) 10. y = 2 ln x
Answers:

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Even and odd functions:
Even functions
A function y=f (x) is said to be even if f (−x)=f (x) for all values of x. Graphs of even
functions are always symmetrical about the y-axis (i.e. is a mirror image). Two examples of
even functions are y=x2 and y= cos x as shown in Fig. 24.

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 Figure 24
Odd functions
A function y=f (x) is said to be odd if f (−x)=−f (x) for all values of x. Graphs of odd
functions are always symmetrical about the origin. Two examples of odd functions are y=x3
and y= sin x as shown in Fig. 25. Many functions are neither even nor odd, two such
examples being shown in Fig. 26.

Figure 25

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 Figure 26
Problems:
Sketch the following graphs and state whether the functions are even, odd or neither even
nor odd: (a) y= ln x
Solution:
(a) A graph of y= ln x is shown in Figure below and the curve is neither symmetrical
about the y-axis nor symmetrical about the origin and is thus neither even nor odd.

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