GENED ENGLISH

PART OF SPEECH
 The building blocks of language.
 They function to explain usage of word in a sentence.

1. NOUN – a word used to name a person, place, things, state or quality.

Kind of Nouns:
a. Proper nouns are specific. Their first letters are capitalized.
Jake, Fenilla, Monday, Davao City
b. Common nouns are general.
Man, student, clinic, teacher, school
c. Collective nouns name groups.
Family, army, flock, choir
d. Mass nouns cannot be counted.
salt, sugar, flour, feedback, equipment
e. Concrete nouns exist in the physical world
petals, tables, pens, cups
f. Abstract nouns refer to ideas and feelings.
sadness, joy, brilliance

Function of Nouns
a. Subject of the Sentence (S)- the one that is talked about in the sentence.
Maureen expressed her gratitude to her fans.
b. Vocative (V)- indicates that somebody is being directly addressed by the speaker.
Where is everybody, Maureen?
c. Direct Object (DO)- The one that receives the action of the verb. Answers the
question who or what after the verb.
Maureen kicks the ball.
 d. Indirect Object (IO)- Answers the question to whom or for whom.
Maureen left Froilan food for the holidays.
e. Subject Noun Predicate (SNP)- a word/phrase that refers back to the subject. Comes
after a linking verb.
Maureen is the actress.
f. Object Noun Predicate (ONP)- comes after a direct object. Refers back to the object.
The group appointed Maureen Leader of the club.
g. Object of Preposition (OP)- comes after a preposition.
Maureen correlates love with effort
h. Appositive – a noun or noun phrase that renames another nouns right beside it.
Maureen, my sister celebrates her birthday

2. Pronoun- a word used to replace a noun.

Kinds of Pronouns:
a. Personal pronouns
Refers to people or things which can be singular or plural. Refer to the speaker, the
person spoken to, and the person spoken about.

Case Functions
Subjective/nominative Subject of the sentence
Objective Object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive
Phrase
Possessive Marker of possession; ownership of particular object or person

A. First Person- the person talking

I, Me,Us, We, My, Our, Mine, Ours, Myself, Ourselves
B. Second Person- the person spoken to
You, Your, Yours, Yourself, Yourselves
C. Third Person- the person being talked about
She, It, Is, They, Him Her, Them, Their, His, Hers, Theirs, Himself, Herself, Itself,
Themselves
 Nominative Objective Possessive

Singular I Me My, mine

1st person You You Your, yours
2nd person He, she, it Him ,her, it His, her, hers, its
3rd person
Plural We Us Our, Ours
st
1 person You You Your, Yours
2nd person They Them Their, Theirs
3rd person

Nominative Case
1. Pronoun- Action Verb
Ex. He and (I, Me ) sang.
2. Be verb- Pronoun
Ex. The singer is ( he, him).
3. Appositive-(Pronoun- Noun)
(He, him),my friend, is cute.
Objective Case
Verb – Pronoun
Ex. I gave ( he, him ) a chance.
Possessive Case
Ex. The bag is (me, m, mine)
b. Indefinite pronouns
Refer to an identifiable but not specified person or thing
Singular – any, anybody, nobody, anyone ,each, everyone, one,
someone, somebody, every, either, neither
Plural- all, some, few, both, several , many

c. Reflexive and Intensive Pronoun

myself, yourself, herself, itself, himself
Reflexive Pronoun- Refers back to the subject in the sentence/ gives emphasis to the
subject.
I owe it to myself
Intensive Pronoun – is used to emphasize the antecedent.
I myself made that decision.

