in ∂

Solar Architecture
Strategies
Visions
Concepts

Christian Schittich (Ed.)

Edition Detail
in ∂ Solar Architecture
in ∂

Solar Architecture
Strategies · Visions · Concepts

Christian Schittich (Ed.)

Edition Detail – Institut für internationale

Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG
München

Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture

Basel · Boston · Berlin
Editor: Christian Schittich
Project manager: Andrea Wiegelmann
Editorial Services: Henning Bouterwek, Alexander Felix, Christina Kimmerle,
Julia Liese, Thomas Madlener, Christina Reinhard

Translation German/English: Peter Green (pp. 72–159),

Elizabeth Schwaiger (pp. 8–71, 160–175)
Drawings: Kathrin Draeger, Bettina Brecht, Daniel Gärtner, Norbert Graeser, Christiane
Haslberger, Olli Klein, Andrea Saiko, Andrea Sommer, Claudia Toepsch
DTP: Peter Gensmantel, Andrea Linke, Cornelia Kohn, Roswitha Siegler

This book is a cooperation between

DETAIL – Review of Architecture and
Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture

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from the Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA

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987654321
Contents

Toward Solar Architecture Administration Building in Würzburg

Christian Schittich 8 Webler + Geissler, Stuttgart 130
From Passive Utilization to Smart Solar Architec- Solar Factory in Brunswick
ture Banz + Riecks, Bochum 136
Manfred Hegger 12
Academy in Herne
Solar Technology – From Innovative Jourda Architects, Paris
Building Skin to Energy-Efficient Renovation Hegger Hegger Schleiff Architects, Kassel 142
Roland Krippner 26
Conversion of Reichstag Building into German
Solar Concepts for Building Bundestag in Berlin
Michael Kuehn, Dirk Mattner 38 Foster and Partners, London 148
Utilizing Daylight
Helmut F.O. Müller and Heide G. Schuster 56

Glossary 160
Bibliography 168
Architects 170
Projects 70 Authors 174
Passive-Energy Terraced Housing in Dornbirn Illustration credits 176
Johannes Kaufmann, Dornbirn 72
Housing Estate in Kolding
3xNielsen, ¹rhus
Lars Frank Nielsen, Kim Herforth Nielsen 78
Passive-Energy Terraced Housing in Ulm
Johannes Brucker, Stuttgart 82
Point Blocks in Innsbruck
Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau 88
Lawyer‘s Practice in Röthis
Reinhard Drexel, Hohenems 94
Sports Hall in Wängi
Fent Solar Architecture, Wil 98
Secondary School in Klaus
Dietrich I Untertrifaller, Bregenz 102
Conference and Exhibition Building
in Osnabrück
Herzog + Partner, München 108
Office Building in Solihull
Arup Associates, London 112
Administration Building in Recanati
MCA Mario Cucinella Architects, Bologna 118
Administration Building in Landquart
Bearth & Deplazes, Chur 124
Toward Solar Architecture
Christian Schittich

The energy potential, which the sun places at our disposal on configuration – a total energy concept – that makes the best
a daily basis, seems inexhaustible. The incident radiation on possible use of locally available natural resources such as
the landmasses of the earth alone is 3000 times greater than solar energy, wind and geothermal energy for a variety of
the worldwide demands. Yet we continue to meet these requirements. Passive and active measures complement one
demands almost exclusively with non-renewable energies another in this approach, from the orientation and division of
generated primarily from fossil fuels. The resultant environ- the building to the integration of systems for the generation
mental problems – air pollution, acid rain, greenhouse effect of warm water or power. Flexible envelopes, regulated by
and climate change – are only too well known. As if this intelligent control systems and capable of reacting to varying
weren’t bad enough, annual consumption is climbing dramat- influences and weather conditions are making increasingly
ically. For affluence is on the rise and some of the most popu- important contributions. It goes without saying that such a
lous countries of the world, such as China and India, are complex configuration calls for comprehensive interdiscipli-
about to adopt the extravagant lifestyle of the West. This will nary concepts, integrated planning, in other words, where
lead to nearly immeasurable ecological and political conse- all participating experts are involved at an early stage.
quences in the near future since the conventional energy
resources are finite and will soon be exhausted. The fight for But energy-conserving architecture cannot be limited to the
access to and control over these energy resources, first and operation of the buildings. It begins with urban planning and
foremost oil, will intensify even more. Seen from this perspec- includes consideration of the energy content of the employed
tive, a solar agenda is not only a sensible environmental materials as well as the material cycles. Production tech-
policy it is also a contribution to peace. It is high time, there- niques, transportation routes, assembly and the recyclability
fore, to finally adopt a new philosophy and to embark on the of building components are all included in the approach.
road towards sustainable development based on renewable Renewable and local building materials such as timber or
energy resources. Energy resources, in other words, that are clay are preferable over those, which can only be manufac-
directly or indirectly linked to the sun such as solar radiation, tured by consuming large amounts of energy (generated
wind- and hydro power generation or biomass. from fossil fuels). The latter also cause high levels of pollut-
Architecture and building play a key role in this context. For ant emissions in production and must be transported across
nearly half of all the energy consumed in Central Europe is great distances. Yet what are the concrete criteria, which
expended in the operation of buildings, that is, for heating, an architect can apply to evaluate materials? There is still
cooling and lighting. The last two factors, especially, were a scarcity of available information and the primary energy
neglected for a long time. When solar architecture gained in demand of building materials is still insufficiently evaluated
importance in the early 1970s as a result of the two oil crises, even in the case of solar architecture, although great strides
attention was initially focused entirely on avoiding heat loss, have recently been made in this area.
on utilizing solar energy to heat buildings in winter and to
heat domestic water. However, in office buildings especially, The environmental declaration of building products in Vorarl-
cooling is generally a far greater problem and a major factor berg (Austria), where the allocation of government subsidies
in energy consumption. Office buildings are subject to heat for residential construction is based on ecological criteria, is
gains caused not only by climate, but also by the heat radiat- a model worth emulating. A point catalogue is used to take
ing from occupants, equipment such as computers and mon- not only the heating requirements into consideration, but
itors, and above all by the use of artificial lighting. One need also the environmental compatibility of each individual build-
only consider that roughly three times the amount of energy ing material as well as the employment of renewable energy
is required to cool a room by one degree in comparison to sources. In Germany, by comparison, subsidies for residen-
heating the same space by one degree, to grasp the signifi- tial housing are currently dispersed on the basis of the princi-
cance of cooling with renewable energy resources and the ple of ‘equal shares for all’ and, as if that weren’t enough,
importance of natural lighting. Moreover, the comparison new building projects are given preference over rehabilita-
illustrates the degree to which the various factors are interde- tion projects. Ecologically speaking, the opposite approach
pendent: solar architecture cannot be reduced to isolated would be required. For the primary principle of resource con-
measures such as collectors or photovoltaic installations on servation is to utilize the most important available resource,
the roof. Rather, a building must be understood as a complex that is, buildings that already exist.

9
1.1
Support should also favour dense housing development over
the construction of single-family houses. Since neither
detached single-family houses, nor high-rises for that matter,
are capable of being truly ecological, these two building
tasks are not included in the examples featured in this
volume. In the case of single-family houses, land consump-
tion and the traffic-related energy required to provide access
tip the balance towards the negative. The high percentage of
heat-emitting and material-consuming exterior surfaces is
another unfavourable factor. High-rises, on the other hand,
are associated with comparatively large access areas, but
above all with a considerable increase in material consump-
tion for the load-bearing structure and the facade in order
to satisfy the structural requirements resulting from the high
own weight and the extreme wind forces. High-rise facades
are moreover almost exclusively realized with materials char-
acterized by a very high primary energy demand, such as
glass, steel and aluminium.

When DETAIL first published an issue on the topic of solar

architecture precisely one decade ago (in 1993), it was still
difficult to document convincing examples. It was all too rare
that technologically functioning measures were satisfactorily
1.2 integrated from a design perspective into mature architec-
tural concepts. And the few successful examples placed
excessive emphasis on the solar installations (as was the
case in the shading system on Norman Foster’s vocational
school in Fréjus in southern France) – in keeping with the
then dominant High-Tech architecture. (Fig. 1.2).

It was a time when every building that had anything at all to

do with energy conservation was profitably advertised as a
solar building. Much has changed in the meantime. There
are many more functioning and usefully integrated solar con-
cepts and individual measures, and they are rarely trum-
peted as unique achievements today. Many outstandingly
designed low-energy buildings are barely recognizable as
such from the outside. In office buildings, aspects such as
building component heating and cooling seem to have
almost become routine for many architects. But we are still
a long way from achieving our goals. The percentage of
renewable energy resources employed to operate buildings
is still far too low. There are still too few truly comprehensive
concepts, and the conflict between aesthetics and function
remains. It is still far too rare, for example, that collectors of
photovoltaic modules are usefully integrated into a compre-
hensive concept. They are all too frequently simply placed

10
any which way on top of conventional covered roofs. This is
not only unsatisfying from an aesthetic perspective, but also
with regard to costs and material consumption – if they were
designed as roof or facade panels, they could be part of the
building skin. Every now and then one cannot escape the
impression that some measures are merely employed to
salve someone’s conscience or to pocket subsidies. Espe-
cially when monstrous, energy- and resource-guzzling subur-
ban villas are topped by a collector. In the overall picture, the
use of renewable energy resources thus far fulfils little more
than the function of an alibi. Even if the Federal government
of Germany should achieve its ambitious goal of increasing
the percentage from 2.2 per cent to 4.2 per cent in 10 years,
this cannot negate the fact that the total energy demand con-
tinues to increase unabated and that solar energy resources
are essentially doing little more than covering surplus
demands. Bluntly put, this means that the total volume of
conventional energy consumption remains unchanged with
all the aforementioned consequences this entails.

If we do not succeed in bringing about a lasting change to

our wasteful lifestyle and drastically diminish energy con-
sumption, the only possible solution will be to rely overwhelm-
ingly on renewable energy resources in the near future. True
solar architecture, therefore, becomes a necessity. It will be
far more than simply a new style. Its principles will become
the basis for all building. It will change the face of architec-
ture. Integrating the technical and functional requirements of
solar architecture into an aesthetically satisfying comprehen-
sive concept presents both a challenge and an opportunity
for architecture. This book aims to make a contribution
towards achieving this goal.

1.1 Service centre tax offices Munich (2003), Bernhard Peck

Photovoltaic modules mounted on shading louvres
1.2 Vocational school, Fréjus, France (1993), Norman Foster
dramatic shading system
1.3 Administration building, Kronberg (2000), Schneider + Schumacher
Climate facade with double windows 1.3

11
From Passive Utilization to
Smart Solar Architecture
Manfred Hegger

Sustainability has become a dominant theme in the debate on mately also based on finite resources, are difficult to manage
architecture and building in recent years, although the mean- from a technological viewpoint and are linked to harmful side
ing of the term has been stretched to the extreme. Some effects. Perhaps the era of intensive fossil fuel use for our
interpretations embrace Berlin’s “stone architecture” as read- buildings will soon be seen as a phase. After all, why should
ily as experimental solar buildings. An EU commission is cur- we utilize solar energy stored in fossils to such an extent if we
rently at work to clarify this confusion.1 However, there is no can put it to use directly? It doesn’t interfere with the natural
disputing that the consideration of solar radiation and the global balance; on the contrary, it is the very foundation of
passive use of solar energy in buildings is a central charac- that balance. We are familiar with it as a source of light and
teristic of sustainable architecture. In other spheres of life, the energy. It would be short-sighted, however, to do no more
term sustainability always possessed a clear, unambiguous than revive old principles. “Back to nature” is a popular
meaning. slogan, but it isn’t very logical. We cannot build houses in the
same manner as before the start of the fossil age. The com-
Sustainable meant nourishing meals such as Grandma’s pea fortable and almost universally available supply of energy
soup, responsible forest management or solid buildings with has raised our expectations and demands considerably, and
a long lifespan. But a recent poll2 revealed much confusion: it is unlikely that we will give up this comfort in the future. No
only 10 per cent of citizens knew the meaning of the word – at doubt, architecture that makes use of the sun will be able to
least, somewhat. But nearly 90 per cent were in favour of a adopt some ancient principles of clever solar use in build-
concept, the meaning of which they cannot fully comprehend. ings. Conversely, in its role as intelligent architecture, it will
There seems to be a need for clarification. As a collective have to go beyond such principles in order to be accepted
term, the word sustainability, originally employed to describe and satisfy today’s demands. While passive use of solar
long-term forest management, is used to describe the correct energy was the only option available prior to the beginning
treatment of the environment. The UN commission, chaired by of the fossil age (if necessary, complemented by fire pits for
former Norwegian Prime Minister Brundtland, formulated a the combustion of renewable raw materials), fossil heating
succinct definition: “Sustainability is development, which sat- sources and the technologies derived from them allow for
isfies the needs of the current generations, without influencing active temperature control today, completely independent of
the opportunities of future generations.”3 This is relevant to conditions in the environment, and the form and materials of
building on many levels. On the one hand, in terms of its eco- our homes. The stages of first passive and then active energy
nomic importance – more than half of the entire investment supply in buildings are being overtaken by interactive or
capital in Germany is tied to the building sector –, and, on the smart building concepts, which adopt certain passive sys-
other hand, because it is the greatest factor in resource con- tems and complement them with intelligent components.
sumption. Even though the built environment is a long-term
asset in its own right, it produces more than half of all “waste,” Passive Use
recycling is still an underdeveloped aspect in construction. Passive use of solar radiation functions without the need for
technical systems. The building itself makes direct use of
Buildings account for roughly 40 per cent of the total energy solar energy by virtue of its placement, geometry, building
consumption in Germany, higher than transportation or indus- components and materials. This is the simplest and, at the
try.4 same time, the most effective form of solar architecture. The
Clearly, energy conservation and the intelligent utilization of building and its components are interpreted as a solar
incident solar radiation should play a role in a sustainable system. A carefully thought-out design can adapt a building
building. Fossil fuels, which are the foundation of our energy to the natural energy potential in order to utilize it efficiently.
supplies, particularly for heating our homes, are limited. The The clever selection of the site, placement, shape and orien-
annual discoveries of new deposits have been less than con- tation, deliberate window arrangement, considered selection
sumption for years, costs are rising, and the conflicts sur-
rounding access to the sources are unbearable. The
deleterious impact of fossil fuels on the environment is equally
2.1 Church Community Centre, Schwindkirchen (2001); arc Architects.
grave, since they are changing our global climate. Many An old stable is used as a climate buffer for the timber construction of
alternatives have proven deceptive because they are ulti- the vicarage.

13
 of materials and wall structures – these are the factors that
make it possible to absorb and store solar heat, to maintain
comfortable temperatures in a climate-conscious envelope
and to utilize light to the best effect. In paying attention to a
few simple rules, solar architecture is thus the most effective
and progressive form of gaining and conserving energy in
buildings. Heating demand is reduced, while the heating
season and the periods for supplementary heating are con-
siderably shorter. Building thus makes a considerable contri-
bution to environmental protection by reducing CO2
2.2 emissions; CO2-neutral building materials also contribute to
the reduction. Building and living with the sun also means
more comfort. Bright interiors flooded with light have measur-
able positive physiological and psychological effects on
human beings. Solar architecture, therefore, achieves more
than environmental protection and energy conservation. It
also increases comfort; sunshine penetrating deep into the
house enhances one’s sense of well-being just as much as
the higher surface temperatures of well-insulated exterior
walls. This is accompanied by an increased use of daylight,
which, in turn, reduces the energy demand for artificial light
while also having a positive effect on the users of such a
building.

A Brief History
Insolation has fundamentally influenced the location, orienta-
tion, shape, construction and material selection of buildings
since the beginning of architectural history. Together with
other climate characteristics, it determined the evolution of
house types and regional building styles. Socrates’ Megaron
House5 (470–399 BC) has archetypical characteristics of
solar architecture. The compact structure opens to the south.
The trapezoidal plan makes the most of this orientation and
simultaneously minimizes the northern surface turned away
from the sun. This is where the cool storage room is located,
functioning at the same time as a buffer zone to the living
area. Walls and ceilings/floors are massive and thus have a
high storage capacity. The roof overhang on the south side
provides shade when the sun is high in the sky in summer,
and allows the lower sun to penetrate into the building in
winter (Fig. 2.2). The house concept exemplifies essential,
timeless principles of solar architecture:
• minimizing of the surface (advantageous A/V-ratio),
• open towards to the sun,
• solar zoning – cool rooms on the north side, warm rooms on
the south side,
• selective shading, protection against high solar altitude in
summer,
• utilization of storage masses for temperature compensation

In the 19th century, new opportunities for solar architecture

arose with the evolution of cost-efficient production proc-
esses for large-area glazing. The early glass houses created
artificial exotic worlds, made possible through the green-
house effect of glass, which was used to transform ultraviolet
radiation into infrared thermal radiation and capture it behind
glass (Fig. 2.3).

