City University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Khagan, Birulia, Savar Dhaka

ME 314
Internal Combustion Engine Sessional
Contact Hr: 3.0, Credit: 1.00

Name of the Experiments:

1. Study of different engine parts.

2. Study of a four stroke petrol engine.

3. Study of a four stroke diesel engine.

4. (a) Study of the diesel power plant.

(b) Study of Automotive transmission system.

5. (a) Study of cooling system of an automobile system.

(b) Study of lubrication system of an automobile system.

 EXPERIMENT NO: 01

STUDY OF DIFFERENT ENGINE PARTS.

Objectives:
1. To know about the various parts of an automobile engine.

Introduction:
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical
energy. Heat engines, like the internal combustion engine, burn a fuel to create heat which is
then used to do work. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion. Engine
types:
1. Internal combustion engine
2. External combustion engine

Parts of engine:
1. Cylinder:
The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the engine power unit.
Its major function is to provide space in which the piston can operate to draw in the fuel mixture or
air (depending upon spark ignition or compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand and
thus generate power. The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give
greater strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are added
to the cast iron.

Fig:1 Engine cylinder

2. Cylinder block:
An engine block is the structure which contains the cylinders, and other parts, of an internal
combustion engine. It needs to provide a lot of structural strength to engine because combustion happens in
the cylinders block and lots of thrust or mechanical loads has to be tolerate the cylinder
block.To support higher structural strength and survive at high temperature, cylinder block
is made of hard grade cast iron or
sometimes aluminum alloys.
 Fig:2 Cylinder block

3. Cylinder head:
In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head (often informally abbreviated to just head) sits
above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the
combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides
space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, and that allow the exhaust to escape.
The head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors.

Fig: 3 Cylinder head

 The piston is a component on which the forces, that are generated due to the combustion process,
4. Piston: act and the thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy.
The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power to the
crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the combustion of the fuel. The
piston is closed at one end and open on the other end to permit direct attachment of the
connecting rod and its free action.

Fig: 4 Piston

5. Piston rings:
These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity
indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same
time reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing friction
losses and excessive wear. The other important functions of piston rings are the control of the
lubricating oil, cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away from the piston and from the
cylinder walls. Piston rings are classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their
function and location on the piston.

Compression rings are usually plain one-piece rings and are always placed in the grooves
nearest the piston head. Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are located either in the lowest
groove above the piston pin or in a groove near the piston skirt. Their function is to control the
distribution of the lubricating oil to the cylinder and piston surface in order to prevent
unnecessary or excessive oil consumption ion.
 Fig:5 Piston rings

6. Piston Pin:
The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the piston pin. It is made of case hardened
alloy steel with precision finish. There are three different methods to connect the piston to the
connecting rod.

Fig: 6 Piston Pins

7. Connecting rod:
This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the piston is
known as small end and the other end is known as big end. The big end has two halves of a
bearing bolted together. The connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of
the I-beam type.
 Fig: 7 Connecting rod

8. Crank shaft:

This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear motion of
the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft are
supported on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel
bolted to the crankshaft help in the smooth running of the engine.

Fig: 8 Crank shaft

The entire crankshaft is placed in the crankcase which acts as a sump for engine oil. Crankshaft is immersed in
that sump of oil, so that they can be well lubricated. We can see that there is distance between the crank pin
journal and center of crank shaft. This distance is called crank offset. There is a relation between crank offset and
piton movement as follow.

2 × crank offset = the distance traveled by the piston in one stroke

 The purpose of bearing is to reduce the friction and allow the parts to move easily. Bearings
9. Engine Bearings: are lubricated with oil to make the relative motion easier.
The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-friction bearings. These bearings must be
capable of withstanding high speed, heavy load and high temperatures. Normally, cadmium, silver
or copper lead is coated on a steel back to give the above characteristics. For single cylinder
vertical/horizontal engines, the present trend is to use ball bearings in place of main bearings of the
thin shell type.

The crankshaft is supported

by bearing. The connecting
rod big
end is attached to the crank
pin on the crank of the
crankshaft by a bearing.

Fig: 9 Engine bearing

10. Valves:
To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape from the cylinder, valves
are provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves respectively. The valves are mounted either on the
cylinder head or on the cylinder block. Usually intake valve is bigger than exhaust valve in size.
During intake of air, the air is draw into
cylinder due to the vacuum from the piston
moving down in the cylinder, and the push
of atmospheric pressure. But this pressure
difference is not enough to draw large
amount of air for combustion. Hence the
intake side opening is large to supply more
air. On the other hand, after fuel has been
burned, the hot air has expanded and the
cylinder is under moderately high pressure.
This positive pressure will push the gases
out the valve once the exhaust valve is
opened.Moreover, the piston also pushes
the air out as it rises on the exhaust stroke.
These mechanics make is far easier to
expel gases out of a cylinder, then to draw
air into one. For this reason, inlet valve is
bigger than exhaust valve Fig: 10 Valves

11. Camshaft:
The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has separate cams for the inlet,
and exhaust valves. The cam lifts the valve against the pressure of the spring and as soon as it
changes position the spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through either the gear or
sprocket and chain system from the crankshaft. It rotates at half the speed of the camshaft.
 Fig: 11 Camshaft

12. Flywheel:
This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed
by carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston.
The size of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of the engine.
It also helps in balancing rotating masses.