3. Verb- A content word that denotes an action, occurrence, or state of existence.

Kind of verbs:
a. Regular Verbs- form their past tense by the adding ‘ d’ or ‘ ed to the base form
jump jumped jumped
b. Irregular verbs- from their past tense and participle in several ways.
be was / were been
Iie ( present) lay (past) lain (past participle).
Lay (present) laid (past) laid (past participle).
(lie means to recline ; lay means to place something, to put something)
c Linking verb- are used to link or join the subject with a word in the predicate which
relates to the subject. The ‘ be ’ form of the verb (am,is are, was, were) is the most
commonly used linking verb.
Others forms; become, seem, look, smell, appear, feel, teste, sound, remain
He cute.
d. Auxiliary verb- ( or Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb. The most
common Auxiliary verbs is have.
Has- is used in singular, present tense of the verb.
Have- ( base form) is used in plural, present tense of the verb.
Had- is used in singular / plural, past tense of the verb
Auxiliary Verbs must be followed by a past participle form of the verb.
He has seen me We have seen him. I had loved him before
4. Adjective- is a part of speech used to modify nouns pronouns.
Order of adjectives in an Adjective Phrase
 Determiners - a, an, the, my ,your, etc Color- red,, blue, green, etc
Observations – lovely ,boring ,nice, etc, Origin- British, American, Mexican, etc
Size – tiny, small, huge, etc Material- gold, copper, silk, etc
Shape – round, square, rectangular, etc Qualifier – limiters for compound nouns.
Age- old, new, ancient, etc

5. Adverb – is a of speech which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It is

generally placed immediately before or after the word it modifies.
a. Adverb of Time – An adverb of time tell us when something is done or happens. We
use it at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. We use it as a form of emphasis
when we place it at the beginning. Adverb of time include afterwards, already, last
month, now, soon, then, and yesterday.
See you later.
b. Adverb of Place – An adverb of place tells where something is done or happens. We
use it after the verb, object or at the and of the sentence.
Adverb of place include words ass such as above, below, here,
outside, over there, there, under, under, upstairs.
 My room is upstairs
 Do not find love elsewhere: it is here
c. Adverb of manner – An adverb of manner tell us how something is done or happen.
Most adverbs of manner end in-ly such as badly, happily, sadly,
quickly, and others that include well, hard, fat, etc.
 The people are slowly responding to the call for change.
 He spoke on politics well.
b. Adverb of degree – An adverb of degree tell us the level or extent that something is
done happens. Words of adverb of degree are almost, much, quite, so, too, very
 Iso love him
 It was quite impressive
c. Adverb of frequency – An adverb of frequency tell us how often something is done or
happens. Word used as adverbs of frequency include hardly, ever, nearly, nearly
always, never, occasionally,, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, twice, usually, and
weekly.
 He always organizes shows.
 I sometimes miss you.
Differentiating Modifiers
He drove the car fast ( Adverb – fast modifies the word drove )
He leads a fast life. ( Adjective – fast modifies the word of life )
I gave him a straight response ( Adjective – straight modifies the word response )
I went straight to where we first met. ( Adverb – straight modifies the word went )

6. Preposition - a word expressing the relationship between a noun , pronoun, and the
other elements of a sentence.
Prepositions of time ; at On and In
a. We use at to designate specific times.
The program will commence at 8;00 Am.
b. We use on to designate days and dates.
ResuIts will be out on Sunday.
Not all understand the significance of the celebration on June 12 th.
c. We use in for non- specific times during a day. a month, a season, or year.
In the Philippines, it still rains even in summer.
I was conceived in 1992.
The jolliest time happens in December.

Prepositions of place; At , on, and In

a. We use at for specific addresses.
Ruffa Papaya lives at Prk1-D. Balagunan, Sto. Tomas City. France
b. We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.We
I feel cathartic when I am on Boulevard Street.
c. We use in for the names of land – areas ( towns, counties, states, countries,
and continents).
She dreams of living in Norway.
7. Conjunction – a word used to connect sentences, clauses, phrases or words.
Kinds of Conjunction
a. Coordinating Conjunction- join equals to one another i. e. words, phrases,
clauses
Examples; For. And, Nor, But, Or, Yet ,So ( FANBOYS)
He wanted to stay , but his heart spoke otherwise.
Success requires hard work and perseverance.
Note; Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the start or
end
Punctuation rules of coordinating conjunctions
When a coordinating conjunctions join two words. Phrases, or
subordinate clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.
Cookies and milk at the beach or by the lakeside
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate
causes creates a series and require commas between the elements.
Peanuts cookies, and milk What you think. What you say, and what you do
b. Subordination Conjunction – a conjunction that introduces clause