In the early 20th century, transparency, light, air and sun

became the credo of the Modern. The artists and architects
of the Gläserne Kette propagated crystalline structures as
ideal models and designed environments that were an alter-
native to the dark and unhygienic cities that were caused by

14
 the industrial revolution. However, these ideas were only real-
ized in the Modern, although the glazed facades of that era
were often subject to considerable structural problems. At
the beginning of the 1930s – right in the middle of the misery
of the world economic crisis – an architecture evolved, which
anticipated the ideas of ecological building from the 1970s.
The Berlin competition for “Das wachsende Haus” inspired
house concepts that were large and autonomous in terms of
supply and passive-solar in design.6

The Third Reich brought an abrupt end to these first steps. It

would take forty years before the same ideas were taken fur-
ther, albeit under changed conditions: space travel (the cir-
cumnavigation of the earth by Gagarin in 1961, the first
manned flight to the moon in 1969) offered the first view of
the earth from beyond and emphasized both the uniqueness
and the vulnerability of our planet. The energy crisis (1973)
demonstrated our dependence on fossil fuels and the finite-
ness of these resources. The warnings about the limitations
of growth, issued by the Club of Rome and published for the
first time in 19727, were assuming the stark mantle of reality.
These were the conditions under which so-called ecological
building developed. Its topics were the return to traditional
building forms, the use of natural materials, renewable
energy resources and, in particular, solar energy. Ignored at
first by the architectural establishment, the movement
evolved into that of solar and, finally, sustainable building.
The intelligent use of solar radiation remained a constant in
this approach, regardless of the changes to other goals. The
following pages describe the characteristics that constitute
solar architecture. They all influence sustainability and
energy efficiency. However, paying attention to these constit-
uents to the exclusion of everything else, won’t take us any
further because overarching aspects of sustainability from
the areas of urban planning, transportation or other parame-
ters are ignored. The decision to not fulfil a particular criterion
may, therefore, be completely reasonable and can generally
be compensated with the help of other measures (e.g., com-
pensating a microclimatically unfavourable location with
better insulation, or the absence of wind protection with
2.3
better sealing).

Location and Microclimate

The energy requirement of a building is not only dependent
on its structural characteristics, but also, and to the same
extent, on its location and the local climate conditions. Natu-
rally, the global climate zones have the greatest impact:
typical temperatures per season and time of day, humidity,
insolation, wind velocities and directions. In addition, each
microclimate has its own typical characteristics determined
by topography, plants and groundcover, trees, location near
open bodies of water, etc. When selecting a building site,
one should therefore seek to locate the best possible micro-
climate. The position of the building on the site alone has an
influence on its energy balance.

2.2 Megaron House (circa 400 BC), Socrates. Opening towards the sun in
a cone shape and equipped with buffer rooms to the north, this is the
first design of a solar house.
2.3 Conservatory in Sefton Park, Liverpool (1896); Design and execution
by Mackenzie & Moncur.

15
 Topography
The topography has a decisive influence on the temperature
conditions of the site. Elevated locations generally mean
lower average temperatures. Conversely, low-lying locations
may be subject to cold fronts or cold-air corridors as well as
to ground fog, which result in temperatures that are consider-
ably lower than those in adjacent sites.

Cold-air pressure regions are characterized by low tempera-

ture means as a result of the prevailing temperature lows
at night; accordingly, energy requirements for heating are
higher in these locations. Cold-air pressure regions, where
no other means of influencing the microclimate is possible,
should therefore be avoided. They are recognizable, among
others, by adjacent fog fields, dew and hair-frost precipita-
tion, and frost damage on plants.

Favourable building positions and vegetation screens pre-

vent cold-air pressure near built structures and, thus, unnec-
essary heat losses. Cold-air influences can be deflected with
the help of measures such as embedding the building in the
earth, earth walls, hedges or neighbouring buildings. Slope
sites are characterized by pronounced differences in insola-
tion, depending on orientation, and, therefore, differences in
ground and surface air temperatures. The insolation condi-
tions for buildings on such sites are similarly different. It goes
without saying that south-facing slopes are warmest – south-
west slopes in winter, and south to south-east slopes in
summer.

Wind Protection
High average wind velocities lead to correspondingly high
transmission losses in the building. Sites that are sheltered
from the wind are preferable, therefore, or, if that isn’t possi-
ble, one should initiate wind protection measures. These may
take the form of plantings such as hedges and dense rows
of trees, planted facades or embankments. Hedges and tree
groupings block cold air streams and simultaneously redirect
them into desired channels. Sites that are naturally sheltered
2.4 from wind and active wind protection measures greatly
improve the site conditions for a building. Moreover, plants
near the building contribute to cooling the immediate sur-
roundings as a result of evaporation and transform carbon
dioxide into oxygen. When properly selected and located,
they also provide shade in summer. Evergreens shade the
building in winter because they reduce insolation in that
season. Deciduous trees, on the other hand, shed their
leaves in fall and allow the warming rays of the sun to pene-
trate into the building interior. Studies of identical buildings
at different sites demonstrate the impact of location on the
energy consumption of buildings. Based on a detached
single-family house in a standard location with 100 per cent
energy consumption, an identical building at different loca-
tions may have considerably higher or lower heating require-
ments.8

Form
Optimized, energy-conscious building forms take climate
concerns into consideration and respond to the microclimatic
particularities. Urban planning and other overarching factors
often make it impossible to achieve this ideal. However, in the
interest of getting as close to the ideal as possible, it is worth-
while to return to traditional local building forms and models

16
2.5 2.6

in nature in addition to scientific parameters. that offer good wind protection and insulation as well as
effective utilization of natural light and solar heat, are elabo-
Indigenous Building Forms as Models rate and expensive. In other words, economy and ecology
Traditional building types, which have been developed and are closely linked. One useful value in determining an opti-
improved over many centuries, are excellent indicators of mized building form is the so-called A/V-ratio, which
suitable building forms. Structurally, they are adapted to the expresses the relationship between the heat-radiating sur-
local economy and user requirements, and take the availabil- faces of a building (A) and its volume (V). A low A/V-ratio
ity of building materials and the regional climate conditions saves costs and energy. Following are some examples for
into consideration. Indigenous building forms have always clarification. A sphere has the best A/V-ratio. Since a sphere
responded to the last factor, and, upon closer examination, is not practical as a building form and poses problems for
usually in a very clever manner. Windy locations led to build- use (plan), the half-sphere comes closest to the ideal as a
ings lowered into the ground or with roofs that were pulled far building shape. An igloo, for example, utilizes an optimum
down toward the ground. In extremely cold regions, the heat- A/V-ratio and is particularly suitable for the climate conditions
radiating surfaces are kept to a minimum and the buildings in cold regions. As the volume of the compact forms
are correspondingly compact. Homes in moderate climate increases, the area decreases and the transmission heat loss
zones are oriented toward the sun and have, since early is diminished. Smaller volumes always have a less favourable
times, utilized the greenhouse effect of glazed areas via large A/V-ratio than larger volumes. Compact structures and den-
openings; trees and hedges are used to diminish heat loss sity, therefore, considerably reduce the cooling surfaces in
through wind and provide shade in summer (Figs. 2.4– 2.6). comparison to a detached, free-standing building. Large and
compact buildings are therefore preferable to small buildings
Bionics – Nature as a Model divided into compartments (Fig. 2.8). However, if the latter
Animals and plants in their many life forms adapt to the con- are necessary, the disadvantages of their geometry can be
ditions in the natural environment, in particular, to climate compensated with the help of improved insulation and aug-
conditions. What is a matter of survival for them can be an mented use of solar radiation. Once again, the aforemen-
important source of inspiration for architecture. Yet for a long tioned principle applies: there is little sense in adhering
time we simply did not have the structural and technological exclusively, and at all costs, to a climate-conscious building
expertise to apply such exemplary solutions to the discipline form as a criterion. A/V-optimized cubes alone do not create
of building. Today, we have gained the expertise: the formal truly habitable solar architecture.
repertory of architecture has expanded tremendously and the
resulting freedom can be usefully employed. Let’s look at an Embedding
example from an extreme climate zone: beneath their white, Embedding a building in the ground also diminishes heat
translucent fur, polar bears have black skin. The hair of the losses, since the ground is far less susceptible to tempera-
fur guides the solar rays to the black skin, which is warmed ture fluctuation and dampens the impact of the changing
by them. But the fur does not only transport sun to the body, external climate. Buildings that are earth-sheltered on the
it also acts as an insulating layer. north side and oriented toward the sun can offer a comforta-
ble indoor climate.
A/V-ratio
In buildings, too, the correct design of the surfaces can be
used to gain energy and to preserve heat. This is particularly 2.4 Traditional Faroe Island house. A tarred wood construction on a base
important in regions, where internal temperatures are higher of local basaltic rock and covered in a lush grass roof. In addition to
wind and storm protection, the south or south-west orientation, chosen
than external temperatures for most of the year, for example, to utilize the insolation, is a key characteristic.
in Central Europe. The logical solution is to minimize surfaces 2.5 Earth-sheltered housing in Shaanxi/China. The effect of balancing tem-
in order to keep undesired transmission heat losses as low as peratures in a region with extreme climate fluctuations is remarkable:
in winter, the indoor climate is 10 °C warmer, and in summer 10 °C
possible.
cooler, than on the outside.
2.6 Mountain village in Ticino, Switzerland. The stone houses are covered
However, minimizing losses is not the only issue: surfaces with stone shingles and built into the slope without mortar.

17
 90 70 50 30 0° 30 50 70 90 Orientation and Insolation
90 90 In the early stages of solar architecture, orientation to the
65%
90% sun was seen as an unalterable law. In moderate climate
70%
95% zones, such as Central Europe, this naturally meant com-
70 75% 70
100% plete or partial southern orientation. In hot regions, on the
80%
85% other hand, protection from the sun is an important factor.
However, this rule is too one-dimensional and limits the
50 50
possibilities of urban planning and spatial articulation. Tech-
nical advances in building today permit considerable solar
30 30
gains for other orientations as well. High insulation standards
10 0° 10
in combination with constantly high internal loads (artificial
lighting, equipment, number of occupants) may suggest
Recommended area orientation
Maximum annual insolation 1055 kWh/m2 the opposite choice; that is, turning away from the sun in
order to avoid additional solar gains. The decision must
2.7
be made for each individual case, in particular for building
types with high internal loads (e.g., offices with high occu-
pancy rates, laboratories). Orientation to the sun, daylight
penetration and shading should also always be evaluated
in advance for urban projects. Simple solar altitude dia-
grams are classic assessment tools, although CAD pro-
grammes and specialized CAD tools are more commonly
used to today to gather reliable data as well as static and
moving images.

Shading from neighbouring buildings, vegetation and topog-

raphy must all be taken into consideration. Once again: in
moderate or northern latitudes, (e.g. Europe), southern orien-
tation – especially of the principal rooms in apartments and
homes – can be advantageous. It allows sunshine to pene-
96% 98% 100% 112%
trate into the interior, even in denser developments and in
winter, and contributes high solar gains. Moreover, it is easier
to provide sun protection for southern exposure than for east
or west orientation; the steeper angle of incidence of solar
100%
radiation results in a higher degree of reflection on the exter-
nal surface of the glazing. Shading systems and daylighting
are more readily harmonized, again due to the steeper angle
133% of incidence. In the warm season, east- and west-facing
openings lead to high solar gains because the shallow
angles allow sun to penetrate the glazing. In this case, effec-
142%
tive shading will come at the price of diminished daylight
incidence – unless complex shading systems are used. In
winter, on the other hand, solar gains are lower in compari-
200%
son to south orientation. Nevertheless, greater compactness
2.8
and improved insulation qualities, for example, are increas-
ingly contributing to good results even for west orientation,
in some cases achieving a passive building quality. North
orientation is ideal for uses with low heating requirements or
2.9
high internal loads. It is worth remembering, that high-grade
a 1:1
glazing can produce an energy surplus even in the case of
complete north orientation.
b 1:16
Zoning
The zoning of a building is based on the premise that rooms
have different quality requirements with regard to their use
and indoor climate. This is especially relevant to housing.
c 1:2
Temperature requirements for living rooms and work areas
are fundamentally different than those for bedrooms and
auxiliary rooms. For other building types, thermal differen-
tiation according to use is equally helpful: for example,
between work and recreation rooms, office and production/
1 Climate zone
d 1:3 manufacturing spaces, or exhibition and storage/warehouse
2 Height/
width ratio spaces. In cases where various requirements are given, it is
3 Orientation 1 2 3 useful to divide the building into zones according to their

18
uses. The classic zoning approach divides the spatial struc-
ture into concentric layers, like an onion.
Rooms that are constantly occupied and, therefore, warm are
located at the core, while cooler and less frequently used
rooms lie along the periphery. However, this concept does
not make allowances for the effect of solar radiation. Solar
zoning, by contrast, begins by orienting the building to the
south. Core rooms with the greatest heat requirements face in
that direction and utilize the solar radiation. They are sur-
rounded on the three remaining sides by rooms with lower
thermal requirements. This ideal spatial arrangement is gen-
erally not feasible, however. The solution lies in linear zoning,
where rooms are generally arranged in rows: the prime rooms
with higher heat requirements face south, the less important
rooms are located on the north side. A circulation and distri-
bution zone is frequently placed between these rows. Addi-
tions for temporary uses or buffer zones can complement this
structure to the south and to the north. Structured zoning
makes sense not only from the perspective of energy effi-
ciency: it introduces order into the various functions, clarifies
the building structure, and facilitates efficient building use
and operation. Zoning creates orders – an essential condition
for the evolution of architecture.

Building Skin
The building skin provides weather protection, creates com-
fort in the interior, allows daylight to fall into the building and
allows for visual contact with the outside. The utilization of
solar energy further expands the already complex functional
spectrum of the envelope. The interface between interior and
exterior must be understood as a dynamic system, which
responds to the permanent variability in external radiation, cli-
mate conditions and internal requirements. Simple rules such
as ensuring excellent quality in insulation are by no means
nullified as a result, they are, however, placed into a larger
context.

Insulation and Wind Protection

The good insulation quality of a building skin is essential for
the passive use of solar energy. There is little sense in captur-
ing solar radiation if it cannot be effectively stored in the inte-
rior. Efficient insulation of the building skin is usually created
with the help of building components with a high insulating
capacity: in the opaque facade areas, these are insulating
materials or insulating components, in the transparent areas,
these are high-grade glazing, transparent insulating materials
or multi-layered facades. Thermal bridges must be reliably
avoided through careful planning. Modern energy simulation
systems or programmes for the calculation of the EnEV
(German Energy Savings Regulation)9 assist the architect in
identifying and removing any thermal bridges. High insulating
values can be achieved in opaque building components with
corresponding superstructures. The costs lie less in the mate-
rials than in the installation effort. In choosing the insulation
thickness, it is essential to take the installation requirements

2.7 Solar altitude diagram and recommended orientation

2.8 Changes in heating demands of a building for different surface areas
but identical volume
2.9 Influence of climate on building form and orientation, and efficient
placement of thermal storage masses

19
 and the architectural appearance into account. The extreme
thickness of insulating layers for passive houses, for exam-
ple, is a particular challenge for architects. Vacuum insula-
tion, originally developed for refrigerators and subsequently
employed for space travel, are an innovation in the field of
building. They can achieve an extraordinarily high quality of
insulation with only a few centimetres of insulating layer.
However, the installation problems, especially the treatment
of butt joints, are largely unresolved, particularly for vertical
installation. Insulation is ineffective without proper wind pro-
tection. To control unwanted ventilation heat losses, in addi-
tion to the transmission heat losses, the building skin must be
designed to be airtight according to code; the effectiveness
can only be tested empirically by means of blower-door-
2.10 tests. Recent studies and design, however, have demon-
strated that other means may be equally effective in creating
facades with high energy-efficient qualities. The prerequisite
is that the building skin is no longer interpreted as a static
system, but as a dynamic envelope that reads and computes
the conditions in the environment. This so-called cybernetic
interpretation leads to completely new solutions, which make
such efficient use of insolation either directly or through inter-
mediate storage in building components, that this kind of
truly interactive system is capable of largely replacing (tradi-
tional) insulation. The first buildings are already in operation
and the dynamic simulations are promising.10 To what extent
these solutions will succeed in the everyday environment is
still unanswered, however.

Openings
2.11 The openings of a house offer the greatest opportunities and,
at the same time, pose the greatest risks for passive solar
use. Given appropriate dimensions, arrangement, orientation
and execution, they can make a considerable contribution
today to the energy supply of a building and the comfort of its
users. Conversely, they are a source of considerable heat
loss, cooling or overheating – all factors in diminished indoor
comfort. The calculations of the EnEV suggest that the ratio of
window openings to wall area should not be too great when
glazing of average quality is used, and should not exceed 45
per cent of the total building surface when standard glazing
is employed. If this percentage is surpassed, a better quality
of glazing should be used to diminish heat loss in winter. To
gain energy through transparent openings, one needs to
select glazing with excellent insulating values and good light
and thermal transmission values. Glazing facing the sun,
where the radiation is captured in the interior through the
well-documented greenhouse effect – UV-radiation is trans-
formed into IR thermal radiation as it passes through the
glazing and falls onto surfaces – is more or less efficient,
depending on the type. Frames are a weak point in window
construction. The insulating qualities of frames are generally
lower than those of the glazing – despite profiles with thermal
separation and other specialized construction characteris-
tics. Window frames with good insulation values are elabo-
rate in design and can often appear cumbersome – much
work remains to be done in this area. One alternative is to do
without frames altogether, as long as this approach is com-
patible with the structural and ventilation concept and with
the use of the building: fairly large window formats combined
with few openable elements arranged in an optimal fashion
for ventilation. An often-overlooked option is the selection of
suitable doors, and for this reason, doors are often weak

20
 points in terms of energy efficiency. Poorly insulated doors
opening to the outside or onto unheated rooms also warp as
a result of the contrast in temperatures to which the two sides
are exposed – they no longer close properly and mechanical
problems are the consequence. A windscreen can solve the
problem, provided it is possible and desirable in terms of the
available space. The requirements for openings are not
static. As the interface between indoor and outdoor climate
they should be able to take in or repel light, air and energy,
depending on exterior conditions and internal requirements.
The flexible building skin, capable of adapting to changing
conditions and requirements, is therefore the focus of archi-
tectural development.