Fig: 12 Flywheel

13. Gasket:
A gasket is a mechanical seal which fills the space between two or more mating surfaces, generally
to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while under compression.

Fig: 13 Gaskets
14. Spark plug:
A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug, and, colloquially, a plug) is a
device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a
spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while
containing combustion pressure within the engine.

Fig: 14 Spark plug

15. Fuel injector:

A fuel injector is nothing but an electronically controlled valve. It is supplied with pressurized
fuel by the fuel pump in your car, and it is capable of opening and closing many times per
second.

Fig: 15 Fuel injector

 EXPERIMENT NO: 02
STUDY OF A FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Objectives:
1. To know about the working cycle of a four stroke petrol engine
3. To P-V and T-S diagram
4. To draw the indicator diagram
5. To know about the valve timing diagram

Introduction:
A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to
run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel
and air are usually mixed after compression. The pre-mixing was formerly done in
a carburetor.

Working cycle of a four stroke petrol engine:

Four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in
which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A
stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
The four separate strokes are termed:

Intake: Also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins at top
dead center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke the
intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture
into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its
downward motion. The piston is moving down as air is being sucked in by the
downward motion against the piston.
Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction stroke,
and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and
exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
Combustion: Also known as power or ignition. This is the start of the second
revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full
360-degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression
stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline
engine) or by heat generated by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully
returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work from the
engine to turn the crankshaft.

Figure: Four stroke petrol cycle

Exhaust: Also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston, once
again, returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This
action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
P-V and T-S diagram of petrol engine:

Figure: P-V & T-S diagram of a four stroke petrol engine

Indicator Diagram:

Figure: Indicator diagram of a four stroke petrol engine

Valve timing diagram:

The petrol engines are also known as spark ignition engines. The valve timing
diagram for a four stroke petrol engine is shown below:

Figure: Valve timing diagram of a four stroke petrol engine

(a) The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10°-20° before top dead centre (TDC) and
closes 30°-40° after bottom dead centre (BDC).
(b) The compression of charge stats at 30°-40° after BDC and ends at 20-30
before TDC.
(c) The ignition (IGN) of charge takes place at 20°-30° before TDC.
(d) The expansion starts at 20°-30° before TDC and ends at 30°-50° before
BDC
(e) The exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30°-50° before BDC and closes at 10°-
15° after TDC.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 03
STUDY OF A FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Objectives:
1. To know about the working cycle of a four stroke diesel engine
2. To P-V and T-S diagram
3. To draw the indicator diagram
4. To know about the valve timing diagram

Introduction:
Diesel engine, any internal-combustion engine in which air is compressed to a
sufficiently high temperature to ignite diesel fuel injected into the cylinder, where
combustion and expansion actuate a piston. It converts the chemical energy stored
in the fuel into mechanical energy, which can be used to power freight trucks, large
tractors, locomotives, and marine vessels. A limited number of automobiles also
are diesel-powered, as are some electric-power generator sets.

Working cycle of a four stroke diesel engine:

A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion (IC) engine in
which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A
stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction.
The four separate strokes are termed:

1. Intake: Also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins
at top dead center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke
the intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel
mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through
its downward motion. The piston is moving down as air is being sucked in by the
downward motion against the piston.
2. Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction
stroke, and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture
in preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and
exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
3. Combustion: Also known as power or ignition. This is the start of the second
revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full
360-degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end
 of the compression stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a
spark plug (in a gasoline engine) or by heat generated by high compression
(diesel engines), forcefully returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke
produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft.

Figure: Four stroke diesel cycle

4. Exhaust: Also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston, once
again, returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action
expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
P-V and T-S diagram of diesel engine:
Indicator Diagram:

Figure: Indicator diagram of a four stroke diesel engine

Valve timing diagram:

The diesel engines are also known as compression ignition engines. The valve
timing diagram for a four stroke diesel engine is shown below:

Figure: Valve timing diagram of a four stroke diesel engine

(a) The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10°-20° before top dead centre (TDC) and
closes 25°-40° after bottom dead centre (BDC).
(b) The fuel valve opens at 10°-15° before TDC and closes at 15°-20° after TDC
(c) The compression starts at 25°-40° after BDC and ends at 10°-15° before
TDC
(d) The expansion starts at 10°-15° after TDC and ends at 30°-50° before BDC
(e) The exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30°-50° before BDC and closes at 10°-
15° after TDC
 EXPERIMENT NO: 04(a)
STUDY OF THE DIESEL POWER PLANT

OBJECTIVES:
a. Identification and studying functions of different engine components.
b. Write down the engine specification.

ENGINE SPECIFICATION:

Brand Name Lubrication System

Model Cooling
Engine No. Exhaust
Country of Make Lub Oil Filter
Manufacturer Fuel Filter
Rated Output Air Cleaner
Rated rpm Oil Press. Indicator
No of Cylinder Coupling
Lub. Oil Used Starting
Fuel Used

Introduction
The diesel power plants are installed where the supply of coal and water is not
available in sufficient quantity or where power is to be generated in small quantity or
where standby sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospitals,
telephone exchanges etc.

These plants in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity are used as central stations for small
supply authorities and works.