Examples of Subordination;
after In order Unless Even if
( that)
aIthough Insofar as Until Even though
as In that When how
as far as Lest whenever if
as soon as no matter Where inasmuch
as if now that wherever In case(that)
as though Once Whether So that
because Provided While than
before Since Why though

c. Correlative Conjunction – A correlative conjunction is paired conjunction that links

balanced words phases.
 Examples; either… nor, not only… but also
8. Interjection – is a word that expresses feeling or emotion,and function, independently
in a sentence
Examples; ah! Oh! Uh! , alas! Hey! Ouch! Well! Wow!

SUBJECTVERB AGREEMENT
1. verb with – is singular. Verb without –s is plural.
; He loves the musical. They love the musical.
1.1 make the linking\ verb agree with the real subject.
Rona‘s choices are final.
1.2 ‘’I’’ takes plural verb & ‘’am’’.
I believe in you. I am yours.
2. In most cases. Collective noun subjects take singular verbs, but if the group is
viewed as individual members. Use a plural verb.
The orchestra plays a hit song.
The orchestra discuss the matter.
3. Non- count noun subjects take singular verb.
Sugar is sweet. Her feedback is good.

3.1 Mass nouns can only be pluralized by quantifiers. Nouns such as sugar, rice, and,
hair, information, and evidence.
Three sacks of sugar are heavy.

4. Some proper noun subjects that end in –s such as names of courses, diseases
places as well as book and film titles and the word news. Take singular verb (news,
politics, physics, physics, mathematics, mumps, measles).
Example;
Digos is in Davao del Sur. The news was not fake. Economics is my favorite
subject.
 Slippers Eyeglasses Trousers Earrings

Scissors Sunglasses Pants Pliers

The scissors are cute.

5.1 Verb is singular when used with the word “pair”
My pair of scissors is lost
6. Plural subject nouns such as a unit of measurement (distance, weight, time, or
amount of the money) that signal one unit should take a singular verb.

Four kilometers costs P200 for a taxi ride.

Five years was not issue when I waited for him.
Fifty thousand pesos has less value now.
7. Basic arithmetical operations ( add, subtract, multiply, divide ) take singular verbs.
Four times five equals twenty
8. The indefinite pronouns in Table below are always singular:
Indefinite Pronouns
- one words - body words - thing words - Other
Anyone Anybody Anything Each
Everyone Everybody Everything Every
Someone Somebody Something
No one Nobody Nothing
One