Glazed Buffer Zones – Winter gardens

Glazed buffer zones or winter gardens make sense from the
perspective of energy efficiency if they are unheated and are
not intended for everyday use. When used as intermediate
temperature zones or simple warm-air collectors, the pre-
warmed air in this area can be distributed throughout the
building with the help of gravitational ventilation or mechani-
cal systems. The alternating effects between interior and
exterior in different weather conditions are very attractive, not
only in residential construction. Roof glazing plays an impor-
tant role in how we experience a space; in terms of energy
efficiency, however, it poses disadvantages such as rapid
cooling at night and overheating when the sun is high in the
sky in summer. The spatial qualities of such buffer zones can
tempt one to transform them after the fact into an additional
living space that has to be heated. This is in conflict with the
function of buffer zones, however, because the large glazed
surfaces and the low glazing qualities (preferable single glaz-
ing) nullify any energy-related advantage created at the
outset. Sliding balcony doors can achieve similar effects as a
winter garden. This type of temporary winter garden is espe-
cially popular in Scandinavian countries.

Transparent Insulating Materials (TIM)

The expression transparent insulating materials is a misno-
2.12 mer because the insulation is generally translucent, rather
than transparent. It is available in a variety of materials – as
translucent materials, embedded between glass panes, or as
light-transporting and diffracting synthetics integrated into
equally translucent rendering, the so-called aero gels, which
are quasi homogeneous in structure and available in the form
of lamina or beads (Fig. 2.10, 2.11). Transparent insulating
materials are installed on an absorbent external wall; the wall
heats up as a result of the sunlight that is allowed to pass
through the materials. With the appropriate structural design,
these materials become, in effect, a solar wall heating
system, especially in winter and in the transitional seasons
(Fig. 2.15).

If the wall has good thermal storage capacity, comfort can be

maintained even on cold nights and overcast days. In
summer, on the other hand, the TIM must be effectively

2.10 Aerogel granules

2.11 Aerogel granules; Aerogels (Basogel ®)
2.12 Technical College, Kufstein (2000), Henke and Schreieck. Daylighting
in classroom with PC workstations; shading via louvred blinds in the
double facade.

21
 shaded to avoid overheating. This increases the effort and
makes the entire system more prone to repairs. TIM can also
be employed in the form of light-scattering glass, particularly
in skylights. This ensures that light is evenly distributed in the
interior, which can be advantageous especially in workshops
or exhibition spaces with great room depths. It is important to
note that TIM embedded into glazing generally results in a far
greater installation depth and higher costs than with spec-
trally selective, or gas-filled windows. Fritted, sand-blasted or
printed glazing with comparable light-scattering effect are
more common.

Storage Masses
Storage masses stabilize the temperature inside the building
despite fluctuations in the outdoor climate, insolation and
internal heat sources. They maintain a constant indoor cli-
mate and can thus contribute toward the efficient use of
energy.

Massive Storage Components

The solar utilization of massive building components, or com-
ponents with good storage capacity, is both simple and effi-
cient. Thermal storage capacity is facilitated by a large
surface, the high thermal capacity of the material and direct
insolation. Exposed massive building components such as
walls and ceilings have these characteristics. Hollow floors
and suspended ceilings, on the other hand, reduce the stor-
age capacity considerably, and solar energy can then be uti-
lized only to a limited extent, for when there is no stabilizing
effect, indoor temperatures rise during the warm season and
active systems for cooling are required. Liquid storage com-
2.13 ponents can be used instead; they have the advantage, for
example, when water is used as the storage medium, of pro-
viding a much higher storage capacity per unit of volume.
Large liquid storage can be used as long-term storage units
(seasonal storage) and the solar energy stored in summer is
then used for heating in winter (cf. pp. 43ff). However, this
requires very large storage volumes, roughly 50 m3 for a sin-
gle-family house. Consequently liquid storage units are eco-
nomically efficient when they are used for larger applications,
in particular, for solar district heating in housing develop-
ments. Several pilot projects are in operation; they all employ
large underground storage units, where the A/V-ratio is much
better than in smaller units attached to a house.11 Liquid stor-
age units always require additional active components, like
pumps, to integrate them into the heating system. The same
is true for so-called energy piles. In this application, the high
storage capacity of the foundation concrete is utilized in
combination with the relatively stable temperatures in the soil
to store solar heat in summer and utilize it in winter via heat
pumps. Conversely, the low temperature in the soil can be
used to cool the building in summer.

Latent Thermal Storage

Latent thermal storage utilizes phase transition in materials –
predominantly from liquid to solid state – for material-efficient
thermal storage with a correspondingly high storage capac-
ity. When heat is stored the material begins to melt but does
not increase in temperature until it is completely melted.
Because no noticeable temperature increase occurs despite
the heat transfer, the heat that is stored during phase transi-
tion is also referred to being “hidden” or latent. Paraffin is a
possible storage medium: its thermal capacity is ten times

22
 higher than concrete. A 3-cm-thick dry wall with paraffin
1 2 additive achieves the same storage capacity as a 40-cm-
thick concrete wall. When it is integrated into glazing, paraffin
can be very attractive. The interaction with the outside world
is experienced in the interior through the brightness of the
wall. In summer, it appears opaque in the interior. In winter,
it brightens on sunny days because the paraffin has melted.
When the weather turns cold, it is once again obscured
because the paraffin freezes as it releases energy to the
interior.12
3
On the Road to Smart Solar Architecture
The last example is the first step on the road toward interac-
1 Exterior
2 Interior tive comprehensive systems. Additional approaches and
3 Prismatic glass technologies are currently in development and even in use
2.14 (cf. pp. 38ff, pp. 56ff).

• Ground Ducts for Pre-warming and Cooling:

Earth ducts utilize the constant temperature levels in the soil.
As heat exchangers they are located in the frost-free layer.
As it passes through the length of the duct, suctioned in fresh
air is pre-warmed to the soil temperature (approx. 8°C all
year long). During the cold season, the earth duct pre-heats
the supply air required for the building, and cools the air in
summer.

• Adiabatic Cooling:
Adiabatic cooling functions according to the fountain princi-
ple that was used in antiquity. As water evaporates, it humidi-
fies the surrounding air and cools it by a few degrees.
Although this process has physical limitations, free adiabatic
cooling and its atmospheric qualities can greatly contribute
to the comfort of users. The disadvantage of the increase in
relative humidity combined with decreased temperature can
be regulated in mechanical ventilation systems with the help
of a heat exchanger.

• Free Night Cooling:

Free cooling is no more and no less than window or gap ven-
tilation. Combined with thermal storage masses, however, it
can be very effective in balancing summer temperatures:
heat stored in building components over the course of a day,
thereby preventing temperature peaks, can be released at
night through open windows or gaps. The dimension and
construction of these openings is designed to prevent break-
ins, to keep insects out and to avoid excessive air velocities.
They can be controlled manually or mechanically. By the time
morning arrives, even well-insulated volumes are effectively
cooled by this means.

• Light-directing elements:
Light-directing elements guide daylight deep into rooms and
reduce the need for artificial light. They come in the form of
reflecting louvres or light shelves, light-scattering panes,
light-deflecting prisms or holographic-optical elements. They
should be designed to optimize daylight supply by means of

2.13 Residential building, Argau (1997), Theresia Schreiber. Exterior wall

with cardboard honeycomb insulation behind a single layer of tough-
ened glass to dynamically improve the U-value.
2.15 Residential building, Ebnat-Kappel (2000), Dietrich Schwarz. Sche-
matic section of wall construction with paraffin latent storage.

23
 minimized cross-sections, without greatly increasing heat
loads as a result of incident sun.

• Switchable Glass:
Glass technology is progressing at a rapid pace. Switchable
glass is of particular interest in the area of building. They are
charged with current or injected with gases and transformed
into various states, for example, from transparent to translu-
cent. Depending on the incident light or temperature, they
may even change automatically and thus, for example, pro-
vide shading. This type of glass is very complex; but it will no
doubt be introduced in practice in the coming years.

• Switchable Film/Film Cushions:

New types of synthetic materials offer light-weight solutions.
ETFE-film results in very light building components, usually in
the form of dimensionally stable pneumatic cushions. Printed
inserted layers and evacuating the air from interstitial layers
are used to create facades, which can respond to tempera-
tures, light incidence and user requirements.

• Vacuum Insulating Panels:

Until now, the so-called “VIPs” were primarily used for refrig-
erating appliances. They function in accordance with the
principle of a thermos. They consist of insulating materials,
for example, compacted silicic acid, which are vacuum pack-
aged in a plastic film. Two-cm-thick panels insulate as effi-
ciently as 20 cm of mineral fibre. This opens up new design
possibilities both for renovations and for new constructions:
the thickness of wall- and roof structures can be drastically
reduced.

These and many other developments combine what are usu-

ally referred to as passive elements with active components,
which are generally independently “intelligent.” They are
smart, meaning they are able to react to changing climate
conditions and fluctuations in solar radiation. This increases
their material and energy efficiency. And this will be the path
to sustainable, energy-efficient solar architecture. It begins
with passive solar use, is easy to implement and is reliable
and efficient thanks to materials, which respond appropri-
ately to solar radiation – smart materials. It is controllable
through intelligent, self-regulating control technologies –
smart control. Finally, it combines passive and active solar
systems: direct, passive utilization of solar energy will create
synergies with active utilization of solar radiation. Keywords
in this field are hybrid solar systems, micro-climatic building
skins and self-regulating facades. The development of smart
solar architecture will give rise to new technologies, and to an
eagerly anticipated new architecture.

24
Notes on the initiative of the Club of Rome and is based on the model of
1 At the beginning of 2003, the European Union created the international “dynamic of complex systems” in a homogeneous world. The report
commission on “Sustainable Construction Methods and Technologies takes into consideration the interactions between population density,
(SCMT)” under the auspices of the Architects Council of Europe (ACE) food resources, energy, material and capital, environmental destruc-
with the goal of studying the theme of sustainability in building for tion, land use, etc. www.clubofrome.org
future legislation. 8 Heating demand according to location: in cold-air pressure regions
2 Lotter, Wolf (Text); Kimmerle, Julia (Timeline); Kochs, Monika (Draw- 125 per cent; in shaded, densely wooded areas 110 per cent, in
ings). “Trägheit. Ein kompakter Überblick über unverstandene Worte exposed, elevated locations 110 per cent, in wind-sheltered flat loca-
wie Nachhaltigkeit, Grüne, Gentechnik und Inertia, übersetzt: tions 85 per cent, in exposed south-facing locations on a slope 85 per
Trägheit.” brand eins, 9/2002 cent, in wind-sheltered, sunny south orientations 60-70 per cent. From:
3 The UN-expert commission chaired by former Norwegian prime minis- Sabady, Biologischer Sonnenhausbau, 1980
ter Gro Harlem Brundtland formulated the principal thesis, the so- 9 The Energy Savings Regulation (EnEV) was enacted as law on Febru-
called Brundtland formula: “Sustainability is development that meets ary 1, 2002, in Germany. It amalgamates the previous heat protection
the needs of the current generation without influencing the opportuni- and heating system regulations and applies to all heated buildings,
ties of future generations.” brand eins, 9/2002 including existing buildings; the energy savings potential mentioned
4 Federal German Statistics Agency www.destatis.de here is expressly noted in the new regulation. www.bmvbw.de
5 Circa 400 AD, Socrates called for cone-shaped, south-facing solar 10 Pfeifer, Günter: “Vernetzte Systeme” and “Das kybernetische Prinzip.”
houses and designed the archetype of a passive house, the Megaron Der Architekt, 11/2002
House. 11 For example, the solar housing development in Hanover Kronsberg, or
6 Wagner, Martin. “Das wachsende Haus: Ein Beitrag zur Lösung der the urban district Wiggenhausen-South in Friedrichshafen.
städtischen Wohnungsfrage.” Leipzig, 1932 12 The melting temperature of paraffin is dependent on the number of its
7 The report “Limits to Growth” was published in 1972. It was compiled atoms; special paraffins can melt and freeze at room temperature.

2.15 Studio, Munich (1994), Thomas Herzog. First construction of facade

structure with aerogel granules.

2.15

25
Solar Technology – From Innovative Building Skin to
Energy-Efficient Renovation
Roland Krippner

The first solar collectors were installed on rooftops in the ion between experts and laypeople, and second, the view
mid-1970s, followed nearly a decade later by the first that architectural quality is simply a matter of aesthetics.
integrated photovoltaic system. Now that the initial prob- It is true that the rigour of a solution, including the appropri-
lems, such as system glitches and economic hurdles, ateness of the means and the logic of the expression, is
have been overcome, active solar technology has gained strongly defined by aesthetic criteria both in terms of its
a solid position in the construction market. Indeed, it is a integration into the urban context and the building concept
routine component of many building concepts, and not itself, but limiting quality in architecture to these criteria
only of those with innovative energy strategies. In the field is simply too restrictive. This is because architecture is
of solar architecture, the so-called indirect systems play closely linked to utility and stability, and is determined by
a special role. The collector installations and photovoltaic functional and structural characteristics of quality as well.
modules integrated into the building skin are far more Defining these characteristics is difficult enough owing to
present, visually speaking, than direct measures such as the wide range of requirements and poorly defined criteria.
compactness, high-performance glazing, intelligent insula- The question of aesthetic quality – of what makes a build-
tion or efficient building systems. In addition to the func- ing beautiful and conclusive in terms of spatiality, scale,
tional tasks – heating domestic water, complementary proportion, colour and surface treatment – poses an even
space heating and power generation – the introduction greater challenge because the criteria on which assess-
of these components also translates into a considerable ment is based in this instance are even less definitive due
semantic expansion of the technological repertory of to different depths of knowledge and personal preferences.
building. The use of solar technology places new demands on the
A key characteristic of integrated solar technology is the complex construct of the envelope – for example, to act
visible installation of the components on roofs or facades, as an information carrier between climate modulator and
which function as the required interfaces between solar media screen. This does not mean, however, that estab-
radiation and the building system. It is the building skin lished modes of evaluation have become superfluous. Ulti-
that allows us to experience architecture and architectural mately, architectural quality can only flourish through the
design in the public space – in the street, square or urban interplay and interaction of architectonic categories in the
quarter. The question arises, however, whether and to what Vitruvian sense.
extent, solar systems engender novel building solutions,
and what their contribution might be to the cultural quality Intelligent Building Skins
of architecture. In the context of re-defining the building skin, that is to say,
its transition from monofunctional protective roles to poly-
The Search for Quality in Architecture valent control functions, much ado is made of synergetic
The lack of quality in architecture has been noted for some effects, and the expression “intelligent building skin” is fre-
time, both professionally and politically. If German architec- quently mentioned. If “responding to new situations with
tural culture seems to suffer from neglect in general, what is problem-solving behaviour”2 constitutes a criterion of intel-
the status of so-called solar architecture in particular? Even ligence, then the technological advances and new facade
after nearly three decades of intensive focus in this field, elements can justifiably be referred to as exhibiting “intelli-
solar architecture – as pars pro toto of architecture in gen- gent behaviour.”
eral – continues to reflect a certain “randomness and lack In addition to a multitude of window systems for the direct
of style”1 and ‘solar’ buildings are criticized for their lack of utilization of solar energy, including natural ventilation,
architectural quality. On the one hand, many architects still so-called manipulators for shading and heat protection,
refuse to address the topic and leave the issue in the hands and daylight deflection, solar components play an impor-
of engineers and builders; on the other hand, it seems even
more difficult to define what constitutes quality given the
complexity of the requirements and the abundance of
system choices.
3.1 Archeological Museum, Herne (2003), by von Busse Klapp Brüning.
When we take a look at quality in architecture, two phenom- The rooftop photovoltaic system feeds 100 kW/h into the municipal
ena are immediately apparent: first, the difference in opin- power grid of Herne.

27
 tant role in intelligent or innovative building skins. The
technology they introduce (and their link to an electronic
network system), enables the facade and the roof to
respond flexibly to changing external conditions. The
result is a lasting effect on essential room or building char-
acteristics, in other words, on user comfort.3 The product
spectrum is vast and the rate of innovation truly stunning;
photovoltaics are gaining in importance as power genera-
tors for the necessary control technologies and as manipu-
lators suitable for many applications. Technology is vital
for creating architecture that is both physically and aes-
thetically satisfying, and for establishing a more humane
and intelligent approach to building.4
But intelligent building is not necessarily just a matter of
technical systems. The tremendous variety in regional
approaches to building exemplifies what intelligent, that is,
efficient, use of material and energy can be, because they
combine rational thinking and craftsmanship with conclu-
sive forms of expression. More technology is, clearly, not
the only answer. Avoiding unnecessary technology, espe-
cially when it becomes an end in itself, can be just as
innovative and intelligent.