The diesel power plants are generally used as follows:

1. Peak load plant: The diesel power plant is mainly used along with
thermal/hydroelectric plants as peak load plant.
2. It is used as a mobile plant.
3. These can be used as a standby unit to supply part load.
4. These can be used as an emergency plant for communication and water supply
under emergency conditions.
5. The diesel power plant used as a Nursery station to supply power to a small
town or city.
6. Used as a starting station for starting the large steam plants.
7. Used as a central station.
Read also:

 Power Plant: Types, Factors, Choices and Terminology Used in Power Plant

Diesel Engine Power Plant Block Diagram

A simple diesel power plant as shown in the figure. The diesel engines are generally
classified into four strokes and two-stroke engines. Generally, two-stroke engines are
used for diesel power plants.
The compressor draws the air from the atmosphere and compressed. The compressed
air is supplied to the engine through the filter for starting, where it is compressed by a
piston in a cylinder. The fuel oil is supplied from the tank through the filter to the fuel
injectors. The fuel injector injects the fuel into the cylinder and mixes with
compressed air.

The injected fuel gets ignited and combustion takes place. This liberates the huge
amount of energy which is utilized to run the generator to produce the electric power.
The cooling water is continuously supplied to cool the engine and lubricating oil is
supplied to lubricate the engine parts. The air intake supplies the air to the engine for
subsequent operations.

The layout of Diesel Power Plant

The layout of a diesel power plant is shown in the figure. Air from the atmosphere is
drawn into the compressor and it is compressed. The compressed air is sent to the
diesel engine through the air filter. In the air filter, dust, dirt from the air is filtered and
only clean air is sent to the diesel engine.
Fuel oil from the tank is passed through the filter, where the oil gets filtered and the
clean oil is injected into the diesel engine through the fuel pump and fuel injector. The
mixture of the compressed air and spray of fuel oil are ignited in the engine and the
combustion takes place. The released heat energy is utilized for driving the generator,
which produces power.

1. Fuel supply system

2. Air intake and exhaust system
3. Lubricating system
4. Starting system
5. Cooling system

1. Fuel supply system

This system consists of a fuel tank for the storage of fuel, fuel filters and pumps to
transfer and inject the fuel. The fuel oil may be supplied at the plant site by trucks,
road, rail, tank etc.

2. Air Intake and exhaust system

This consists of a compressor, a filter for the supply of air and pipes for exhaust gases.
Filters are provided to remove dust, dirt etc., from the incoming air. In the exhaust
system, a silencer is provided to reduce the noise.

Followings are the functions of the air intake system:

1. To clean the intake air supply.

2. Is to silence the intake air.
3. To supply the air for supercharging.
3. Lubricating system

Lubrication is essential to reduce friction and wear of the moving parts. It includes
lubricating oil tank, pumps, filters and lubricating oil.

4. Starting system

For starting the engine initially, the various things used are compressed air, battery, a
self-starter or electric motor.

5. Cooling system

This system provides proper control of water circulation all around the diesel engines
to keep the engine temperature reasonably at a low level. The hot water from the
jacket is cooled in cooling ponds and is re-circulated again.

Essential Components of Diesel Power Plant

The diesel power plant essentially consists of the following components:

1. Engine
2. Air filter and supercharger
3. Exhaust system
4. Fuel system
5. Cooling system
6. Lubricating system
7. Starting system
8. Governing system.

1. Engine
It is the main component of the plant which develops the required power. The engine
is directly coupled to the generator.
2. Air Filter and Supercharger

The function of the air filter is to remove the dust from the air which is taken by the
engine. The use of the supercharger is to increase the pressure of the air provided to
the engine to increase the power of the engine.

3. Exhaust System

This includes the silencers and connecting ducts. The temperature of the exhaust gases
is sufficiently high, therefore, the heat of the exhaust gases may be used for heating
oil or air supplied to the engine.

4. Fuel System
It includes storage tank, fuel transfer pump, strainers and heaters. The fuel is supplied
to the engine depends upon the load on the engine.

5. Cooling System

This includes water circulating pumps, cooling towers and water filtration plant. The
purpose of the cooling system is to carry the heat from the engine cylinder and to keep
the temperature of the cylinder in the safe range and extend its life.

6. Lubricating System
It includes oil pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers and connecting pipes. The function of
the lubricating system is to reduce the friction of moving parts and reduce the wear
and tear of the engine parts.

7. Starting System

This includes compressed air lanks. The function of this system is to start the engine
from the cold by supplying the compressed air.
8. Governing System

This consists of the governor and its function is to maintain the speed of the engine
constant irrespective of load on the plant by controlling the fuel supply to the engine
according to the load.

Advantages and disadvantages of diesel power plant

Advantages
 EXPERIMENT NO: 04(b)
STUDY OF AUTOMOTIVE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To know the requirements of transmission system.
2. To know the function of transmission system.

Introduction:
Power Transmission System is the next and final stage of the engine generated power before it
hits the wheels. The whole system is responsible to couple engine and wheels, driving and
adapting the output shaft rotation to a desired speed/torque ratio, allowing a wider range of speed
and better performance as the engine has its own RPM limit (redline) and maximum performance
value.
Requirements of Transmission System:-
Provide means of connection and disconnection of engine with rest of power train without
shock and smoothly.
Provide a varied leverage between the engine and the drive wheels
Provide means to transfer power in opposite direction.
Enable power transmission at varied angles and varied lengths.
Enable speed reduction between engine and the drive wheels in the ratio of 5:1.
Enable diversion of power flow at right angles.
Provide means to drive the driving wheels at different speeds when required.
Bear the effect of torque reaction, driving thrust and braking effort effectively.