Example;
Anything is possible.
Nothing satisfies him.
9. Indefinite pronouns such as; None, All, Most, Any, Some, A lot of (NAMASA) can be
singular or plural.
Some of the boys are friends.
Some of the food taste strange.
10. With fractions, percentages and the quantifiers all (of) ,a lot of verb agreement
depends on the noun coming after these phrases.
One – haIf of information is relevant.
11.In pairing subject and verb regardless of prepositional phrases or clauses that are
sometimes placed in between the subject and verb.
The color of his eyes is blue. (The subject is color and not eyes.)
12 .The expression The number used as a subject takes a singular verb. The
expression ‘ a number used as a subject takes a plural verb.
Examples; The number of students coming is decreasing.
A number of students are taking the test.
13. With correlative subjects either… or or neither…nor. the verb agrees with the
closest subject.
Examples; Either Jake friends are cute.
Neither my friends nor Jake is eating there.
13.1 With either or neither as subject, use a singular verb.
Examples ; Either\ Neither of the boys was okay.
14. With there\here subjects. The verb is singular or plural or depending on whether
the noun phrase following the verb is singular or plural. There and here are never used
as subjects. When a sentence begins with there and here, you must look thoroughIy to
find the real subject.
Here come my friends.
There is one person in my heart.
15. When the subject joined by and refer to a single unit or is considered as one it
taking a singular verb.
Examples; Bread and butter is a common breakfast for Americans.
The secretary and treasurer is here.
15.1Compound subjects joined by ‘and’ referring to separate entities, should take a
plural verb.
Example; Minda and linda are my best friends.
The secretary and the treasurer are here.
16.Subject followed by intervening expression such as: in addition to, in company with,
together with, as well as,
etc, Should take verbs that agree with real subject.
Examples: The student, together with his classmates, studies the lessons well.
Froilan, together with Jen, has gone to Palawan.
17.Adjectives used as nouns are considered plural.
Example: The rich are popular
The needy are to be given shelter.
THE AGREEMENTS OF PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS
1. Person pronouns ( he, she, it, they, his, her, its, their) agree in gender and number
with the nouns they refer.
Example: Mr. Obeal disusses the topic to his student.
2. Two or more singular antecedents joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require a singular pronoun.
Example: Either Isabelle or Jake will deliver his piece tomorrow.
Neither the adviser nor the teacher will tackle his issue.
3. For collective nouns, the pronouns may be singular or plural according to whether the
nouns are taken as a unit or as individuals composing the whole. If the collective noun
is taken as a unit, the pronoun is singular. If the individuals are thought separatly, the
pronoun must be plural.
Example: The class donated its funds to Bantay Bata Founditon.
The class argued their issues among themselves.
4. Who, Whose, and Whom would refer to person(s).
Which would refer to animal(s). or thing(s).
What would refer to things only.

Examples: \ am one of the Students who fought against hunger.

5. When each, every, neither, someone, somebody, any one anybody, everyone,
everybody, on one are used as antecedents, the pronouns, referring to them are
singular. When the antecedent is either masculine of feminine, the pronoun must be
masculine.
Example: Everyone is required speak his mind.
Somebody forgot his manners at home.
6. When one antecedent is singular, the other is plural, make your pronoun agree with
he nearer antecedent.
Example: Neither the boys nor his classmate spoke of his concerns.
Either Jenny or the Reyeses will hold their political rally.
7. When two or more antecedent are joined by ‘and’ the pronoun must be plural.
Examples: Minda and Linda brought their A-games to the competition.

THE VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS

TENSE – refers to the absolute location of an event or action in time, either the present
or the past.
ASPECT- refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time, rather
than to its actual location in time.

PERFECT ASPECT
1. Present Perfect Tense
A situation that began at a prior point in time and continues into the present
She has been a school administrator since 2010.
I have loved him for five years now.
A very recently completed action ( often with just):
Lalli has just taken the test
I have just submitted my papers.
2. Past Perfect Tense
An action completed in the past prior to some other past event or time:
 Mom had already left the house before I turned the TV on
3. Future Perfect Tense
A future action that will be completed prior to a specific future time;
I will have finished all this work by tomorrow.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
1. Present Perfect Progressive Tense
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent o distant) and that continues up to
the present (and possibly into the future):
Helo has been going out with Adele.
She has been reading the signs.
2. Past Perfect Progressive tense
An action or habit taking place a period of time in the past prior to or
interrupted by some other past event or time.
Many people had been swimming when the sighted.
We had been planning to visit Cebu, but changed our minds after seeing a
photo of Sto. Tomasa. Davao del Norte.
3. Future Perfect progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the present and that will
continue into the future up until through a specific future time.
On Christmas Eve we will have been living in the same house for 10 years.

CONDITIONALS

A. ZERO CONDITIONLAS
This is used in describing situations that are always true or factual. This is
also termed REAL CONDITION.

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUES

 SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PRESEN
If you expose ice to sunlight. It maits.