Solar Technology

The technical and economic potential of solar technology

is continually being questioned. Recently, however, the
systems have improved tremendously. The amortization
periods for the investment costs have diminished consid-
erably in some cases, even when primary energy is taken
into account. Nevertheless, the original principle still applies:
collectors and photovoltaic installations can only make a
3.2
noticeable contribution toward replacing fossil fuels and
1 reducing CO2 emissions if the direct measures – the basic
strategies relating to the building’s energy consumption
and indoor climate and above all the building skin – are
extensively utilized. This can lead to concepts for energy
surplus buildings, which generate more energy per year
4
than they consume.
2 2
A fundamental differentiation is made between two differ-
ent types of indirect utilization of solar energy: thermal use
of solar energy and photovoltaics (PV). In thermal use of
solar energy, collectors transform solar radiation into heat,
whereas PV-cells generate power out of solar radiation.
1 Collector
2 Solar cycle 3 The energy yield of these systems is influenced by condi-
3 Storage tanks tions at the site and can vary greatly depending on geo-
4 Warm water graphical location.5 The energy yield is also determined
3.3
by the incline and orientation of the installed components,
although these factors influence thermal solar and photo-
1 voltaic systems to varying degrees. When collectors are
employed, the placement is also influenced by the use
2 to which they are put. Thus, installations designed for
heating domestic water should be oriented toward the
higher solar altitude in the summer season, while installa-
tions for supplementary space heating should target the
lower solar altitude in winter. South-facing collectors
4 3 should therefore be installed on a shallow incline of 20°
1 Solar generator on for domestic water systems and a steeper incline of 60°
mounting should be used for systems designed to supplement
2 Connection solar gen- space heating. Rigid PV-generators with southern orien-
erator 4
tation achieve the greatest annual yield in Germany when
3 Direct current
4 Consumer circuit they are installed at a 30° angle to the horizontal plane.
(alternating current) In simplified terms, a south-east/south-west orientation

28
 and roof incline up to 45° yields optimum results with
only negligible deviations; conversely, insolation is drasti-
cally reduced on vertical facade surfaces.6

Solar Systems for Thermal Use

Air- and warm-water collectors (flat plate and evacuated
tube collectors) are chiefly used to preheat supply air, to
heat domestic water and to supplement other heating
systems.
Flat plate collectors generally consist of a solid metal
absorber set into a rectangular frame. The absorber is
covered by a glass pane on top, is insulated on the under-
side and is equipped with lateral connections to the heat
carrier medium. By its very function, that of absorbing
energy, it is the most important component of a collector:
its absorptive and emissive power determines the collector’s
efficiency. Simple, black coatings are rarely used today
and have been largely replaced by more efficient solutions.
New, highly selective absorber coatings, which deliver a
high ratio of absorptance (95 per cent) and drastically
reduce reflectance in the infrared region of the spectrum,
further increase the annual energy yield. Moreover, changes
to the surface structure can be used to create coatings
ranging from blue-black to blue-grey instead of the previ-
ously monotonous black coatings, thereby expanding the
design options.
In evacuated tube collectors, glass tubes with built-in
absorbers are bundled in a collecting pipe. The glass
tubes serve simultaneously as a transparent cover and a
housing. Since heat losses are virtually eliminated as a
result of the vacuum in the individual tubes, operating
3.4 temperatures of up to 120°C can be achieved. However,
the increased performance of evacuated tube collectors
(up to one third higher) is linked to a doubling of costs.
Evacuated tube collectors are manufactured in a variety
of system designs, although most are “open systems”,
meaning they do not form a water-bearing layer and must
therefore be mounted on roof supports or suspended in
front of the facade. In the meantime, first attempts have
been made towards integrated installations, which make
evacuated tube collectors a more interesting option for
facade applications as well, although the additional
effort required for insulation must be taken into consid-
eration.
Collector systems for water heating are generally sized to
deliver roughly 50 to 80 per cent of the average annual
requirement; while nearly 100 per cent coverage can be
achieved in summer, the output dips to approximately 50
to 60 per cent in winter as a result of heat losses and dimin-
ished insolation. For single-family and duplex houses, the
standard calculation is based on 1.2 to 1.5 m2 flat plate
collector area and a storage volume of 80 to 100 litres per
person.
Standard solar systems designed to supplement the heating
requirements, called combination systems, are sized
according to the heating load. A rule of thumb, roughly 1 m2
of collector area per kW, results in common system dimen-
sions of 8 to 16 m2 collector area – an area of roughly 10 m2 is

3.2 Functional diagram of thermal use of solar energy

3.3 Functional diagram of photovoltaic system
3.4 Multi-family house in Zurich (2001), architect: Beat Kämpfen.
The balcony balustrade is composed of evacuated tube collectors.

29
 1 sufficient when evacuated tube collectors are employed –
and an installed storage volume ranging from 500 to
1000 litres. The solar installation can thus cover up to
4 one quarter of the total heating requirement.

Solar District Heating and Cooling Processes

Two additional themes are gaining in importance in the
A
2 3 B 5 field of solar systems for thermal use: solar district heating
C concepts7 and solar-supported cooling processes.8 Solar
systems designed to supplement district heating supplies
aim to address the problem of asynchronicity between
A Heat supply 1 Collector field peak solar radiation in summer and heating demands in
B Heat return 2 House transfer station winter by bridging the gap through seasonal storage. This
C Solar supply 3 Solar transfer station
4 Buffer storage model is predominantly used for new housing develop-
3.5 5 Long-term storage ments due to the requirement for large storage volumes
(up to 20,000 m3), coordinated integration into the supply
grid and specially designed control technology. Since such
installations tend to require large absorber areas, the col-
lectors are generally realized as fully prefabricated “solar
roofs.” The roofs and facades of neighbouring school build-
ings, kindergartens or sports facilities as well as noise pro-
tection walls can also be utilized. When combined with
low-temperature heating systems, the solar power that is
generated can cover up to 60 per cent of the demands for
domestic water and space heating. Solar-supported district
heating concepts are an important building block on the
road toward efficiency in the thermal use of solar energy.
However, there is still a great need for the further develop-
ment of different storage types, especially in terms of
construction design for minimizing heat loss and cost
reduction. For this reason, the efficiency of such systems
is still fairly low.
Experiments have been undertaken for years to increas-
ingly harness solar energy for air-conditioning, since the
topic of cooling is especially relevant in office buildings.
This application presents an opportunity to take advantage
of the overall synchronicity between incident solar energy
and cooling demands. Although the development of solar-
powered chillers and air-conditioning systems is still in its
infancy, some pilot installations are already in operation.
Sorptive cooling uses so-called open systems for direct
indoor air dehumidification and cooling.
While air collectors are suitable as thermal generators,
adsorption – that is, absorption chillers or closed systems
for cold water production – require qualitative flat plate
collectors (with operating temperatures of 80 to 100°C) or
evacuated tube collectors (100 to 150°C), depending on
the cooling temperature. Monitoring of the pilot installations
revealed that most problems arise in the area of the control
strategy, meaning, the interaction between collector instal-
lation and chiller.

Photovoltaics
A photovoltaic installation is composed of individual solar
cells, which are gathered into PV-modules. The individual
cells are connected in series or in parallel. When several
modules are added, we speak of a solar generator. The
output of PV-installations can be considerably diminished
as a result of shading (from neighbouring buildings, vege-
tation, roof additions or other elements in the built environ-
ment) and these should therefore be avoided at all cost.
However, there are certain connection modes that limit the
output losses. Solar power can be generated for off- and

30
 on-grid systems. Off-grid systems (e.g., mountain cabin,
weekend cottage) have no connection to the mains supply
and the generated DC current is stored directly and without
transformation in batteries on-site or is utilized for appropri-
ate appliances (so-called low-voltage appliances). For sys-
tems that are connected to the grid, the generated DC
current must be transformed into AC current by means of
a DC/AC inverter before it can be fed into the public grid
or consumed in the household.
Photovoltaic modules are multi-layered and either embed-
ded into artificial resin between glass panes or laid between
glass and a plastic laminate. Depending on requirements,
the reverse side is opaque, translucent (obscured glass,
deflecting film) or transparent (clear glass, transparent film).
A fundamental differentiation is made between rigid and
flexible photovoltaic modules. Moveable, uni- or bi-axial
systems designed for retrofitting are an increasingly popular
alternative for modules that are fixed in place. Many manu-
facturers offer modules in a variety of standard sizes and
custom solutions, and the product palette ranges from com-
plete energy roofs and shading systems to photovoltaic
roofing tiles.
The area requirement is calculated according to generator
output, which is measured in kilowatt peak (kWp), a unit that
indicates the module performance in standardized test con-
ditions. In Germany a photovoltaic installation with optimum
orientation and a performance of 1 kWp delivers between
600 and 1000 kWh current annually depending on the site
conditions. Area requirements differ according to the cell
type: while 10 m2 is sufficient for crystalline cells, much
more is required for amorphous cells. Given an average
installation size (2 to 3 kWp), these solutions can cover up
to 50 per cent of the annual demand, although only roughly
20 to 25 per cent of the energy is directly utilized due to
the time lag between generation and demand.

Cell Technology
Solar cells generally consist of amorphous or crystalline
silicon. In addition to differences in surface structure and
3.6 colour, the individual cell types also differ in terms of effi-
ciency. Monocrystalline cells deliver the highest ratio with
up to 18 per cent. While polycrystalline cells achieve as
much as 16 per cent, the efficiency quotient of amorphous
silicon is roughly 10 per cent. These efficiency quotients are
being constantly optimized with the help of so-called hybrid
cells in which monocrystalline wafers are surrounded by two
layers containing amorphous silicon. Currently, intensive
research is being undertaken into new technologies, includ-
ing, microcrystalline and micromorphous solar cells and
colour cells.
“Transparent” polycrystalline cells, on the other hand, and
their fascinating optical effects, are a new technology with
implications for visual appearance. In a special process, the
top and bottom sides of the wafer are milled with parallel
cuts. While the resulting micro holes at the intersections of
the cuts diminish the area output, they create the impres-

3.5 Functional diagram of solar district heating concepts

3.6 Lehrter railway station, Berlin (2203), von Gerkan Marg and Partners.
The photovoltaic modules are integrated into the glass roof, they also
serve as a shading system.

31
 sion of a transparent cell. Thin-film technology has tremen-
dous technical and aesthetic potential.9 These cell types
are economic in terms of material consumption – layers of
no more than a few micrometres (1-6 μm) are sufficient for
absorption – and are also energy efficient, because the
manufacturing temperatures of 200 to 700 °C are 25 per
cent less than those required for crystalline cells. A high
level of automation in the production is another source of
potential savings.
Thin-film solar cells offer many advantages in terms of
dependency on solar incidence and temperature; they
are also more tolerant to shading. Diffuse and weak light
is utilized to a greater degree and the output losses as a
result of temperature increases in the cell are diminished,
while the long strips ensure that single cells are never fully
3.7 shaded. Another advantage of thin-film technology is its
variability in shape. Since these modules are not tied to
standardized wafer dimensions, as is the case with crystal-
line cells, they can be shaped into a variety of geometrical
shapes and can also be mounted on curved and flexible
carrier materials such as sheet metal or plastic foils. This
cell type is especially suited for integration into building
sections where sufficient rear ventilation is not guaranteed
or where shading may occur. In the continued research
and development of thin-film cells in the 1990s, several
semiconductors were tested in addition to amorphous
silicon, among others copper-indium-diselenide (CIS)
and cadmium-telluride (CdTe). In the area of thin-film
technology, CIS-technology currently delivers the highest
efficiency (14 per cent). The overall efficiency has been
improved with the development of so-called stacked cells,
in which two or three layers are mounted on top of each
other (tandem or triple cell). To further optimize the output
of such stacked cells, each of the films in the triple cells,
for example, is designed to respond to a different spectral
range (short-, medium- or long-wave radiation). The
appearance of a thin-film PV module is characterized by
homogeneous surfaces structured by extremely narrow
and transparent separating cuts. These are the result of
the production process, that is, the electronic separation
and connection of the individual cell layers. Variations in
width or additional horizontal separating cuts can also be
employed as design elements. Whereas polycrystalline
cells are becoming available in an ever-increasing range
of colours, dark hues continue to dominate in the area of
thin-film technology, ranging from black to reddish brown
or dark green.

Integration
Manufacturers are constantly improving the parameters
for the structural integration of solar systems into roofs and
walls, especially with regard to fastening methods and
sealing along the sides. New frame sections facilitate the
assembly of the individual elements and installation; they
also minimize profile heights and projection widths. The
many options available today allow for a fairly flexible inte-
gration of solar systems in the building skin. There are a
growing number of fully integrated solutions that facilitate
combinations of thermal solar and photovoltaic systems
and the combination of these systems with other elements
in the envelope. The key is the integration of collectors and
PV modules with the building systems. Depending on the
system design, a variety of wiring arrangements and addi-

32
 tional equipment technology is required to this end – a factor
that must be taken into consideration especially for external
wall and facade structures. Photovoltaic systems are ideally
suited for integration, owing to the slender dimensions of the
mounted components and flexible power cables with small
diameters. The diameter of pipes for water collectors is con-
siderably larger; provisions must also be made for these
installations to ensure that the pipes and connections are
sealed and frost resistant.
With regard to formal aesthetic criteria, solar systems offer
a wide range of design options. Manufacturers try to respond
to nearly all of the wishes expressed by architects. The
maximum range of colours is frequently cited as a special
advantage of photovoltaics. Naturally, the appearance of
the installations is influenced by the colour variation in the
absorber surfaces and the multitude of section designs10
as well as the lateral connecting elements at roof or facade
level. It is important, however, to carefully assess the intro-
duction of additional colours and shapes to the building
skin. Yet architectural integration of solar systems into the
building skin is more far reaching, because each element
that is included in the wall or the roof also assumes func-
tional and structural tasks as a component thereof. It is
important to establish an overall harmony between the
requirements and characteristics of the physical structure
and the aesthetic and functional criteria of the energy
system.11

Additive versus Integrated Installation?

Collectors and PV modules on the roof or the facade, retro-
fitted in some case, are often perceived as visually unpleas-
3.8 ant. Even in the early years, raised installations, that is,
additive measures, were seen as the “main evil”. Little has
changed in this perception to this day. Integrated roof instal-
lations, conversely, are thought of as inherently inconspicu-
ous and even elegant solutions. Retrospectively, the first
integrated roof installation of a collector system (1976) was
praised as a “successful architectural solution.”12 This is a
serious misunderstanding that has prevailed ever since. The
result, in the aforementioned case, may well have been inno-
vative and correct in terms of function, i.e. energy-efficiency,
but it would be wrong to speak of an integrated design in
the existing roof surface.
The discomfort with systems that are “planted” on top of the
existing surface has little do to with the structural solution
itself. Regardless of whether the system is mounted or inte-
grated into the roof skin or the facade, the key parameters
of an aesthetically satisfying solution are the module dimen-
sions, the proportions of the element as a whole and its inter-
nal divisions, and, above all, the arrangement within the
given area. There are many built examples, which demon-
strate that concepts where solar systems are mounted either
on the roof or on the facade can be highly integrated from
an architectural perspective. In these projects, the collectors
or the PV modules are interpreted as an additional functional
level, which is separate from the water-bearing layer. Rea-

3.7 Single-family house in Öhling, Austria (1999), architects: Poppe

Prehal.
3.8 Low-energy house in Bregenz (2001), Daniel Sauter. The PV system is
structurally and aesthetically integrated into the facade.

33
 sons for this choice may relate to construction sequence,
but also to utilization considerations, such as sufficient rear
ventilation, sheltered maintenance areas, etc. Structural and
energy considerations aside, the most important aspect of
architectural integration is to fit the elements harmoniously
into an overarching visual concept; the question of additive
versus integrated installation is secondary.

Existing Buildings
Many debates on solar architecture have raised the ques-
tion about whether it is sensible, ecologically speaking,
to create energy-efficient single-family houses on open
land. The argument that resource-conserving measures
are ultimately only feasible on existing buildings is often
emphasized.13 Moreover, there is little demand for new
3.9 construction, and forecasts indicate that the annual renewal
rate of existing buildings will be roughly 1 per cent in coming
years and is likely to decrease. A tremendous potential has
been identified, on the other hand, in converting, retrofitting
and architecturally upgrading existing housing as well as
industrial and commercial developments.
Given the fact that 40 per cent of the total energy con-
sumption in Europe continues to be expended for the con-
struction and operation of buildings, and that the major
developments dating from the 1950s, 60s and 70s are
particularly lacking in terms of insulation, the energy-
efficient optimization of existing buildings takes on a high
priority. For architects and engineers, the tasks of the
future will be the maintenance, conversion and adaptation
of existing buildings as well as new construction in the
form of additions.
The decision in favour of a solar thermal system is also
closely linked to the lifespan of existing heating systems:
In Germany, estimates anticipate that more than four
million old heating systems will be renewed or upgraded
in the coming five years. Based on 5 m2 of collector area
per renovation, this forecast would translate into roughly
1 million m2 of collector area for single- and duplex-homes
alone.14
Area estimates reveal a tremendous potential for the appli-
cation of solar technology. A study of selected residential
buildings from different periods in Bavaria revealed that
there is an abundance of available area for solar use,
especially on the facades. Individualized studies, on the
other hand, showed that considerable limitations were fur-
ther exacerbated in some cases by heritage protection
orders.15 The facades of existing buildings are therefore
not as viable an option as one might think. Roofs, con-
versely, provide opportunities for architecturally harmoni-
ous and energy-efficient solutions; this is due to the
exposure and incline and also to the option of continuous
installations across a large area.