Power Transmission Systems are divided in three major blocks:

Clutch
Gearbox (Transmission)
Differential
Each of them has a specific role transmitting power from the engine to the wheels ensuring
correct rotation speed and torque.

Clutch:
Clutch is basically a system that many systems use, to connect and disconnect one (sub-)system
that produce torque to other (sub-)system that will use that torque to produce work. The first sub-
system could be, for instance, an engine, and the second one a transmission (as in a car).
In automotive-systems we need a clutch because they have engine that spins all the time (when it
is on), but the car are not always in movement. When we need our car start there movement,
when we need to push a more height that the usually (in manual transmission), when we need to
stop the car… just with motor, gearbox and differential there were not possible.
Besides this the clutch provides a smooth start of the car. To do this we need a connection
(on/off) between the motor and the gearbox.
Operation method of clutch:
 Figure-4.1: Clutch
When the operator presses the clutch pedal, the clutch release mechanism pulls or pushes on the
clutch release lever or fork (Figure 10-8). The fork moves the release bearing into the center of
the pressure plate, causing the pressure plate to pull away from the clutch disc releasing the disc
from the flywheel. The engine crankshaft can then turn without turning the clutch disc and
transmission input shaft. When the operator releases the clutch pedal, spring pressure inside the
pressure plate pushes forward on the clutch disc. This action locks the flywheel, the clutch disc,
the pressure plate, and the transmission input shaft together. The engine again rotates the
transmission input shaft, the transmission gears, the drive train, and the wheels of the vehicle.
Transmission (Gearbox):
Cars need a transmission (gearbox) because the engines binary itself isn’t capable of create
different relations of velocity and binary. The engine has a rotation limit (redline) that cannot be
passed for the good of the engine. So, we need to create a way of using the available rotation of
the engine, creating different relationships between engine and the wheels.

Manual Transmission:
A manual transmission (Figure-4.2) is designed with two purposes in mind. One purpose of the
transmission is providing the operator with the option of maneuvering the vehicle in either the
forward or reverse direction. This is a basic requirement of all automotive vehicles. Almost all
vehicles have multiple forward gear ratios, but in most cases, only one ratio is provided for
reverse.
 Figure-4.2: Manual Transmission
Another purpose of the transmission is to provide the operator with a selection of gear ratios
between engine and wheel so that the vehicle can operate at the best efficiency under a variety of
operating conditions and loads. If in proper operating condition, a manual transmission should do
the following:
• Be able to increase torque going to the drive wheel for quick acceleration.
• Supply different gear ratios to match different engine load conditions.
• Have a reverse gear for moving the vehicle backwards.
• Provide the operator with an easy means of shifting transmission gears.
• Operate quietly with minimum power loss.
Automatic Transmission:
The automatic transmission, like the manual transmission, is designed to match the load
requirements of the vehicle to the power and speed range of the engine (Figure-4.3). The
automatic transmission, however, does this automatically depending on throttle position, vehicle
speed, and the position of the control lever. Automatic transmissions are built in models that
have two, three, or four-forward speeds and in some that are equipped with overdrive. Operator
control is limited to the selection of the gear range by moving a control lever.
The parts of the automatic transmission are as follows:
• Torque converter—fluid coupling that connects and disconnects the engine and transmission.
• Input shaft—transfers power from the torque converter to internal drive members and gearsets.
• Oil pump—produces pressure to operate hydraulic components in the transmission.
• Valve body—operated by shift lever and sensors; controls oil flow to pistons and servos.
• Pistons and servos—actuate the bands and clutches.
• Bands and clutches—apply clamping or driving pressure on different parts of gearsets to
operate them.
• Planetary gears—provide different gear ratios and reverse gear.
• Output shaft—transfers engine torque from the gearsets to the drive shaft and rear wheels.

Figure-4.3: Automatic Transmission

Differential:
Differential was invented to solve a problem: allow each driven wheel to travel at different speed
at the same time the power is applied to them, this especially happens when making a turn. When
a car does a turn, inner wheels travel a different distance from outer wheels, forcing each ones to
spin at different speeds. Since speed is equal to distance divided by the time, inner wheels will
spin slower than outside wheels. If differential doesn’t exist, it would be very hard to make a turn
as one of the wheels tend to slip, and with modern tires and concrete roads that force will
overstrain all the axle. It’s the last stage of the power before it hits the wheels and it’s inside a
housing filled with differential fluid allowing to gears spin easier. So, as we already saw, its jobs
are:
To aim the engine power at the wheels;
To act as final gear reduction, slowing the rotational speed of the transmission one last time;
To transmit the power to the wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds (the reason
it earned the differential name).

Figure-4-4: Differential
 EXPERIMENT NO: 05 (a)
STUDY OF AUTOMOTIVE COOLING SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To know the requirements of cooling system.
2. To know the function of cooling system.

Introduction:
A system, which controls the engine temperature, is known as a cooling system.

NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the following reasons:
5. The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to
1500 to 2000°C, which is above the melting point of the material of the
cylinder body and head of the engine. (Platinum, a metal which has one of
the highest melting points, melts at 1750 °C, iron at 1530°C and
aluminium at 657°C.) Therefore, if the heat is not dissipated, it would
result in the failure of the cylinder material.
6. Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get
oxidized, thus producing carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in
piston seizure.
• Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a distortion
of the engine components due to the thermal stresses set up. This makes it
necessary for, the temperature variation to be kept to a minimum.
4. Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

REQUIREMENTS OF EFFICIENT COOLING SYSTEM

The two main requirements of an efficient cooling system are:
5. It must be capable of removing only about 30% of the heat generated in the
combustion chamber. Too much removal of heat lowers the thermal efficiency of
the engine.
6. It should remove heat at a fast rate when the engine is hot. During the starting
of the engine, the cooling should be very slow so that the different working parts
reach their operating temperatures in a short time.
TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM
There are two types of cooling systems:
Air cooling system and
Water-cooling system.

AIR COOLING SYSTEM

In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to the outer parts of
the engine, is radiated and conducted away by the stream of air, which is obtained
from the atmosphere. In order to have efficient cooling by means of air, providing
fins around the cylinder and cylinder head increases the contact area. The fins are
metallic ridges, which are formed during the casting of the cylinder and cylinder
head The amount of heat carried off by the air-cooling depends upon the
following factors:
(f) The total area of the fin surfaces,
(g) The velocity and amount of the cooling air and
 (h) The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air.
Air-cooling is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small
cars and small aircraft engines where the forward motion of the machine gives
good velocity to cool the engine. Air-cooling is also provided in some small
industrial engines. In this system, individual cylinders are generally employed to
provide ample cooling area by providing fins. A blower is used to provide air.

1. Its design of air-cooled engine is simple.

2. It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the absence of water

jackets, radiator, circulating pump and the weight of the cooling water.

3. It is cheaper to manufacture.
4. It needs less care and maintenance.

This system of cooling is particularly advantageous where there are extreme

climatic conditions in the arctic or where there is scarcity of water as in deserts.

No risk of damage from frost, such as cracking of cylinder jackets or radiator

water tubes.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM

It serves two purposes in the working of an engine:
a) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it
from overheating.
b) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and
economical working. This cooling system has four types of
systems:
(i) Direct or non-return system,
(ii) Thermo-Syphone system,
(iii) Hopper system and
(iv) Pump/forced circulation system.
Though the present tractor has a forced circulation system, it is still worthwhile to
get acquainted with the other three systems.

Non-Return Water Cooling System

This is suitable for large installations and where plenty of water is available. The
water from a storage tank is directly supplied to the engine cylinder. The hot
water is not cooled for reuse but simply discharges. The low H.P. engine, coupled
with the irrigation pump is an example.
Thermo-Syphone Water Cooling System

This system works on the principle that hot water being lighter rises up and the
cold water being heavier goes down. In this system the radiator is placed at a
higher level than the engine for the easy flow of water towards the engine. Heat is
conducted to the water jackets from where it is taken away due to convection by
the circulating water. As the water jacket becomes hot, it rises to the top of the
radiator. Cold water from the radiator takes the place of the rising hot water and in
this way a circulation of water is set up m the system. This helps in keeping the
engine at working temperature. Disadvantages of Thermo-Syphone System
1 Rate of circulation is too slow.
2. Circulation commences only when there is a marked difference in temperature.
3. Circulation stops as the level of water falls below the top of the delivery pipe
of the radiator. For these reasons this system has become obsolete and is no more
in use.
Hopper Water Cooling System

This also works on the same principle as the thermo-syphone system. In this there
is a hopper on a jacket containing water, which surrounds the engine cylinder. In
this system, as soon as water starts boiling, it is replaced by cold water. An engine
fitted with this system cannot run for several hours without it being refilled with
water.
Force Circulation Water Cooling System
This system is similar in construction to the thermo-syphone system except that it
makes use of a centrifugal pump to circulate the water throughout the water
jackets and radiator

Fig: Forced circular water cooling system

The water flows from the lower portion of the radiator to the water jacket of the
engine through the centrifugal pump. After the circulation water comes back to
the radiator, it loses its heat by the process of radiation. This system is employed
in cars, trucks, tractors, etc.
Parts of Liquid Cooling System
The main parts in the water-cooling system are: (i) water pump, (ii) fan, (iii)
radiator and pressure cap, (iv) fan belt (v) water jacket, (vi) thermostat valve, (vii)
temperature gauge and (viii) hose pipes.
Water Pump
This is a centrifugal type pump. It is centrally mounted at the front of the cylinder
block and is usually driven by means of a belt. This type of pump consists of the
following parts: (i) body or casing, (ii) impeller (rotor), (iii) shaft, (iv) bearings, or
bush, (v) water pump seal and (vi) pulley.
The bottom of the radiator is connected to the suction side of the pump. The
power is transmitted to the pump spindle from a pulley mounted at the end of the
crankshaft.
Seals of various designs are incorporated in the pump to prevent loss of
coolant from the system. Fan
The fan is generally mounted on the water pump pulley, although on some
engines it is attached directly to the crankshaft. It serves two purposes in the
cooling system of a engine.
(a) It draws atmospheric air through the radiator and thus increases the
efficiency of the radiator in cooling hot water.
(b) It throws fresh air over the outer surface of the engine, which takes away
the heat conducted by the engine parts and thus increases the efficiency
of the entire cooling system.
Radiator
The purpose of the radiator is to cool down the water received from the engine.
The radiator consists of three main parts: (i) upper tank, (ii) lower tank and (iii)
tubes.
Hot water from the upper tank, which comes from the engine, flows downwards
through the tubes. The heat contained in the hot water is conducted to the copper
fins provided around the tubes.
An overflow pipe, connected to the upper1 tank, permits excess water or steam to
escape. There are three types of radiators: (i) gilled tube radiator, (ii) tubular
radiator (Fig. b) and (iii) honey comb or cellular radiator (Fig. c)

