PROF ED – THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM – CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1 - UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM

This chapter explores significant pieces of literature and theories that will help curriculum workers, teachers, and students to
understand basic concepts like curriculum, types of curriculum, curriculum foundations, and curriculum conceptions. In this chapter,
you should be able to:
1. Define curriculum;
2. Analyze the different types of curriculum;
3. Discuss different curriculum foundations; and
4. Discuss different curriculum conceptions.

Definitions of Curriculum
A clear understanding of what curriculum is, helps scholars and students in understanding the curriculum as a dynamic field
in education. Reid (2006) opined that people talk about, write about, legislate for, teach courses on, and take credits in curriculum;
hence, it is important to have a concrete explanation of what curriculum is.

Many books on curriculum present various images, characterizations, and definitions of the term curriculum. To analyze or
discuss all of these definitions would be a massive endeavor since there are more than eleven hundred books written about
curriculum (Schubert, 1980). Presented in this book are just a few definitions provided by Saylor (1981), Beauchamp (1982), Schubert
(1986), Eisner (1985), Pinar (1995), Posner (1995), Marsh (2004), Oliva (2005), Glatthorn (2006), and Reid (2006), among others.

 Curriculum as a list of subjects. This definition suggests that curriculum is the “permanent” or the traditional subjects
offered in the school curriculum such as Mathematics, Language, Science, Music, Arts, and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students’ curricular and co-curricular activities and the learning
experiences they encounter inside or outside the school. This definition includes the hidden curriculum or those things
learned by the students as a result of their experiences in the school with their peers, schoolmates, teachers, school staff, or
the values they learned from a school program. In short, it includes the school culture.
 Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definition includes a list of learning competencies or standards that
students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying contents, objectives, or general ideas of
what students should know in schools or in a specific discipline.
 Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has its own principles, theories, and practices.
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a series of topics under each subject area.

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what curriculum is. Their personal definition of
curriculum defines the curriculum product that they will produce. Many curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches
appear vague because of an unclear understanding of the field of curriculum. Besides this, only few people are experts in curriculum
studies, especially in the Philippines, who may be consulted regarding these projects and researches.

Different Types of Curriculum

Several curriculum scholars (see Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006; Print, 1993; Tanner and Tanner, 2007) cited nine
types of curriculum in their books depending on how curriculum is used in various institutions.

 Ideal or Recommended Curriculum. This refers to what scholars propose as the most appropriate curriculum for the
learners. For example, different professional organizations or various programs of study in different universities may propose
curriculum innovations or alternative curriculum content as a result of their researches.

Ideal or recommended curriculum may also develop as an alternative response to various curricular problems and Issues,
Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) noted several Influences that seem to play the key roles in shaping the recommended
curriculum. These influences are the professional associations, Individuals, and societal trends..
Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of ideal or recommended curriculum. Many of
these various curriculum standards are recommended by professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the
curriculum. Standards are products of their latest researches on the nature of the different disciplines and the developments in
various academic fields.

 Intended, Official, or Written Curriculum. This refers to the official curriculum embodied in approved state curriculum
guides (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006). It is the curriculum prescribed by the government. In the Philippine
context, these are the prescribed courses from different government agencies: the Department of Education (DepEd), the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). Examples
of this type of curriculum are:
- The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards
- The K-12 Curriculum
- CHED Curriculum for General Education (Memorandum Order No. 20 Series of 2013)
- TESDA Modules and Competencies

 Implemented Curriculum. This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of the curriculum or what teachers in
the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and improve their curriculum based on the needs of the students or
whenever there are new ideas in various disciplines that are important to teach to the students. Academic freedom among
faculty members in college may also influence how professors plan and implement their courses.
  Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum. This refers to the result of the curriculum or what students actually learned in
school (Print, 1993). The achieved curriculum reveals whether the students learned and whether the schools are successful
in attaining their curriculum goals and objectives.
 Tested Curriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made classroom tests, curriculum-referenced tests,
and in standardized tests. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006) Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people
or the general society believed the learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to become good
members of the society.
 Supported Curriculum. This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped by the resources allocated to support or
deliver the official curriculum. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006)
 Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that must not be taught to the students.
(Tanner & Tanner, 2007)
 Hidden Curriculum. This refers to various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students learn in school as a result of their
interaction with other students, staff, and faculty members. Although the hidden curriculum is not actually taught in formal
classroom learning, it is also true that the hidden curriculum can be a product of the students’ schooling. The hidden
curriculum is very powerful in developing the school culture (Print, 1993).

Curriculum Foundations
Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981), Print
(1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and Tanner (2007) generally identified three categories of sources for curriculum foundations: (1)
studies of learners and learning theory (psychology); (2) studies of life (sociology and anthropology); and (3) studies of the nature
and value of knowledge (philosophy). These curriculum sources or foundations influenced curriculum developers in framing different
curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.

Psychology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence, it is important in curriculum development.
According to Print (1993), psychology can provide information in five important areas:
1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Learning processes
4. Teaching methods
5. Evaluation procedures

Meanwhile, studies about the society and culture-sociology and anthropology, respectively-affect all curriculum processes.
Sowell (1996) pointed out that knowledge about the society and its culture is important in selecting the content of the curriculum. It
provides a clear understanding of the context in which the curriculum is developed. Studies about the society and culture help
curriculum workers in understanding several social and educational issues that affect curriculum processes and education in general.