Solar Technology and Heritage Protection

With the growing use of regenerative energies for building
operation, heritage protection must increasingly take the
wish for solar technology on monuments or ensembles –
such as entire street fronts, squares and urban quarters –
into account. The question of whether and how heritage
protection and solar technology are compatible is a deli-
cate one, since the preservation of monuments is often
linked to strict design guidelines and high requirements
3.10 for interventions into the existing substance.

34
The principal criterion for assessing the structural integra- solar technology is often cloaked in a very “plain dress.”20
tion of solar systems into heritage-protected buildings is Considering the enormous potential of roof and facade
visibility. This means that installations on the facade and, areas, the consequence may well be that an important
in some cases, even on steep roofs, are deemed problem- opportunity – in the sense of a culture of sustainable build-
atic because they are visible from an elevated standpoint ing – is not being realized, particularly in single-family
or from the street. If installation on the facade or the roof is and duplex houses.21 The integration of solar systems in
limited or not allowed, there are still other alternative loca- the building skin requires consideration of structural
tions close to the buildings that are worth exploring, for and aesthetic aspects with the goal of developing an
example, balcony, garage, carport, pergola or greenhouse. optimized overall solution. This is primarily a task for an
Material(s) and construction methods are also very impor- architect, with the participation of experts in the field, that
tant issues because any change is always a kind of inter- is, manufacturers and contractors, engineers and conser-
vention into the existing substance and, hence, a potential vationists.
risk for subsequent damage.
In addition to building codes, the architect’s copyright, Conclusion
which is inherited and can, in general, apply to every build- Collectors and PV modules are important elements of solar
ing, must also be taken into consideration and this may architecture. In the future, they will be standard compo-
lead to further restrictions. The integration of solar systems nents of innovative building skins and building blocks of
into the roof and/or facade of monuments must always be energy-efficient renovations. Today, the active use of solar
analyzed in each individual case, although a solution can energy can already make an important contribution to a
usually be found through constructive dialogue. Although sustainable supply. However, efficiency and a high ratio
these problems are only relevant to a small percentage of of solar utilization remain linked to the sufficient use of
existing buildings, the outstanding architectural quality of fundamental passive strategies. Solar technology must
such buildings tends to heighten public awareness and to be integrated into a comprehensive concept that takes
invest them with symbolic value. the spatial organization, the formal appearance of a build-
The use of solar technology invariably translates into a new ing as well as the material and primary energy flows into
image for the building skin, a change that must be carefully consideration for new constructions and existing buildings.
planned in each instance. While more than 90 per cent of As numerous design awards demonstrate, the systems
all existing buildings do not fall into the category of heritage available on the market stand for both efficiency and ele-
protection, these ‘ordinary’ buildings also require individual gance. Today, clients and architects regard these systems
solutions that are in harmony with the conditions at the site as innovative products and to some degree they have
in order to achieve conclusive results in terms of energy become symbols of technological progress. Despite all
efficiency and architectural aesthetics. this, solar technology still seems to have an image problem
because performance and improved product design are
“Solar Scouts” arguments that are not powerful enough in their own right
A 2002 study16 on the solar heating market in Germany to lead to a breakthrough in the market. Without “additional
revealed that 71 per cent of homeowners have a positive emotional benefits such as freedom, flexibility and pres-
attitude towards solar energy. Five out of ten respondents tige”22 there seems to be no widespread acceptance
expressed a strong to very strong interest in solar thermal among the population.
installations.17 The new solar energy campaign launched by Solar systems must meet specific requirements and require
the German Energy Agency (dena) stresses that contrac- innovative solutions, especially for complex building tasks
tors play a “key role in implementing the initiative for thermal and demanding indoor climate concepts. Building with
use of solar power.” Today, master craftsmen run so-called systems is once again topical, if the different protective
solar checks or make the rounds in residential areas as vol- and control functions of the envelope – from insulation and
untary “solar scouts” to test which homes are suited for the daylight deflection to power generation – are integrated
installation of collectors or PV modules. Most homeowners into prefabricated and recyclable building components.
decide to purchase and install a solar system on the basis Whether facades and roofs are “more intelligent” as a
of the contractor’s sales pitch and negotiation skills, not result is another issue. What is clear, however, is that the
least of all because permits are rarely required for this type transformation of the building skin into a climate modulator
of work. This illustrates who the real decision makers are in and polyvalent membrane enables it to react to changing
single-family housing, since building service engineers and weather conditions with increasing flexibility.
architects – probably in this sequence – are only consulted Interesting and striking treatments of the topic are notably
for larger solar installations.18 However, there is one aspect found in a growing number of major building projects. It
of the clients’ attitude towards solar energy that comes as is important, however, that the popularity and expanded
a surprise. While the widespread, generally positive assess- semantic content of solar technology produce more than
ment is hardly surprising, the reason given for it is: The focus, merely symbolic monuments or spectacular office buildings.
it seems, is not on climate and environmental protection but The task now is to develop equally distinctive solutions for
on the desire for new, innovative technology, which often
even “supersedes” the cost argument. In other words, solar
installations have become status symbols. It is “chic” to
install collectors on the roof or the facade;19 the method and
manner of installation seem to be of secondary importance. 3.9 Renovated multi-storey factory in Berlin-Oberschöneweide (2000),
architect: Frank Augustin
This describes the current situation because one important 3.10 Multi-storey factory, Berlin-Oberschöneweide. Climate concept barrel
problem of solar design in everyday architecture is that the roof: shading, ventilation and thermal storage mass.

35
 the energy-efficient modernization of existing buildings
in order to tap into the potential of solar technology in a
far more challenging field. Herein lies a true opportunity
to enhance the value of large and small housing develop-
ments and commercial agglomerations, in terms of energy
efficiency and architecture. This improvement, however,
must go beyond mere facade decoration. In view of the
manifold tasks, the goal must be to achieve the highest
possible level of architectural quality in the built environ-
ment. Thermal solar systems and photovoltaics have
opened up a multitude of options for application and offer
high-quality products. Indirect solar systems have consid-
erably broadened the technical repertory of building. This
must now be translated into architectural concepts. When
one considers the search for quality criteria and competent
3.11 decision makers, the need for architects, who can create
groundbreaking examples that bridge the gap between
technologically perfected systems and mediocrity in every-
day applications and act “multipliers” in the interest of solar
technology, is abundantly clear.

3.11 Studio in Dresden-Hellerau (2003), architects: Haller/Morgenstern/

Quincke. Photovoltaic modules and transparent elements alternate in
the roof area.
3.12 Flat plate collectors integrated into the facades of a terraced housing
development in Batschuns, Vorarlberg, Austria (1997), Walter Unter-
rainer

36
Notes: 12 Auer, Falk: “25 Jahre ‘Sonnenenergie’. Ein Rückblick auf die ersten
1 Rau, Johannes: “Die große Ratlosigkeit. Was ist Baukultur?” Süddeut- drei Ausgaben des DGS-Mitteilungsblatts.” Sonnenenergie, January
sche Zeitung, April 5/6, 2003, p.14 2001, p.16
2 Meyers Großes Taschenlexikon in 24 volumes, volume 10, Mannheim/ 13 Moewes, Günther: “Solar, defensiv oder beides?” Detail, 3/1997,
Vienna/Zurich 1987, pp. 264ff pp. 292–296
3 This must not lead to the use of technology in order to compensate, or 14 Kohler, Stephan: “Start der ‘Initiative Solarwärme plus’. Ohne Reue
completely nullify, dysfunctional patterns of behaviour. stundenlang Duschen.” (Interview) Sonnenenergie, May 2003, p. 24
Herzog, Thomas: “Wohltemperierte Bunker. Über ökologisches Bauen 15 Krippner, Roland: “Building Typology and Monumental Protection.
und intelligente Gebäude.” Deutsches Architektenblatt, 5/1998, pp. Studies on the Architectural Integration of PV-Systems as Part of the
592–594 Existing Building Skin.” PV in Europe. From PV Technology to Energy
4 Aicher, Otl: die welt als entwurf, Berlin 1991, p.141 and pp.150ff Solutions (Proceedings), Munich/Florence, 2002, pp. 962–966
5 In Germany the sum of annual global radiation ranged from 16 Sunrise 2002: “Die europäischen Märkte für Solarthermie und
913 kWh/m2 in Hamburg to 1183 kWh/m2 in Munich. Sonnenenergie, Photovoltaik;” market study. www.deutsche-energie-agentur.de
May 2003, p. 64 17 Stryi-Hipp, Gerhard: “Gute Vorzeichen.” Sonnenenergie, May 2003
6 Krippner, Roland: “Die Gebäudehülle als Wärmeerzeuger und Strom- 18 Hackstock, Roger: “Austria aktuell. Was tut sich Neues in Österreich?”
generator.” Schittich, Christian (ed.): Building Skins, Basel/Boston/ Sonnenenergie, May 2003, p.10
Berlin 2001, pp. 51–55 19 Kohler, Stephan: “Start der ‘Initiative Solarwärme plus’. “Ohne Reue
7 Berner, Joachim: “Sommersonne für den Winter.Langzeit-Wärmes- stundenlang Duschen.” (Interview). Sonnenenergie, May 2003, pp.
peicher haben ihre Tauglichkeit bewiesen.” Sonnenenergie, Novem- 23ff
ber 2001, pp.16–19 20 Bauwelt, 33/1999, p.1818
8 Eicker, Ursula: “Entwicklungstendenzen solarthermischer Kühlver- 21 Helmut Gebhard already remarked upon the lack of architectural qual-
fahren.” Bauphysik, 5/2002, pp. 300–303 ity in the built environment in the early 1980s. At the time, Gebhard
9 Haselhuhn, Ralf: “Dickes Ende für die dünnen Zellen?” Sonnenener- deplored the fact that the plethora of new building materials and build-
gie, March 2003, pp.26–29; ibid.: “Warten auf den Marktdurchbruch. ing components – that is, the abundance of choices with all the con-
Schlanke Zellen, große Erträge, Teil 2.” Sonnenenergie, May 2003, pp. comitant risks of incompatible combinations for technical construction
35–37 and design, […] – was contrasted by a “lack of competent decision
10 The fact that 92 per cent of respondents to a survey of architects on makers.”
the topic in Austria mentioned the lack of visually attractive covering Gebhard, Helmut: “Architekturdiskussion und Alltagsarchitektur.”
strips for the facade area as the principal deficit seems to reveal a Willkür oder neuer Konsens? Zur Situation des Bauens. Six lectures.
strong reduction in quality requirements. Munich 1984, p. 84
Knackfuß, Günter: “Das gewisse Etwas.Vom Schutzdach zum Nut- 22 Hübner, Gundula: “Wir brauchen ein Image für die Solarenergie.”
zdach: Integration von Sonnenkollektoren.” Solares Bauen, special (Interview). Sonnenenergie, January 2002, p. 69
edition of the journal Sonnenenergie, October 2002, p. 40
11 Krippner, Roland: “Architektonische Aspekte solarer Energietechnik.
Studien zur baulichen Integration und architektonischen Einbindung
solartechnischer Systeme in die Gebäudehülle.” 9th Symposium on
Thermal Solar Energy (Proceedings), Regensburg 1999, p. 237

3.12

37
38
Solar Concepts for Building
Michael Kuehn, Dirk Mattner

Humans have influenced the climate ever since they first Solar Architecture
inhabited the Earth. First, through the clear cutting of for- Most people in developed countries live in latitudes where
ests, followed by the increasing growth of settlements and heating demands play a major role. Roughly 30 per cent of
cities and the sealing of the earth’s surface that went with annual total energy consumption is used to meet these
it. Accompanying the reduction of natural resources, popu- demands. As recently as 50 years ago, most buildings had
lation growth has led to an enormous rise in energy con- little insulation. Windows and facades were leaky and high
sumption. There are many theories on the effects and ventilation heat losses were the consequence. Thanks to
consequences, but these are not the subject of this work. tremendous improvements in this area, including facade
The fact remains, however, that people in industrial nations, constructions with thermal transmittance coefficients
in particular, are destroying their own foundations for life (U-value) of less than 1.2 W/m2K, consumption per area
and that of other species in a short-sighted and arrogant has been reduced by more than 80 per cent.
manner. The content of CO2 and other trace gases such as This has, however, led to a shift in some of the problems. In
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), in the ozone layer (Earth’s administrative buildings, in particular, the internal heat
atmosphere) is growing rapidly. Steadily increasing carbon loads caused by electricity and occupants, led to exces-
dioxide emissions and the anthropogenic transformation of sive room temperatures in summer. These internal loads
the earth’s atmosphere alter not only the chemical, but also must, in turn, be reduced with the help of mechanical venti-
the physical characteristics of the climate systems. Fossil lation systems in order to maintain comfortable working
fuels for power and heat generation are, unfortunately, the conditions inside the building. Energy demands are once
principal source of air pollution and they have a negative gain rising steeply. Electrical energy is required not only for
impact on the environment, our health and our quality of air circulation, but also for the generation of cold water for
life. Despite an awareness of the problem, the global politi- cooling. This is one starting point for conceptual
cal community is completely at a loss in the face of this approaches to solar architecture. The goal is to create opti-
catastrophic development, which is only too evident in mum comfort in the building, in summer and in winter, with
their compliance, or rather non-compliance, with the Kioto as little energy consumption as possible and, in considera-
Protocol.1 tion of environmental factors, through the use of natural
resources.
However, we can make a difference on a small scale.
Humans erect buildings to seek shelter from the elements Utilization Potential
and should utilize natural resources to do so in order to “Environmental building blocks”, which take climatic and
protect the environment. Adopting this alternative means energy-related influences into account, can be conceived
building solar architecture. This chapter serves as a guide- in reference to the demands of the environment. However,
line for conceptual approaches to integrating solar systems in order to optimize the utilization of the available options
with building systems. The solar building blocks, which for energy reduction, different technical systems should act
can act in concert with other systems, will be presented in unison. The most interesting building blocks at the cur-
and explained. The chosen examples illustrate approaches rent time are:
that usefully combine comfort and efficiency, as well as • heat recovery in housing construction
aesthetic options for designing with these technologies. • building core activation
Energy conservation, in combination with the improved effi- • seasonal energy storage
ciency of technical systems, can be advantage for clients, • sorption technology
hired consultants and executing firms. Architects and engi- • geothermal heating/cooling
neers are in an ideal position to offer advice in this area • power-heat coupling
and to influence the design and implementation of these • intelligent controls and regulation.
building systems. In doing so, they can play a more active
role in the preservation of our environment, as well as our
health and overall well-being.

4.1 Swiss Re headquarters in London (2003), Foster and Partners

39
 The following technical solutions represent possibilities
that, with the help of natural resources, can provide a com-
fortable indoor environment that is fit for human occupa-
tion.

Heat Recovery in Housing Construction

The demand for heating energy in housing is mainly influ-
enced by its use, the climate conditions at the site and the
building form. High energy consumption is the result of
heat transmission and ventilation heat losses via openings
(i.e., doors and windows). While the U-values of windows
have been reduced over the past years – from roughly
3 W/m2K to less than 1.2 W/m2K – ventilation heat losses
are dependent on the frequency of ventilation and, hence,
on user behaviour. The heating demand linked to ventila-
4. 2 tion is generally higher than 60 per cent. Even opening win-
dows for short periods can result in uncontrolled natural
ventilation. The logical conclusion is to employ the
mechanical ventilation systems developed for administra-
tive and commercial buildings to housing developments.
This makes it possible to drastically reduce heat losses
while maintaining a constant indoor air quality. To ensure
the constancy of air quality indoors, the necessary volume
of fresh air – 40-60 m3/h per person for hygienic reasons –
can be supplied even when windows are closed. Fresh air
supplies that fall below these values means that there is
insufficient ventilation, which could cause the formation of
mould fungus as a result of humidity, or diminished air
quality as a result of allergens such as ornamental plants,
dust mites and pets. The heating demand of a low-energy
house with excellent insulation and active solar compo-
nents can be roughly 50 kWh/m2 per annum in accordance
with the EnEV. This corresponds to an equivalent of
approximately 5 l/m2 heating oil per year. The heat losses
are divided into transmission losses of roughly 20 kWh/m2
per year and ventilation heat losses of roughly 30 kWh/m2
per year. If air change is achieved exclusively by means of
mechanical ventilation, and if windows are kept closed
when outside temperatures are low, the heating demand
can be reduced by a further 50 per cent to approximately
25 kWh/m2 per year (passive house standard). In combina-
tion with passive measures, a solar installation is sufficient
to meet this demand and to create comfortable room tem-
peratures. However, this low energy consumption is only
achieved if the mechanical ventilation system is equipped
with a heat exchanger. Supply air and exhaust air from the
living space are transported via a plate heat exchanger.
The two air streams never come into direct contact in this
process; instead, they are transported in a counter-current.
The heat from the escaping air is transferred to the incom-
ing air supply in the heat exchanger via extremely thin
walls. Depending on the device, the potential efficiency of
heat transfer ranges between 50 and 75 per cent. A system
of air ducts distributes the pre-warmed fresh air supply to
the rooms. A second duct system extracts air from the
space. Hence two ventilating fans are required for the
mechanical air supply and extraction.
The architectural firm of Johannes Kaufmann has realized a
passive housing development in Dornbirn, Vorarlberg (Aus-
tria), which features this type of ventilation for the apart-
ments (cf. pp 72ff). The housing development consists of
nine units with 86 m2 of usable area each. The passive con-
struction employed in this example achieves energy sav-

40
 ings of roughly 80 per cent in comparison with
conventional apartment buildings. Heating is provided with
the help of a controlled mechanical supply air and ventila-
tion system. The residual required heat is generated by
means of wood pellet combustion. The resulting energy
consumption is both exemplary and cost-effective.