Fig: Types of radiator

Gilled tube radiator:

This is perhaps the oldest type of radiator, although it is still in use. In this, water
flows inside the tubes.
Each tube has a large number of annular rings or fins pressed firmly over its outside
surface.
Tubular radiator: The only difference between a gilled tubes radiator and a
tubular one is that in this case there are no separate fins for individual tubes. The
radiator vertical tubes pass through thin fine copper sheets which run horizontally.
Honey comb or cellular radiator: The cellular radiator consists of a large
number of individual air cells which are surrounded by water. In this, the clogging
of any passage affects only a small parts of the cooling surface. However, in the
tubular radiator, if one tube becomes clogged, the cooling effect of the entire tube
is lost.
Thermostat Valve
It is a kind of check valve which opens and closes with the effect of temperature.
It is fitted in the water outlet of the engine. During the warm-up period, the
thermostat is closed and the water pump circulates the water only throughout the
cylinder block and cylinder head. When the normal operating temperature is

reached, the thermostat valve opens and allows hot water to flow towards the radiator
(Fig. 8.5a).
Standard thermostats are designed to start opening at 70 to 75°C and they fully
open at 82°C. High temperature thermostats, with permanent anti-freeze solutions
(Prestine, Zerex, etc.), start opening at 80 to 90°C and fully open at 92°C.

Types of thermostat
There are three types of thermostats: (i) bellow type, (ii) bimetallic type and (iii)
pellet type.
Bellow type valve: Flexible bellows are filled with alcohol or ether. When the
bellows is heated, the liquid vaporises, creating enough pressure to expand the
bellows. When the unit is cooled, the gas condenses. The pressure reduces and the
bellows collapse to close the valve.
Bimetallic type valve: This consists of a bimetallic strip. The unequal expansion
of two metallic strips causes the valve to open and allows the water to flow in the
radiator.
Pellet type valve: A copper impregnated wax pellet expands when heated and
contracts when cooled. The pellet is connected to the valve through a piston, such
that on expansion of the pellet, it opens the valve. A coil spring closes the valve
when the pellet contracts.
PRESSURE COOLING SYSTEM
In the case of the ordinary water-cooling system where the cooling water is
subjected to atmospheric pressure, the water boils at 212°F. But when water is
boiled in a closed radiator under high pressure, the boiling temperature of water
increases. The higher water temperature gives more efficient engine performance
and affords additional protection under high altitude and tropical conditions for
long hard driving periods. Therefore, a pressure-type radiator cap is used with the
forced circulation cooling system (Fig. 8.6a). The cap is fitted on the radiator neck
with an air tight seal. The pressure-release valve is set to open at a pressure
between 4 and 13 psi. With this increase in pressure, the boiling temperature of
water increases to 243°F (at 4 psi boiling tap 225°F and 13 psi boiling
temperature 243°F). Any increase in pressure is released by the pressure release
valve to the atmosphere. On cooling, the vapours will condense and a partial
vacuum will be created which will result in the collapse of the hoses and tubes. To
overcome this problem the pressure release valve is associated with a vacuum
valve which opens the radiator to the atmosphere.
ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTIONS
In order to prevent the water in the cooling system from freezing, some chemical
solutions which are known as anti-freeze solutions are mixed with water. In cold
areas, if the engine is kept without this solution for some time, the water may
freeze and expand leading to fractures in the cylinder block, cylinder head, pipes
and/or radiators.
The boiling point of the anti-freeze solution should be as high as that of water. An
ideal mixture should easily dissolve in water, be reasonably cheap and should not
deposit any foreign matter in the jacket pipes and radiator.

No single anti-freeze solution satisfies all these requirements. The materials

commonly used are wood alcohol, denatured alcohol, glycerine, ethylene, glycol,
propylene glycol, mixtures of alcohol and glycerine and various mixtures of other
chemicals.
SERVICING & CLEANING OF COOLING SYSTEM
For smooth and trouble-free service, the cooling system should be cleaned at periodic
intervals to prevent the accumulation of excessive rust and scale. The commercial
cleaning compounds available must be carefully used in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions.
A general cleaning procedure is outlined below. If a considerable amount of scale and
rust has accumulated, it may not be possible that cleaning alone will remove it. In that
case, the radiator and engine water jackets must be flushed out with special air pressure
guns.
Cooling System Cleaning Procedure
It involves the following steps.
1. Drain the system by opening the drain cocks. Prepare a solution of washing soda and
water, with a ratio of 1 kg soda to 10 litres of water. Fill up this solution in the radiator
and engine block and run the engine on idle load for 8 to 10 hours. Drain this solution
and flush the system with clean water.
2. In case the scale formulation is bard and cannot be completely removed with washing
soda, another cleaning agent can be prepared with 40 parts of water, 5 parts of
commercial hydrochloric acid and 1 part of formaldehyde. This solution is allowed to
remain in the system for 2 to 3 hours at normal load. Afterwards this could be drained
and the system flushed with clean water.
3. Pressure flushing: In this the air pressure is used to both agitate and circulate the water
through the
cooling system.
(a) Straight flushing: Connect the lead-away hose to the water outlet connection on the
engine. Insert the flushing gun in the hose attached to the water pump inlet connection.
Turn on the water until the water passages are filled and the release the air in short
blasts, allowing the water to fill the engine after such blasts.
(b) Reverse flushing: Before making connections for reverse flushing the thermostat
should be removed from the cooling system. The procedure for this is outlined below:
(c) Radiator: Disconnect the top hose of the radiator from the engine and attach a lead-
away hose to the radiator. Disconnect the bottom of the radiator from water pump and
attach the flushing gun. Connect water and air hoses to the gun. Turn on the water and
fill the radiator to the top. Release the air in short blasts and allows the water to fill
the radiator between each blast. Continue the operation until the water from the lead-
away hose is clear, (ii) Engine: Connect the lead-away hose to the inlet of the water
pump and the flushing gun to the water outlet of the pump on the cylinder head.
Follow the same procedure.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 05 (a)
STUDY OF AUTOMOTIVE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Objectives:
1. To know the requirements of lubrication system.
2. To know the function of lubrication system.