On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation helps curriculum workers in understanding the nature of knowledge and what
subjects or topics are worthwhile. This is very important in making decisions about the contents of the curriculum. Ornstein and
Hunkins (1993) mentioned that philosophy provides curriculum workers with a framework or base for organizing schools and
classrooms. It also provides educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as determining the goals of education, the
content and its organization, and the teaching and learning processes.

Curriculum Conceptions
Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum development processes. They have different
points of view about curriculum concerns, goals of what a curriculum should accomplish, and how a curriculum should be designed
or constructed. These explain the presence of various curriculum orientations or conceptions. McNeil (2006), Eisner (1985), and Print
(1993) identified six curriculum conceptions:

1. Academic Rationalist Conception – considered as the oldest among the curriculum conceptions. It stresses the importance
of different bodies of knowledge, known as disciplines or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.
2. Cognitive Processes Conception-seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that are applicable to a wide range of
intellectual problems. The subject matters are instruments or tools for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in
the lives of individuals.
3. Humanistic Conception – stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an instrument for developing the full potential of
individuals. It seeks to help individuals discover and develop their unique identities. It stresses that curriculum should focus
on the needs and interests of individuals.
4. Social Reconstructionist Conception-views the school or schooling as an agency for social change. Hence, it stresses that
curriculum should respond to the different needs, issues, problems, and demands of the society.
5. Technological Conception - is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve curriculum or educational goals. It
views schooling as a complex system that can be analyzed into its constituent components.
6. Eclectic Conception - is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas with two or more curriculum
conceptions. Hence, this curriculum conception reiterates the realities in curriculum development that each of the
curriculum conceptions is to be considered and is influential to a certain extent in designing the curriculum.

Elements of a Curriculum
In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present in all curriculum documents or
before a document can be called curriculum. These four elements are curriculum intent, content, learning experiences, and
evaluation.
Curriculum Intent Content Learning Experiences Evaluation

Figure 1. Curriculum Elements

1. Curriculum Intent - is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that curriculum developers wish to take as a result of
participating in the curriculum. It includes the aims, goals, and objectives found in any curriculum documents.

Aims - are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. Aims include what is hoped to be achieved by the entire
curriculum.

Goals - are statements more specific than aims. Goals are general statements of what concepts, skills, and values should be learned
in the curriculum.

Objectives - are specific learning outcomes. Objectives include what specific concepts, skills, and values should be learned by the
students. Usually, objectives are used in making decisions or planning about instruction.

These topics are based on the curriculum intents. Contents may include values, concepts, or skills that are important for the
learners to learn.

2. Learning Experiences – include all instructional strategies that are useful for the implementation of the curriculum. These may
appear in the form of activities, strategies, methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum or in teaching
the content.
3. Evaluation – includes the different ways and tools used for evaluating whether or not the curriculum intents were realized.
Evaluation tools are also used to evaluate the performance of the learners after they have undergone the curriculum.

Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what design they have, are composed of certain elements.
 A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives.
 It indicates some selection and organization of content.
 It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the objectives demand them or
because the content organization requires them.
 It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.
Understanding the different elements of curriculum will help curriculum workers especially the teachers in designing curriculum
and in analyzing the different curriculum materials that are offered to schools and students.

IN A NUTSHELL

Reflections on Understanding Curriculum

The first chapter introduced different concepts that every professional curriculum worker should know about curriculum.
Understanding these concepts is useful in appreciating curriculum studies as an area in the field of education.

 Curriculum can be defined as:

- Set of contents
- Set of learning experiences
- Planned content Set of learning outcomes
 There are different types of curriculum:
- Intended curriculum
- Implemented curriculum
- Achieved curriculum Hidden curriculum
- Ideal or recommended curriculum
- Tested curriculum
- Entitlement curriculum
- Null or censored curriculum Supported curriculum
 Curriculum development is influenced by various academic fields that serve as foundations of curriculum such as:
- Psychology (studies about the learners and learning theories)
- Philosophy (studies on the nature and value of knowledge)
- Sociology (studies on culture, society, and human activities)
- There are different types of curriculum conception
- Academic rationalist
- Cognitive processes
- Social reconstructionist
- Humanistic
- Technological
- Eclectic
 There are four elements of curriculum
- Intent
- Content
- Learning experiences
- Evaluation
Activity 1.

Write a personal definition of curriculum. Explain the definition.

Activity 2.

Browse the Internet and check some examples of an ideal curriculum suggested by professional organizations. List down the
examples below.

Activity 3.

Think about this: What are the benefits and possible pitfalls of having

Activity 4.

Discuss the roles of teachers and other curriculum workers in ensuring the success of the implemented curriculum.

Activity 5.

Provide an example of a null or censored curriculum.

Activity 6.

Provide an example of a hidden curriculum.

Activity 7.

Examine a philosophy of a particular curriculum. Analyze what curriculum conception it is leaning to.

Activity 8.

Select a school, provide examples of the following curriculum intent, and analyze the relationship.

Curriculum Aims:

Curriculum Goals:

Curriculum Objectives:

Activity 9.

Provide examples of curriculum content and learning experiences. Examine their relationship.

Content Learning Experiences

Activity 10.

Analyze examples of curriculum evaluation tools. Examine how the evaluation instruments measure the success of the curriculum.

1. What curriculum competencies and performance standards are evaluated?

2. What forms of evaluation tools are used?
3. How often does the school evaluate the curriculum?
4. How does the school evaluate its hidden curriculum?
5. What decisions and actions are made after getting the results of the curriculum evaluation?