Building Core Activation

Building core activation is an innovative system of thermally
activating concrete floors for heating and cooling. The
building components are heated or cooled via the floors or
ceilings incorporating water-carrying serpentine pipes. The
temperatures of the carrier medium are close to the room
temperature. For heating, up to 28 °C is required, while up
to 18 °C is required for cooling. This so-called thermoactive
ceiling differs from all conventional heating and cooling
systems in that it possesses a far greater storage capacity.
This results in increased inertia and precludes the option
for rapid load changes, meaning the system can only react
to new conditions with a time lag of several hours. This is
not necessarily a disadvantage. As the natural temperature
fluctuations are diminished, the resulting room tempera-
tures reflect the changes in the exterior. In summer, con-
crete floors and ceilings absorb the excess heat from solar
radiation and internal loads. The limit for maximum room
temperatures in buildings with HVAC-systems (in Germany,
according to DIN 1947, Part 2) can generally only be main-
tained with a thermoactive ceiling when external influences
are minimized with the help of an effective external shading
system. When these provisions are in place, the system
can maintain indoor temperatures well below the outdoor
temperatures, thereby ensuring comfortable conditions. In
winter, the heating output of the thermoactive ceiling is suf-
ficient to cover the transmission heat demand of buildings
according to EnEV and to meet the comfort requirements,
(i.e., a glass-covered area at a maximum of 70 per cent).

The following aspects must be taken into consideration for

building core activation utilizing thermoactive ceilings:
4.3 • Room temperatures of up to 27 °C can be achieved, con-
sidering that perceived temperatures are lower as a result
of radiant coolness.
• Rapid temperature adjustments are not possible.
• An upper limit in room temperature cannot be maintained
without additional measures.
• The influence of external factors on the thermal demands
must be diminished with the help of optimized heat protec-
tion in winter and in summer.
• Additional heating units are not required when a comple-
mentary ventilation system is installed.
• Detailed analysis of the heating operation is required for
rooms with window ventilation.
• The sizing of the glass areas, U-values and storage mass
must be harmonized.
• Suspended ceilings, false and double floors must be
avoided.

4.2 Row housing and office building, Rosenheim (2002), Hirner & Riehl,
Peter Kunze
4.3 Administration building in Creuzburg (2001), Seelinger and Vogels,
concrete component cooling

41
 • Energy consumption can only be calculated on the basis
of area.

System advantages:
• Low initial investment.
• Primary energy consumption is drastically lower than for
conventional systems.
• Heating- and cooling output (peak loads) are reduced as
a result of the storage capacity of the concrete masses.
• Existing cooling supply systems can be utilized for over-
night storage operation.
• The pronounced differences in system temperatures
open up possibilities of harnessing energy resources in the
environment: for cooling (e.g., ground water utilization),
4.4 cool outside air can be utilized overnight via re-cooling
plants; for heating, solar collectors with heat pumps can be
used.

Comfort limitations:
• Maximum room temperatures of 26–27 °C in summer can
only be achieved with an effective shading system.
• Individual temperature control per room during the heat-
ing period is not possible.

The limitations of the building core activation lie in the

output, and, in particular, in the sluggish response to
sudden changes in cooling or heating requirements. A high
heating requirement exists, for example, when windows
need to be opened to flush out the air in an office space.
For without a fresh air supply, the indoor air quality suffers
as a result of exhalation, etc., which can lead to illness
(e.g., Sick Building Syndrome). However, intensive window
ventilation is only possible for roughly 50 per cent of the
working hours with satisfactory results. When windows are
tilted open and outside temperatures are below 7 °C, cold
air streams into the room and cools the floor to less than
18 °C depending on the duration for which the window is
kept open. This creates high and uncomfortable air veloci-
ties of over 0.25 m/s along the floor (draught). The effect is
particularly uncomfortable near windows and strongly com-
promises comfort, although this discomfort decreases with
greater distance from the external wall. Short bursts of
window ventilation do not offer a satisfying solution, nor do
supplementary measures such as under floor convectors,
which would, moreover, represent a system change to the
1 building core activation (i.e., considerably higher feed tem-
peratures). The following concept is an alternative that can
be employed in combination with building core activation:
2
6 incoming fresh air is warmed directly at the window to at
least 10 °C by mixing it with warm room air. This diminishes
cold air influx and achieves draught-free flushing of the air
in the room. The basic heating requirement of the offices is
3 covered by activating the concrete core. The admixture of
warm room air and cold fresh air directly at the window is
5 4 achieved by means of small air inlets in the facade posts
4.5 (Fig. 4.5). A miniature fan in the false floor suctions room air
into the system at floor level, whereby heat is transmitted to
the concrete ceiling, and then transports it, via a heating
1 Fresh air, cold profile integrated into the double floor, to the facade posts.
2 Supply air, pre-warmed As the air temperature rises, air is released evenly into the
3 Floor air inlet with air filter
4 Air return in double floor
room via the small inlets in the facade posts, mixing
5 Small fan directly with incoming fresh air and thus preventing cold air
6 Air-conducting facade post from entering into the space through the windows. The rel-

42
 evant thermal and hygienic requirements for HVAC sys-
Heat requirement space heating and

200
tems must be taken into consideration. In Germany, these
requirements are outlined in DIN 1946 and in the VDI-
100
3 160
guideline 6022, in the case of air movement via double
floors without air ducts.

Global radiation (kWh/m2)

120 The concept offers the following advantages:
1
• year-round window ventilation without draught
warm water (kWh)

80 • sufficient “flushing” with air all the way to the core zones
• comfortable floor surface temperature
40
Seasonal Energy Storage/Long-term Storage
2
0 0 In addition to passive energy concepts, where a building is
J F M A M J J A S O N D supplied with the help of deliberate measures such as
1 Insolation window ventilation, thermal storage masses or heating and
2 Space heating water temperatures adjusted to a low-energy level, active
4.6 3 Seasonal asynchronicity solar measures, such as collector installations, can also be
integrated; the excess heat of which, in summer, is stored
for heating in winter (Fig. 4.6). The area of installed solar
thermal collectors has increased rapidly since the early
1990s. While there were roughly 450,000 m2 of collector
areas in 1990, the number had risen to roughly 3 million m2
for short-term storage collectors in 2000, which provide
warm water with temperatures below 100 °C for daily use.
Currently, they still play a greater role than long-term stor-
age (cf. pp 26ff). However, the development of district-
heating concepts for the supply of entire residential
districts and small industrial parks is accelerating. The goal
is to increase the percentage of requirements covered by
solar power and to make better use of the seasonal asyn-
chronicity between available solar energy and heating
demands. Constructed earth reservoirs, large storage
tanks and bore holes are suitable options (cf. p. 30),
although area requirements are high because of the
dimensions of the storage units.

Sorption Technology
The principle of cooling by evaporation offers an alternative
to cooling outside air in summer by means of conventional,
power-operated chillers. It is called “Desiccant and Evapo-
rative Cooling” or DEC (Fig.4.7). Dessicants, which extract
humidity from the air, are stored in a rotary heat exchanger.
50 °C
Cooling and dehumidification of fresh air supplies in
summer is regulated by adding heat to the exhaust air. The
8
dryer the exhaust air, the greater the percentage of humid-
40 ity the exchanger extracts from the outside air. If the
7
exhaust air is heated to about 80 °C, the extracted percent-
2 1 age of humidity is especially high. On overcast summer
days, the heat required for this process is generally pro-
Air temperature in °C

30
6 vided by district heat. On clear days with high solar radia-
3
5 tion, high-performance solar collectors can be used for this
20
4 purpose (Fig. 4.8). Once the outside air has been dried
with the help of the sorption generator and the connected
heat recovery plant, the air is cooled to the desired supply
10 temperature by means of evaporation humidifiers. In other
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water vapour content x (g/kg dry air)

Fresh air 1 Outside air dehumidification

(supply) ––– 2 Pre-cooling (heat recovery, HR) 4.4 Installation of cooling pipes in reinforcement
Exhaust 3 Cooling (adiabatic) 4.5 Concrete core activation and window ventilation via air-conducting
air ---- 4 Warming (waste heat from supply air fan) columns, pre-warming via small fan
5 Room air cooling (adiabatic) 4.6 Available solar radiation and total heating requirement of a low-energy
6 Warming (HR) row house
7 Re-heating 4.7 h,x diagram; percentages of changes as a result of sorptive dehumidi-
4.7 8 Desorption fication and adiabatic cooling

43
 words, this is a cooling energy process based on air desic-
cation followed by evaporative cooling, in which water
1 2 replaces the CFC- or FC-containing refrigerants in conven-
tional chillers. Since the warm and humid outside air must
be cooled even on overcast days, or, conversely, the cold
7
outside air heated in winter, a conventional heating system
is essential for this system. The advantage of foregoing the
use of an electrically powered chiller lies in the savings,
5 that is, the reduction of electrical energy, which can be
replaced with district or solar heat. An approximate aver-
3 6 7 age of 300–400 full operating hours is required to cool the
outside air in summer. The heating requirement should be
4 largely met with solar heat at supply temperatures of 80 °C;
the remainder is covered with district heating. In summer,
1 Heat storage 5 Heat transfer
2 Sorption regenerator 6 Heating in particular, this heat is the product of rational energy use
3 District heat cycle in the form of heat waste from power stations. The advan-
4.8 4 Cooling cycle 7 Humidifier tage of DEC-systems, compared to systems with conven-
tional cooling energy production, lies in the low electrical
connect load (because there is no chiller), and the result-
ing low annual consumption of power and water (because
there is no need to re-cool a chiller).

Geothermal Heating/Cooling
The increased use heating/cooling ceilings, concrete core
activation and the simultaneous improvement of insulating
standards promote the use of geothermal energy2. In con-
trast to nearly all other regenerative energies, geothermal
energy is not dependent on incident solar radiation, except
in the surface layers. The topic of geothermal energy near
the ground surface is discussed in the section on heat
pumps. The majority of geothermal systems derive the
required heat from layers in the earth ranging in depth from
0–40 m. As a source of heat and cold energy for earth-cou-
pled heating and air-conditioning systems, permission is
easily obtainable in Germany for depths up to 99 m. Earth
or groundwater temperatures, which are more or less con-
stant year round, offer ideal prerequisites for generating
energy for heating or cooling buildings with the help of a
variety of systems. One of the most advantageous for office
and administration buildings is the combination of so-
called energy piles, change-over heat pumps, as well as
area heating and cooling systems such as radiant heating/
cooling ceilings and concrete core activation (Fig. 4.9). The
low operating temperatures of such systems in conjunction
with the relevant harmonization of the three individual
measures mentioned above and favourable geological
conditions, create an ideal scenario for energy- and cost-
4.9
saving building operation. In Germany, the amalgamation
18-19 °C 16 °C 30 °C 40 °C of regulations for heating systems and insulation into a
1 1 single energy savings regulation (EnEV) has further
improved the parameters for implementing integrated solu-
2 3
A B tions of this kind.
4
10-14 °C 10-14 °C Heat-Power Coupling
Conventional power generation in condensating power
plants and heat in boilers is inefficient because the majority
5 5 of energy required to generate power is lost in the form of
6
wasted heat. In a combined heat and power plant (CHP),
on the other hand, up to 34 per cent of the primary energy
is transformed into power and up to roughly 53 per cent is
transformed into heat (Fig. 4.10), which translates into an
A Cooling 1 to consumer 4 Liquefier
B Heating 2 Water-heat exchanger unit 5 Energy pile overall efficiency rate of 90 per cent. Conversely, the over-
3 Heat pump 6 Soil all efficiency of separate heat and power generation lies

44
 below 60 per cent. CHPs therefore generate energy and
emission savings of roughly 30 per cent. Several parame-
4
6
ters should be taken into consideration for the efficient
1 application of CHPs because the initial investment costs
and the operating costs are higher. Since power fed into
the grid is still remunerated at a much lower rate than is
charged to consumers, the goal should be to achieve
5 direct consumption of as much of the generated power and
heat as possible. The efficient sizing of the plant is there-
fore based on a basic output demand; the remainder is
2 supplied by conventional means. Depending on the heat-
ing demand, the operating time of the CHP and the output
it delivers can be estimated as follows:
3 • For space heating only:
recommended CHP output 10–15 per cent of total required
Supply heating
output, operating time from 4.500 h/a
1 Exhaust gas heat exchanger
Return heating 2 Cooling water heat exchanger • For space and warm water heating:
Power 3 Oil heat exchanger recommended CHP output 10–15 per cent of total required
4 Air output, operating time from 5.500 h/a
5 Fuel
4.10 6 Exhaust gas
To assess the economic viability of a CHP, one must com-
pare the costs against the financial benefit gained through
energy savings. Boiler systems and CHPs must be com-
pared in consideration of investment, maintenance and fuel
costs. For smaller systems (approximately100 kW el), the
total costs for CHP and boiler are roughly twice as high as
those for a conventional boiler system. CHPs also require
high repair and maintenance costs. To avoid downtimes,
an additional module should always be included as a
backup system when maintenance is being carried out.
Considering the power savings and the national environ-
mental tax credit3 in Germany, for example, such systems
can be economically viable and efficient when power rates
are higher than 6 cents/kWh. However, owing to the wide
range of additional parameters, the economic viability of
employing a CHP must be analyzed for each individual
case.

Intelligent Controls and Regulation

Energy conservation or solar building also means using
efficient systems and intelligent control technology, which
can implement the relevant option (e.g., night cooling) in a
practical manner. This can translate into an energy savings
potential of, for example, as much as 15–30 per cent for
ventilation and air-conditioning systems (VAC). The use of
intelligent building systems that respond to fluctuating con-
ditions also ensures the smooth and energy-saving opera-
tion of the installation. BAS (building automation systems)
are divided into three areas: management, automation, and
application. Intelligent regulation is largely enabled by so-
called bus systems4, which make it possible to implement
integrated concepts for monitoring, controlling, regulating
and managing the technical building systems of a given
property. Such integrated concepts facilitate communica-
tion between all automated components whose data can
be digitally recorded, such as boilers, pumps, chillers,
water processors, room automation (individual room con-

4.8 Diagram sorption technology (dessicative and evaporative cooling

and absorption system)
4.9 Building core conditioning via energy piles in the soil
4.10 Functional diagram of CHP (natural gas)

45
 trols), lighting controls, shading systems and the primary
components of the HVC systems – both with each other
(component to component) and with the corresponding
operator. To this end, all automated, communication-capa-
ble system components provided by one manufacturer
must be connected as simply and cost-efficiently as possi-
ble with the system provided by another manufacturer.
Communication protocols for bus systems and BAS net-
works are becoming increasingly important. Open, fabrica-
tion-independent communication protocols have become
the dominant platform for the areas defined above (man-
agement, automation and field application). The market-
place also offers a wide variety of specific,
product-dependent bus systems. A detailed cost-benefit
analysis can, in individual cases, reveal that a product-spe-
cific system bus is more economical. In each instance, the
prerequisite for making the right choice is project-specific,
innovative planning, which also takes the future use of
innovative systems that are still beyond the scope of the
current technology, into account.