Introduction
I. C. engine is made of many moving parts. Due to continuous movement of two
metallic surfaces over each other, there is wearing moving parts, generation of
heat and loss of power in the engine lubrication of moving parts is essential to
prevent all these harmful effects. PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION

Lubrication produces the following effects: (a) Reducing friction effect (b)
Cooling effect (c) Sealing effect and (d) Cleaning effect.
(a) Reducing frictional effect: The primary purpose of the lubrication is to
reduce friction and wear between two rubbing surfaces. Two rubbing surfaces
always produce friction. The continuous friction produce heat which causes
wearing of parts and loss of power. In order to avoid friction, the contact of two
sliding surfaces must be reduced as far a possible. This can be done by proper
lubrication only. Lubrication forms an oil film between two moving surfaces.
Lubrication also reduces noise produced by the movement of two metal surfaces
over each other.
(b) Cooling effect: The heat, generated by piston, cylinder, and bearings is
removed by lubrication to a great extent. Lubrication creates cooling effect on the
engine parts.
(c) Sealing effect: The lubricant enters into the gap between the cylinder liner,
piston and piston rings. Thus, it prevents leakage of gases from the engine
cylinder.
(d) Cleaning effect: Lubrication keeps the engine clean by removing dirt or
carbon from inside of the engine along with the oil.
Lubrication theory: There are two theories in existence regarding the application
of lubricants on a surface: (i) Fluid film theory and (ii) Boundary layer theory.

(i) Fluid film theory: According to this theory, the lubricant is, supposed to act
like mass of globules, rolling in between two surfaces. It produces a rolling effect,
which reduces friction.
(ii)Boundary layer theory: According to this theory, the lubricant is soaked in
rubbing surfaces and forms oily surface over it. Thus the sliding surfaces are kept
apart from each other, thereby reducing friction.
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals Lubricants made
of animal fat, does not stand much heat. It becomes waxy and gummy which is
not very suitable for machines.
Vegetable lubricants are obtained from seeds, fruits and plants. Cottonseed oil,
olive oil, linseed oil and castor oil are used as lubricant in small Simple machines.
Mineral lubricants are most popular for engines and machines. It is obtained from
crude petroleum found in nature. Petroleum lubricants are less expensive and
suitable for internal combustion engines. A good lubricant should have the
following qualities:
1. It should have sufficient viscosity to keep the rubbing surfaces apart
2. It should remain stable under changing temperatures.
3. It should keep lubricated pans clean.
4. It should not corrode metallic surfaces.
ENGINE LUBRICATING SYSTEM
The lubricating system of an engine is an arrangement of mechanism and devices
which maintains supply of lubricating oil to the rubbing surface of an engine at
correct pressure and temperature.
The parts which require lubrication are: (i) cylinder walls and piston (ii) piston
pin (iii) crankshaft and connecting rod bearings (iv) camshaft bearings (v) valves
and valve operating mechanism (vi) cooling fan (vii) water pump and (viii)
ignition mechanism.
There are three common systems of lubrication used on stationary engines, tractor
engines and automobiles:
(i) Splash system (ii) Forced feed system and (iii) Combination of splash
and forced feed system.

SPLASH SYSTEM
In this system, there is an oil trough, provided below the connecting rod. Oil is
maintained at a uniform level in the oil trough. This is obtained by maintaining a
continuous flow of oil from the oil sump or reservoir into a splash pan, which has
a depression or a trough like arrangement under each connecting rod. This pan
receives its oil supply from the oil sump either by means of a gear pump or by
gravity. A dipper is provided at the lower end of the connecting rod. This dipper
dips into to oil trough and splashes oil out of the pan. The splashing action of oil
maintains a fog or mist of oil that drenches the inner parts of the engine such as
bearings, cylinder walls, pistons, piston pins, timing gears etc.