B. This is used is speculating situations that are possible to happen at present time
In the future. This is also termed as UNREAL BUT LIKELY CONDITION.
IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

SIMPLE PRESENT WILL + BASE FORM

If you expose ice to sunlight. we will wake up late tomorrow.

C. SECOND CONDITIONALS
This is used in speculating situation that probably won’t happen ay present or in
the future. This is also termed as UNREAL AND UNLIKELY CONDITION.
IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

PAST PERFECT WOULD + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

If I had the chance to change things, I would have taken every possible
opportunity

FIGURE OF SPEECH
1. Simile is an expressed comparison between two similar things introduced by like,
as, as if, than, seems, or similar to. The things compared differ in most ways, but are
strikingly alike in some ways. Some examples are:
 Writing is like pulling the trigger of a gun if your not loaded, nothing happens.
 She sings as if mere speech had taken fire (yeats)
 The human mind should be like a good hotel – open the year round ( Phelps)
2. Metaphor is an implied comparison of unlike subjects without like or as.
 All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.
 God is my rock and fortress. ( psalm 31:3)
3. Personification is the figure of speech in which some human characteristic is
attributed to an inanimate thing.
 But love is blind and lovers cannot see what pretty follies they themselves
commit. (Shakespeare)
 Time as he grows oId teaches many lessons. (Aesop)
 Let the floods clap their hands. (Psalm 98:8)
4. Litotes is a deliberate understatement used to affirm by negating its opposite
  Edgar AIlan Poe is not a bad writer.
 We made a difference. We made the city stronger we made the city freer,
and we left her in good hands All in all.

5. Apostrophe is a address to the absent ass if present or the inanimate ass if human.
O Liberty! How many crime are committed in the name! (Madame Roland)
Oh! Stare and clouds and winds ye are all about to mock me if ye really
Pity me crush
Sensation and memory; Let me become as nought; but if not depart depart
And leave me in darkness. ; (Frankenstein by Mary Shelly)

6 .AIIUSION is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of

historical, cultural, literary or political significance. If does not describe in detail the
person or thing to which if refers.
 Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her
 She is definitely the Helen in our group.
7. Hyperbole is an exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis or poetic effect. If is an
overstatement without intention of deception. Used judiciously. It is very effective. This
figure of speech is often quite appropriate also for prose. As in humorous fiction.
 My eyes shed streams of tears. (psalm 119:136)
 I think of you a million times a day.
 When he told me the joke, I almost died laughing.
 There were mountains of food at the party.
8. Irony, in general, is a discrepancy or disparity between what seems and what is.
 It was very king of you to remind me of my humiliation.
 A fire station burns down.
9. Synecdoche is a figure of speech in the which the writer names a part when he
means the whole, or whole when he means only a part. The Following are examples.
 Your wheel is dope.
- Describing a complete vehicle as “ wheels”
 The resort’s entrance fee is only P1.00 per head.
- Referring to people by a particular body part
10. Metonymy is a figure of speech the replaces the name of a thing with the name of
something else with it is closely associated.
 The pen is mightier than the sword ( Pen refers to written words, and sword to
military force.)
 Let me give you a hand. ( hand means help)
11. Paradox is the presentation of true but seemingly contradictory ideas.
 On his fourth birthday, he will be a 16 years old
 The child is the father of the man.
12. Oxymoron is a compact paradox one in which two successive words apparently
contradict each other.
 The spy boarded the plane with studied carelessness.
 The pleasing plague stole me on ( William whitehead)
 Life is full of constant inconstancy.
13. Climax is the arrangement of words or ideas according to their degree of
importance thus the last set appears most valuable.
 I came, I saw, I conquered ( Julius Caesar)
 Look! It’s a bird!, It’s a plane! Its superman!
14. Anti- Climax is the apparent or ludicrous decrease in the importance or
Impressiveness of what is said. It is the opposite to a climax.
 She is a great writer, a mother and a good humorist
 He lost his family, his job, and his house plants.