Comfort and Efficiency

All supply systems employed in office and administrative
buildings serve to ensure the comfort and well-being of the
users in order to promote maximum performance in the
workplace. This can only be achieved by meeting physio-
logical and hygienic parameters, among which air quality,
temperature and air velocity in the room play a key role.
However the perception and experience of thermal comfort
is also influenced by individual factors (Fig. 4.12). Room
temperatures that are comfortable for humans are based
4.11
on a body temperature of 36.6 °C and are created when
there is a balanced equilibrium between heat losses, heat
generated by the users themselves and ambient tempera-
ture. Physical comfort is also influenced by perspiration.
Air humidity and air movement, therefore, play important
roles. Whereas people experience moderate to strong air
movement as perfectly comfortable outdoors, provided
they are wearing appropriate clothing, any kind of draught
is experienced as uncomfortable indoors. This is especially
true for sedentary work in offices where maximum air veloc-
ities of 0.15– 0.2 m/s are recommended to avoid the effects
of draught.5 Air movement on the outside is assessed
according to Beaufort’s scale of wind force (also known as
Beaufort force).6 According to this scale, wind force up to
0.2 m/s denotes calm. Wind force 1 (0.3–1.5 m/s) is
described as light air, where wind is only visible through
smoke, and wind force 2 (1.6–3.3 m/s) constitutes a light
breeze. In interiors, air that flows predominantly from one
direction and is cooler than the room air results in draught.7
For high outside temperatures of approximately 32 °C,
operative temperatures of 26–27 °C are acceptable
indoors. Naturally these temperatures have a direct influ-
ence on the performance capacity of humans, which is
highest for temperatures between 20 and 25 °C, and
decreases as temperatures rise. At over 35 °C (50 per cent
relative humidity) performance is at 80 per cent on aver-
age. In addition to room air temperature, the ambient tem-
perature is a particularly important and oft-overlooked
criterion for comfort. Ambient temperature is the mean of
room air and surface temperature. Wall temperatures can
be increased in winter with the help of radiant heating
units. Heated facades, which diminish cold airdrops and

46
 reduce draught on tall facades, are also advantageous.
Even the addition of a single pane can lead to an improve-
Occupant ment. Recent developments in thermopane glazing take
this phenomenon into account. In combination with the low
Clothing
Activity thermal transmission values of the glass, surface tempera-
Length of stay tures do not fall below 18 °C even on cold winter days.
There are various options for arranging the so-called low-E
layer (cf. pp. 56ff). Indoor air quality is another comfort
Room requirement. Ventilation and air-conditioning systems
Thermal should create a physiologically favourable indoor climate
Temperature of Comfort
surrounding sur- of impeccable hygienic air quality. To fulfil this task, a
faces and other series of measures are required during the planning,
sources radiating Climate design, construction and operation of the building. In Ger-
heat
many, 30–40 m3/h of fresh air is generally deemed suffi-
Air temperature
Air velocity
cient for every workstation. This corresponds to an air
Humidity change of 2 ac/h. If smoking is allowed, the fresh air rate
must be increased to 60 m3/h. However, in order to ade-
quately exhaust other loads, for example, exhalations and
4.12
odours – from humans, materials, carpeting – up to 80 m3/h
of fresh air should be supplied per person.7 In buildings
with natural ventilation (window ventilation), air change
cannot be defined with precision; it depends on wind pres-
sure and external temperatures. The type of window open-
ing – its design as tilt-and-turn window, sliding window with
synchronized horizontal openings at top and bottom, or
sliding window with vertical openings – is also important in
practice. The differing designs and concepts (simple or
cross-ventilation) result in very different air change rates
and perceived indoor air comfort.

Efficiency
The demand for flexible and innovative spatial organiza-
tions, and for savings in operating costs, has resulted in
planning and design concepts that are comprehensive.
Aside from the understandable demand for comfort, the
issue of efficiency is becoming more important. Ultimately,
decisions are based on the financing of a new construction
and the anticipated operating costs. Although the tasks of
building systems have become more complex in recent
years and can only be solved in an interdisciplinary
manner, only some 5 per cent of total budgets are dedi-
cated to planning and designing these systems. The pro-
duction costs are in the region of 25 per cent and 70 per
cent are dedicated to operation. These numbers should
illustrate the focus of clients and/or investors and the areas
in which they should invest. In the past, buildings were
often thoughtlessly equipped with technology; facades
were poorly insulated and left without shading systems or
with systems that were inefficient . Energy consumption
was, and continues to be, correspondingly high. Low effi-
ciency coefficients and oversized heat-generating systems
exacerbated the wasteful management. The annual energy
requirement of roughly 900 kWh/m2 in the mid-1960s was
reduced to 400 kWh/m2 by the early 1990s (Fig. 4.13).
Today, an administrative building with an energy coefficient
of roughly 150–170 kWh/m2 in terms of primary energy

4.11 “Westhafen-Tower” in Frankfurt/Main (2002), Schneider +

Schumacher, prefabricated facade system, air-water cooling ceilings,
river water cooling.
4.12 Comfort criteria

47
 requirements is classified as a low-energy building in Ger-
Consumption many. However, old buildings, in particular, are still being
1 operated with outdated building systems. In other words,
800 energy consumption continues to rise because the building
2
skin has deteriorated over time through exposure to the
600 3 elements and systems can no longer achieve acceptable
efficiency, despite regular maintenance. The lifespan of a
building, especially of the structure, is two to three times
400 longer than the lifespan of the technical equipment.
4 Changes in communications technology are further
200
decreasing the life cycles of technical building equipment.
The evolution of PCs and information technology has
5 brought about inevitable changes in building use. These
changes, along with new technical systems, translate into
1965 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 necessary adaptations. The acceleration in changes to
Year
building systems will increase, albeit not automatically or
Consumption in kWh/m2/a:
1 – 3 Air-conditioning system (1 fans/blowers, 2 cold air supply, 3 necessarily, with each innovation in the effectiveness and
warm air supply) functions of electronic data processing and information
4 Facade technology, which will, in turn, increase the energy effi-
5 Lighting
ciency of the building systems. Different potentials for solar
4.13
building can be harnessed depending on building type
and requirements. The topic has sparked many debates,
but it is only in recent times that new supply concepts have
been developed. The advantages of the new developments
are particularly evident when compared to the old systems.
To illustrate the potential of technical solutions, three reno-
vation projects have been chosen in which comfort was
increased and energy requirements were reduced (includ-
ing, CO2 emissions).

The examples are:

• BMW headquarters in Munich
• Former Chamber of Deputies high-rise “Langer Eugen”
in Bonn
• Former Reichstag in Berlin

Each of these buildings is known beyond the borders of

Germany and they are considered icons of timeless archi-
tecture. The authors were directly involved in the technical
upgrades of the two high-rises in the form of project stud-
ies carried out over several years. The Reichstag renova-
tion, on the other hand, was planned and executed as an
exemplary model of solar building. The key aspects, which
led to the improved comfort conditions and reduced
energy consumption, are discussed for each of these
examples.

BMW Headquarters in Munich

The Viennese architect Karl Schwanzer completed the
BMW headquarters building between 1968 and 1972. The
shape and unique proportions of the high-rise became a
symbol and an urban link to the grounds of the Olympic
Games, which were held in Munich in 1972, the same year
the building was completed. The building’s unique plan
made it possible to create a variable and flexible office
structure. Each workstation was assigned an area of
10.25 m2 at the time, which resulted in a ratio of 73 per
cent usable area to 27 per cent circulation area. The divi-
sion of the usable area into four sections grouped around
the building’s core resulted in work areas with a more or
less equal share of daylight (Fig. 4.14). The BMW high-rise
was the first example in Europe of a facade structure where
breast wall, intrados and lintels were composed of a single

48
 element. The facade design is particularly noticeable. Each
element consists of a trapezoid, a roughly 2 m2-large pane
of antisun glass, which is tilted outward by an angle
approximately 9° (Fig. 4.15, 4.17). This ensures that sound
is not reflected directly into the room through the facade,
but redirected via the ceiling. Another advantage, albeit not
deliberately planned, is the diminished angle of solar inci-
dence. Compared to the real altitude, the sun always
seems to be 9° higher in the sky. The insolated glass areas
– and hence the external cooling loads – are reduced. This
prefabricated facade is also called an alcast-facade
(alcast = aluminium-cast).8 The offices in the high-rise are
supplied via so-called two-duct, high-velocity air-condition-
ing systems, a concept that was popular and technically
excellent at the time. The VAC equipment was housed in
the basement and on the 15th and 23rd floors. Air was
transported vertically in the building core to the individual
floors. Horizontal floor distribution to the individual office
areas was effected via air ducts suspended from the ceil-
ing. Fire-protection registers in the shaft separated the fire
compartments. Cold and warm air were mixed in variable
air volume boxes according to the set values for room tem-
peratures and injected into the rooms at a constant volume
flow. The air was injected into the room from the variable air
system via air inlets and the suspended ceiling from above;
4.14 spent air was similarly suctioned off through outlets. Tre-
mendous air volumes were required to extract the heat
loads in the offices. Air change was ac = 7 h-1 in the outer
area of the cylinder, and ac = 10h-1 in the inner area. This
meant that an average of 24 m3/h of air had to be injected
for each square metre (Fig. 4.16). Requirements had
4.15 changed after more than 25 years of operation: computer
had replaced typewriters, the number of workstations had
increased and so had the cooling loads in summer. Prob-
lems also became evident on the facade: the sealant was
porous. Thermal bridges began to form between sections
and the facade was no longer airtight. In 1997, the com-
pany was inspired by these visible signs of wear and tear,
and by design/construction errors, to consider renovating
the high-rise. A competition was held and the first commis-
sion issued for an analysis of necessary renovations on
the administrative building. The results of the study led to
a proposal for executing a renewal of the facade in con-
junction with the implementation of a completely new air-
conditioning concept – taking current requirements for
workplace conditions and communications technology into
consideration. It was suggested that the air-only system
should be replaced by mechanical and natural fresh air
ventilation in combination with a water-cooled system in
the form of a cooling ceiling. The original fresh air rate of
24 m3/h per square metre was reduced to a mere 6 m3/h
per square metre with the proposed displacement ventila-
tion system, which ensures draught-free, flexible and effi-
cient ventilation. The radiant cooling from the cooling ceiling
creates a comfortable indoor climate. With the existing vari-
able air volume system, air was injected into the rooms in a

4.13 Trend in energy consumption in Germany

4.14 BMW high-rise, Munich (1972), Karl Schwanzer, Vienna, room division
on standard floors
4.15 BMW high-rise Munich, assembly of prefabricated facade elements

49
 fairly turbulent manner and with relatively high velocity. The
resulting eddies flushed the rooms with air. The vertical air
jets reached nearly all utilized areas. In the proposed dis-
placement ventilation system, the pre-processed fresh air
is injected noiselessly into the room across a large area.
Due to the cooler temperature of this air, it sinks to the floor
and forms a kind of “sea” of cold air. It rises along warm
A bodies – occupants and computers – bringing fresh air
directly into the space and distributing it around the room.
Noiseless and draught-free, it absorbs heat and is
extracted at the top (Fig. 4.16). Up to 70 per cent of inter-
nal and external loads are utilized via heat recovery sys-
tems to pre-warm the fresh air in winter, or to pre-cool it in
summer. Another advantage of this system is the modest
installation height required in the ceiling area.

The proposed technical upgrades not only radically reduce

B
energy consumption, they also cut operating costs for
4.16 repair and maintenance in half:
• replacement of facade insulation
• improvement of shading from g=44 per cent to g=12 per
cent (approximately) with the help of 30°daylight-directing
louvers
• 75 per cent reduction of required air volume
• air supply temperature raised from previously 17 °C to
20 °C in summer through displacement ventilation
• increase in the energy recovery coefficient to roughly
70 per cent as a result of new systems and equipment

Former Chamber of Deputies High-rise “Langer Eugen” in

Bonn
The former Chamber of Deputies high-rise for the German
Bundestag has been in operation for over 30 years. The
innovative design and concept for the landmark, erected
4.17
between 1966 and 1969, were created by Egon Eiermann.
Today, the building houses various UN institutions (Fig.
4.19). The building is divided into five zones: entrance,
deputy offices, restaurant/café and kitchen as well as
equipment floors. It consists of a circulation and a supply
core constructed with in-situ concrete, the load-bearing
steel skeleton structure and the prefabricated concrete
floor slabs. The column grid on the two lower floors is 7.50
≈ 7.50 m, decreasing to 3.75 ≈ 3.75 m on the floors above
(Fig. 4.18). The shading system is fixed rigidly in place. It
consists of glass-fibre reinforced polyester louvers screw-
fastened to the vertical beams (square sections) of the
facade. The distance between louvers and outer building
edge is roughly 1.2 m (Figs. 4.21, 4.22). The advantage of
this design is the passive use it makes of solar radiation.
The angle of incidence changes as a result of the projec-
tion depending on the season, and in summer the system
provides effective shading for the offices. Without diminish-
ing visual contact with the outside, the shallow winter sun
also leads to heat gains. The offices are supplied with air
via induction units mounted below the windowsills on the
inside. Fresh-air is pre-warmed (or pre-cooled) in the cen-
tralized plant on the equipment floor and transported to the
induction units via the support columns for the steel gird-
ers. Every second column conducts air and cold or warm
water. The induction units extract spent air at floor level
and inject fresh air into the room at ceiling level (Fig. 4.20).
Depending on the cooling loads, this leads to variable and
high air velocities (draught) and loud flow noises. From the

50
 areas near the core, spent air flows from the offices into
the hallways and anterooms. This system no longer meets
current fire-safety standards. The goal of the study was
to adapt the building to current office building standards,
while preserving the external form. The proposed upgrade
for the climate concept is based on newly developed
induction technology.
The old units were to be replaced with new displacement
air induction units. This system reverses the airflow direc-
tion. Air is suctioned off above the window and fresh air is
injected into the room horizontally and with low velocity. A
water-cooled system (cooling convector/ceiling) covers the
remaining cooling demands, although the output was sized
exclusively for the offices. The areas near the core are sup-
plied from a separate central ventilation system. The dimin-
ished output of the latter means that the ducts can be
smaller, which adds 20 cm to the clear room height. The
main advantages of the proposed displacement ventilation
system are:

• guaranteed continuous air exchange

• the reduction of draught
4.18
• diminished energy consumption (Fig. 4.20).

Reichstag Conversion in Berlin

The conversion of the Reichstag Building into the German
Bundestag in Berlin (1996-1997) introduced changes to the
spatial programme and, at the same time, symbolized the
new parliamentary use of the building. Remarkably, the cli-
ents also wanted to create an ecological symbol and
decided that this would be the principal criterion for award-
4.19 ing first prize. The winning design has met these require-
ments in an exceptional fashion. It has not only made the
building accessible to the public all day long – a solution
that is unique in the world for this type of building – but also
implemented an extremely advanced ecological concept
that was equally unique at the time. The existing building
had been fundamentally restructured in the interior after the
Second World War and was equipped with building sys-
tems dating from the 1960s. Nevertheless, the Reichstag –
planned and realized over a century ago by the architect
Paul Wallot in collaboration with engineer David Grove
(1884-94) – was nothing short of a technical marvel in its
original form. The concept corresponded largely to con-
temporary standards. The seat of the German Bundestag
was conceived to not only ensure efficient operation with
minimal energy consumption, but also to act as a symbol of
a “democratic and transparent parliament, a model of ecol-
ogy” (cf. pp 148ff). Since the building substance was
largely preserved, the conversion could be based on the
advanced heating and ventilation system developed by

4.16 BMW high-rise, Munich, existing mixed ventilation system (A), pro-
posed system of air injection at floor level/displacement ventilation
system with cooling canvas (B)
4.17 BMW high-rise, Munich, facade section. The facade is joint-fastened
to the concrete slab, U-beams ensure lateral stability.
4.18 Chamber of Deputies high-rise, Bonn (1969), Egon Eiermann; stand-
ard floor plan with offices and conference halls
4.19 Chamber of Deputies high-rise, Bonn, facade image in 1969

51
 Grove. It was the goal of the engineer to utilize the inertia of
the building mass to create evenly distributed room temper-
atures regardless of occupation, external air conditions or
other influences. Plenary halls, reading and refreshment
areas were supplied with fresh air. Numerous air inlets
beneath the seats and spent air vents in the ceiling were
used to ventilate the plenary hall. Grove employed the
A system of displacement ventilation that is common today. All
the important aspects of the concept and questions of sizing
were tested – without computer simulation – on 1:1 models.
Air was transported via huge ducts and air reservoirs to
reduce the conveyance effort: at the beginning the system
was to be steam-powered, but by the end of the ten-year
construction phase, electric fans blew the air through the
various ducts. The large ducts were necessary to keep the
pressure loss to a minimum, because of the low capacity of
the axial fans9 available at the time. The low air velocities
also helped to prevent intrusive noises. Heating pipes built
B into the supply air ducts made it possible to heat the air
more or less to the desired temperature. Adiabatic cooling10
4.20
by means of water spray ensured that the air was almost
fully saturated (8–8.5 g water /kg air). As the air continued to
warm, relative humidity reached the desirable level virtually
on its own. With means that appear simple today, Grove
achieved a comfortable, constant indoor climate, especially
in the plenary hall: the air was warmed to a temperature of
20 °C in a mixing process in chambers heated to different
temperatures. A century later, this concept served as the
basis for one of the most modern building systems, which
achieved efficient operation with minimal energy consump-
tion. The stipulations which the German Bundestag imposed
on the planners – minimize the consumption of fossil fuels
and the CO2 emissions – led to the implementation of the fol-
lowing measures:

• Natural ventilation
• Daylighting
• Utilization of solar energy
• Vegetable oil as regenerating fuel
4.21 4.22 • Power-heat-cooling co-generation
• Seasonal energy storage (aquifer)

Power Generation and Distribution

The administration of the German Bundestag supported
additional measures, which extends the energy concept
from the Reichstag to all buildings in the parliamentary dis-
trict in the Spreebogen area, a comprehensive concept
referred to as the “parliamentary power grid.” Additional,
complementary system components, which all adhere to the
principle of power-heat co-generation, were set up in the
remaining buildings and interconnected. The user power
demand determines the supply. The waste heat resulting
from the combustion process is used for heating and/or
cooling. Excess energy is fed into the parliamentary power
grid, which supplies the Reichstag, the Paul-Löbe-, Jakob-
Kaiser- and Marie-Elisabeth-Lüders houses. The grid allows
for a more evenly distributed, optimized and thus efficient
load distribution as well as balancing the entire comprehen-
sive system. The CHPs are fuelled by vegetable oil in the
form of methylester, also known as “bio-diesel,” which
reduces CO2 emissions by more than 50 per cent compared
with fossil fuels. The parliamentary power grid is based on a
comprehensive approach to power generation and distribu-

52
 tion, an effective contribution toward minimizing emissions,
especially of CO2, and utilizing a percentage of regenera-
tive energy sources (Fig. 4.24).