Splash lubrication system

 This system is usually used on single cylinder engine with closes crankcase. For
effective functioning of the engine, proper level of oil maintained in the oil pan.
Lubrication depends largely upon the size of oil holes and clearances. This system
is very effective if the oil is clean and undiluted. Its disadvantages are that
lubrication is not very uniform and when the rings are worn, the oil passes the
piston into combustion chamber, causing carbon deposition, blue smoke and
spoiling the plugs. There is every possibility that oil may become very thin
through crankcase dilution. The
worn metal, dust and carbon may be collected in the oil chamber and be carried to
different parts of the engine, causing wear and tear.
FORCED FEED SYSTEM
In this system, the oil is pumped directly lo the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston
pin, timing gears and camshaft of the engine through suitable paths of oil. Usually
the oil first enters the main gallery, which may be a pipe or a channel in the
crankcase casting. From this pipe, it goes to each of the main bearings through
holes. From main bearings, it goes to big end bearings of connecting rod through
drilled holes in the crankshaft. From there, it goes to lubricate the walls, pistons
and rings. There is separate oil gallery to lubricate timing gears. Lubricating oil
pump is a positive displacement pump, usually gear type or vane' type. The oil
also goes to valve stem and rocker arm shaft under pressure through an oil
gallery.

The excess oil comes back from the cylinder head to the crankcase. The pump
discharges oil into oil pipes, oil galleries or ducts, leading different parts of the
engine. This system is commonly used on high speed multi-cylinder engine in
tractors, trucks and automobiles.
 Forced feed lubrication system

COMBINATION OF SPLASH AND FORCED FEED SYSTEM In this

system, the engine component, which are subjected to very heavy load are
lubricated under forced pressure, such as main bearing connecting rod bearing and
camshaft bearing. The rest of the parts like cylinder liners, cams, tappets etc are
lubricated by splashed oil.
Oil pump: Oil pump is usually a gear type pump,
used to force oil into the oil pipe. The pump is
driven by the camshaft of t engine. The lower end
of the pump extends down into the crankcase which
is covered with a screen to check foreign particles.
A portion of the oil forced to the oil filter and the
remaining oil goes to lubricate various par of the
engine. An oil pressure gauge fitted in the line,
indicates the oil pressure in the lubricating system.
About 3 kg/sq cm (45 psi) pressure is developed in
the lubrication system of a tractor engine, [f the oil
pressure gauge indicates no pressure in the line,
there is some defect in the system which must be
checked immediately. Lubricating oil pump is a
positive displacement pump.
OIL FILTER: Lubricating oil in an engine becomes contaminated with various
materials such as dirt, metal particles and carbon. Oil filler removes the dirty
elements of the oil in an effective way. It is a type of
strainer using cloth, paper, felt, wire screen or similar
elements. Some oil filter can be cleaned by washing,
but in general old filters are replaced by new filters at
specified interval of time prescribed by manufacturers.
Wearing of parts, oil consumption and operating cost of
an engine can be considerably reduced by proper
maintenance of oil filters. Oil filters are of two types:
(i) Full-flow filter and (ii) By-pass filler.
(i) Full flow filter: In this filter the entire quantity of oil
is forced to circulate through it before it enters the
engine. A spring loaded valve is usually fitted in the
filter as a protection device against oil starvation in case
of filter getting clogged. Filter element consists of felt,
cloth, paper and plastic. All these elements are
replaceable and should be changed after the
recommended period.
(ii) By pass filter: In this type of filter, the supply lines
are from the pump and are connected to permit only a
part of the oil. Through the filter the balance oil reaches
directly to the engine parts. Over a period of operation,
all the oil in the crankcase passes through the filter.
Oil pressure gauge: Oil pressure gauge is used to indicate the oil pressure in the oil
lines. It serves to warn the operator of any irregularity in the system.
Crankcase breather: The engine crankcase is always fitted with some kind of
breather, connecting the space above the oil level with the outside atmosphere. The
purpose of the breather is to prevent building up pressure in the crankcase.
Relief valve: Relief valve is provided to control the quantity of oil circulation and to
maintain correct pressure in the lubricating system.

There are a few common troubles in lubrication system such as: (1) Excessive oil
consumption (2) Low oil pressure and (3) Excessive oil pressure-
Excessive oil consumption: When there is excessive oil consumption in the engine, the
reasons arc : (a) more oil goes to combustion chamber and gets burnt (b) some leakage
occurs in some part of - the line and
(c) loss of oil in form of vapour through ventilating system. Oil can enter the combustion
chamber through rings and cylinder walls, worn piston rings and worn bearings.
Low oil pressure: Low oil pressure can result due to: (i) weak relief valve spring (ii)
worn oil pump (iii) cracked oil line (iv) obstruction in the oil lines (v) very thin oil and
(vi) worn out bearings.
Care should be taken to remove these defects as far as possible to increase the oil
pressure in the lubricating system. Sometimes defective oil pressure indicator shows low
oil pressure. This should be checked. Excessive oil pressure: Excessive oil pressure
may result due to : (i) stuck relief valve (ii) strong valve spring (iii) clogged oil line and
(iv) very heavy oil.
These defects should be removed to reduce the excessive oil pressure in the lubricating
system. Sometimes defective oil pressure indicator records high oil pressure. Care should
be taken to check this defect.
 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The following are few suggestions for good lubrication system:
 A good design of oil circulation system should be chosen.
 Correct grade of lubricant ensures long and trouble free service.
  Oil should be maintained at desired level in the oil chamber.
 Oil should be cleaned regularly and after specified period of use, old filters should
 be replaced by new filters.
  Connections, pipings, valves and pressure gauge should be checked regularly.
 Oil should be changed regularly after specified interval of time. Before putting the
 new oil, the crankcase should be cleaned and flushed well with a flushing oil.
 Precautions should be taken to keep the oil free from dust and water.