Seasonal Energy Storage (Aquifer)

If electricity only is required in the Reichstag or one of the
other buildings, the process heat from the CHP cycle is
removed, in the form of hot water, to a water-bearing layer,
a so-called aquifer reservoir.11 In winter, heating energy in
the reservoir is available for the reversed cycle (from
65–30 °C, cf. pp 150ff). To store water at a mean tempera-
ture of roughly 50 °C without undue ecological impact on
the energy balance near the surface, saltwater-bearing
layers (aquifers) at approximately 400 m below the surface
are used. There are no objections to the use of the aquifer,
4.23 because a 60 m barrier, in the form of a layer of clay,
serves as a natural geological separation. The heat of the
warm water recovered from the aquifer can also be used to
operate warm-air registers and floor heating directly or indi-
rectly, or via a heat pump. As a means of cooling the
building and the air in summer, groundwater is drawn from
a second, shallow aquifer reservoir 30–60 m deep. In anal-
ogy to the principle of thermal storage, the warmed water is
returned at another location some distance away.

Natural Ventilation
The existing historic air ducts are used to ventilate the ple-
nary hall. Fresh air is drawn in on the west side of the build-
ing above the portico and warmed or cooled via large heat
exchangers with minimal pressure losses. Slowly-revolving
fans transport the air into a pressure floor beneath the hall.
The preconditioned fresh air is then fed into the hall. Warm,
spent air is drawn out through openings in the conical day-
lighting structure and escapes at the top, whereby thermal
energy is extracted by a heat exchanger (cf. pp 156 ff).
Openable windows (motor-driven or manual) and a second
external layer of glazing make it possible to naturally venti-
late many of the rooms for a large part of the year (cf.
pp. 152ff).

Daylighting
In contrast to the concept by Paul Wallot and David Grove
– the original Reichstag dome was purely symbolic in char-
acter – daylighting is an essential component in the con-
temporary energy concept and a visible characteristic of
the dome. A cone with 360 mirrors set into the glass dome
directs diffuse daylight into the plenary hall and reduces
power consumption for artificial lighting. At night, it sets the
dome aglow (cf. pp 158ff).

Solar Energy
One variation – one building block – of utilizing solar
energy is to employ vegetable oil. The use of this natural
and regenerative raw materials helps to drastically reduce

4.20 Chamber of Deputies high-rise, Bonn, existing ventilation systems with

induction units (A), proposed ventilation system with displacement-
induction units (B)
4.21
4.22 Chamber of Deputies high-rise “Langer Eugen”, Bonn, facade with
rigid shading louvers, schematic facade section
4.23 Reichstag, Berlin (1994), Conversion: Foster and Partners

53
 5 4 3 CO2 emissions. In the Reichstag, the goal was to achieve
economically efficient and ecologically sustainable autono-
mous supply. In addition to efficiency, the symbolic char-
acter of this building designed for reduced energy
consumption also played an important role. A photovoltaic
system was therefore installed on the roof as an additional
solar component, which enables nearly emission-free solar
power generation.

Energy Savings
The building is run in stand-by operation (large storage
mass and short-term occupation periods). Floor heating
1 2 covers most of the heating demand in winter, maintaining a
low temperature level and preserving a steady state in the
1 Reichstag
building through constant heat supply. This prevents a
2 Dorotheen blocks
3 Luisen block decrease in internal wall temperatures. The advantage of
4 Alsen block this operating method is that the peak heating loads are
5 Federal Chancellery reduced by roughly 30 per cent. While Grove was unable
to precisely determine the constant fluctuation in heating
Boring cold storage Heat transfer station demands in the Reichstag, dynamic building simulation
Boring heat storage Absorption chiller/heat programmes make it possible today to calculate hourly
To house distribution for pump (BAS)
heat/cooling/power Combined heat and power
heating loads. In summer, cooling ceilings continually
Transformer plant (CHP) extract heat from the building with little effort in terms of
4.24 energy consumption. A mechanical ventilation system is
activated only when internal loads rise rapidly because
there are more occupants (peak load). This system design
drastically reduces the power demand for the fans,
because their use is limited to very short periods of time.
Moreover, the varying demand for heating, cooling and
power in the parliamentary power grid ensures excellent
utilization of the CHPs. The utility supplier BEWAG supplies
peak load and stand-by power if the capacity limit is
exceeded. A dual and spatially independent 10-kV supply
ensures that the grid is supplied with power (Fig. 4.24). The
ducts and pipes (also for heating/cooling and the aquifers)
are laid in underground tunnels between the buildings. This
complex power generation and supply system requires an
overarching energy management, which uses prognoses
processes to ensure that energy supply is optimized at all
times.

Efficient Building – Standardized Building

A variety of methods and tools are required to reduce the
energy consumption of building even during the planning
and construction phase and to ensure comfort even when
economic resources are scarce. These include simulation
calculations and numeric modelling, employed to deter-
mine parameters such as temperature conditions and room
quality. From both the economical and the ecological per-
spective, the quality of the systems installation work and of
the building’s structure should also be monitored and har-
monized at the earliest possible stage. Optimization has
long become a standard in industrial manufacturing proc-
esses, (e.g. automobile manufacture); this aspect still
seems to be neglected in building processes. The current
research into “systems engineering” aims to develop a
methodical approach to organizing complex building
projects, which makes it possible to also standardize the
technical requirements that change from project to project
in architecture. Fully prefabricated solar building compo-
nents are transformed into coherent building modules.
Given the same construction costs, this leads to greatly
improved quality in execution, shorter assembly and instal-

54
lation times and also provides a solid foundation for facility
management (roughly 75 per cent of the total cost required
to operate a building for 30 years). Planning and building
processes can only be optimized if architects and engineers
adopt a new way of thinking: they must approach tasks from
a systemic and not only a systematic perspective. What we
need are systems of measuring, databases, industrial pre-
fabrication as well as intelligent controls and comprehensive
electronic data management. New ideas, designs and build-
ing methods can raise the always anticipated, albeit rarely
delivered, quality in craftsmanship to industrial standards.
Complex building processes become manageable through
planning projections, and thus, efficient – a foundation for
solar, that is, sustainable building.

4.24 Reichstag, Berlin, parliamentary power grid, diagram of energy supply

concept
4.25 Administration building, Munich (2001), von Seidlein, prefabricated
facade, natural ventilation, regulation/control via Bus system, building
component cooling
4.25
Notes:
1 The Kioto Protocol (ratified in 1997) – the United Nations agreement on
climate change – contains the contractual commitment of the signa-
tory states to gradually reduce emissions in order to counteract global
warming. www.unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html
2 According to VDI guideline 4640 in Germany
3 The bill on the preservation, modernization and expansion of power-
heat coupling (power-heat co-generation bill) came into effect on April
1, 2002. Operators of eligible CHP installations will receive estimated
subsidies of ™ 4,448 billion by 2010. Operators of newly created small
CHPs of up to 50 KW and of fuel-cell installations enjoy the greatest
benefit. www.bmwi.de
4 The bus constitutes a common link between several communicating
systems (participants) – e.g., building systems, alarm systems or com-
puters. This connection is the basis for building automation. Every par-
ticipant preparing to access the bus, verifies whether the bus is
currently transmitting data. The rules for data transmission are referred
to as the protocol.
5 The maximum velocities for offices are set at 0.15–0.2 m/s to prevent
draught (DIN 1946).
6 The British Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (1774–1857) developed the
Beaufort scale named after him in 1806. It is used to estimate wind
force based the effects of wind according to a given definition. The
scale ranges from wind force 0 (calm) to wind force 12.
7 In Germany, the range of comfortable room air temperatures is
defined in DIN 1946.
8 Alcast-facade construction: Alcast element: approx. 2m2 antisun trap-
ezoidal glazing; Type: Auresin 66/44 with air cavity; Structure: 8 mm
+12 mm, +6 mm SZR, no thermal separation from frame; internal
shading: vertical louvers, U-value of 1.8 W/m2 K, 44 per cent transmis-
sion coefficient
9 Axial fans transport air in the direction of the propeller shaft. This pro-
duces high volume flow with very little power consumption. This
method is very suitable for short routes with low counter pressure.
10 Adiabatic cooling (∫ evaporative cooling)
11 Aquifer reservoirs are large natural, underground reservoirs for sea-
sonal storage, which utilize water-filled porous layers in the earth.
12 Sorption technology (sorptive conditioning) describes the combination
of desiccation, evaporative cooling and heat recovery (∫ sorption
technology).

55
56
Utilizing Daylight
Helmut F.O.Müller and Heide G.Schuster

The Task increases, simulation tools, which facilitate in the planning

and design of complex systems, will gain in importance.
From simple weather protection to multifunctional
building skin Designing Architectural Space with Light
“Care must be taken with all buildings, [to ensure] that they “More and more, so it seems to me, light is the beautifier of
are bright […].”1 the building.”2

The first windows were conceived less for utilizing daylight Master architects have always worked with light and its
than for ventilating rooms. The house itself was intended to effects in interiors. Light is the prerequisite for architecture,
provide protection against extreme weather conditions and for architecture cannot be perceived without light. Light is
to offer safety. Historically, buildings have always been alive, varied and changes nearly every second. Intelligent
planned in an integrated manner based on necessity: the use of daylight can achieve a powerful intensity in the spa-
characteristics and effects of daylight were well-known tial effect and awaken emotions in the observer. The archi-
because no other medium could provide adequate illumi- tect can manipulate light in terms of colour and intensity,
nation. It was only after the invention of electrical light and utilize it directly or indirectly, or employ it in its natural state.
its widespread use that architects and planners began to Openings can blur the transition from the interior space to
lose their knowledge of daylight. This, and the division of the exterior or deliberately “frame” the exterior space.
planning into design, building physics, building systems
and load-bearing systems, obviated the integrated inter- It is important to distinguish between ambient lighting
pretation of space and light, which was superseded by a designed to achieve a specific effect – for example, a mys-
purely physical approach to technical solutions. Artificial tical spatial effect in churches – and the utility lighting that
light was seen as indisputable progress because it allowed is essential for the use of a building, for example, office
for the creation of windowless rooms and enormous room buildings. The rule of thumb for the latter is: the more day-
depths. But the industrial revolution also made it possible light is used, the more comfortable is the user.
to realize larger openings in the building skin with the help
of glass and iron. Load-bearing, solid walls were elimi- Changing priorities over time wrought the aforementioned
nated; entire roofs could be covered in glass. The evolution changes in architecture. In the past, the imperative was to
of the curtain wall allowed for the creation of glass-steel adapt to the regional climate, today, artificial lighting and
facades that were independent of the load-bearing struc- heating or cooling make it possible to design architecture
ture, and the invention of air-conditioning systems made it independent of climate conditions – with global rather than
possible to compensate for the overheating in buildings regional characteristics. Today, the language of architec-
resulting from the large glazed surfaces. ture is more or less the same worldwide, regardless of
The interior of a building could thus be cooled and illumi- where a building is located. But energy consumption – par-
nated independent of climate and weather conditions. After ticularly in lighting – is strongly dependent on the local cli-
several generations of architects were no longer compelled mate, cultural environment and building form. A German
to design with daylight in mind, there was a noticeable lack engineer recently made a memorable statement: “The best
of training and expertise in this area. and most effective form of energy efficiency is thinking.”3
Today, we have access to technological options, which
can minimize many of the problems associated with glass Visual Perception and Visual Tasks
facades in the past. Nevertheless, there is a growing inter- The sensitivity to light of the human eye ranges from
est in daylighting, inspired, on the one hand, by lower 380–760 nanometers (nm) and is optimally adapted to
costs for lighting and cooling and, on the other hand, by solar radiation: the greatest sensitivity lies in the range of
user comfort. The influence of daylight on humans and the
significance of daylight quality are generally underesti-
mated. For the lux value alone is a poor indicator of the
physiological and psychological effect of the surroundings. 5.1 Airport Munich, Terminal 2 (2003), Koch +Partners;
As the number of available types of glass and materials Check-in hall, direct and indirect utilization of daylight.

57
 the maximum radiation intensity at 550 nm (yellow), dimin-
ishing as it reaches the short- and long-wave radiation
spectrum. The retina of the human eye has different types
of receptors: approximately 5–6 million cones for colour
perception in daylight and over 100 million rods, which are
sensitive to light and react to low light intensity (night
vision). A third type of receptors that influence the circa-
dian behaviour of humans (i.e., for the biological inner
clock) was only discovered in recent years.

The light sensitivity of the eye dependent on the wave-

length is the reference for the photometric units, which are
employed to measure and calculate lighting designs (offi-
cial SI-units4):
• Luminous flux (Φ): total light output of a luminous source;
5.2 unit: lumen (lm).
• Luminous intensity (I): luminous flux in solid angle of 1
steradian (lm/sr); unit: candela (cd).
• Illuminance (E): luminous flux/area (lm/m2); unit: lux (lx).
• Luminance (L): impression of brightness emanating from
a light source or illuminated surface, given as luminous
intensity per area (cd/m2).

The bandwidth of the brightness, that is, luminance, per-

ceptible by the human eye covers an astonishing range: in
nocturnal situations with rod vision from 106 to 100 cd/m2
and in diurnal situations with cone vision from 100 to
104 cd/m2. Adaptation is achieved through adjustment in
the pupil and biochemical processes in the retina. This
process takes time, particularly in the case of adaptation
from very high to very low luminances, a familiar experi-
ence with glare when driving at night (up to 30 minutes for
adaptation from a bright to a dark environment, approxi-
mately 3 minutes for the reverse). Although less noticeable,
extreme contrast in luminance in the visual field of percep-
Φ
tion is just as uncomfortable because the eye attempts to
simultaneously adapt to the bright and the dark areas.
L
Exposure to contrast glare over long periods, especially in
the workplace, causes fatigue and discomfort. Very high
luminances present, for example, when direct sunlight falls
onto reflecting surfaces, also result in uncomfortable glare
E effects, which must be avoided at workstations.5

5.3 Aside from glare prevention, there are additional require-

ments that must be considered when daylighting interiors,
such as contact with the exterior, brightness, colour neu-
trality and detail resolution. Visual contact with the outside
through windows is a basic requirement; its importance to
100 1,0 room quality has been proven in many user surveys.6

80 0,9 Brightness is essential both for the perception of the inte-

rior space and for the effort- and errorless execution of cer-
Radiation intensity in %

60 0,6 tain visual tasks. Default standard illuminances7 for certain

1 2 types of room use should be understood as minimum
40 0,4 values (e.g., 500–1000 lx for offices); higher values result in
better visual performance.8 The same applies to the lower
20 0,2 boundary value of the daylight factor (ratio of horizontal illu-
minance in the interior to the horizontal illuminance on the
0 0,0 exterior under overcast sky) according to DIN 5034: the
380 780 1000 1500 2000 3000
Wavelength in nm factor 0.9 per cent for living areas lit from one side repre-
sents the absolute minimum, whereas good daylighting
1 Visible range of light/light sensitivity of the human eye requires considerably higher factors of 5 per cent or more
5.4 2 Global radiation depending on room use. Given a mean exterior illuminance

58
 of 10 000 lx under overcast sky, for example, the latter
would translate into a minimum illuminance of 500 lx for the
interior. However, it is often insufficient to limit brightness in
interior lighting to horizontal illuminance (at a working plane
of 85 cm above floor level), for vertical illuminance, in par-
ticular, is significant with regard to the biological effect of
light and for specific visual tasks, for example, looking at
exhibits in a museum setting. The user’s visual impression
of a room is, however, not influenced by illuminance, but by
luminance.

The spectral composition of daylight should remain unal-

tered by the glass or shading device of the window
because it is the prerequisite for correct colour rendition in
the room (colour neutrality). Detail perception is extremely
important for many visual tasks; differences exist for office
work, precision mechanical work and textile work. As
brightness increases, so does the resolution capacity (per-
ception of details), although a minimal contrast, for exam-
ple, through cast shadows, is required. To summarize: the
efficiency of visual performance increases as illuminance
increases.

Physiological and Psychological Effects of Light

“Lighting is not an exact science, but also an art that
affects objects and humans.”9
Natural light with cast shadows, fluctuations and colour
rendition is the yardstick by which humans assess light
quality, and is in part related to cultural background, cli-
mate and location. Personal experience also plays a role.
People are influenced by the prevailing light conditions.
5.5 Their biorhythm is based on the natural change from day to
night, the duration and intensity of sunshine, and the spec-
tral composition of light. When we consider that humans
did not originally inhabit enclosed space, we can easily
understand how working exclusively under artificial lighting
conditions can lead to illness. In some latitudes, (e.g., Cen-
tral Europe), there is a risk of insufficient exposure to day-
light especially in winter, which may cause the
well-documented winter depression (Seasonal Affective
Disorder). We now know that exposure of the eye over
several hours per day to a vertical illuminance of at least
2500 lx is required to synchronize the internal clock.10, 11
The stipulated minimum illuminance in offices, on the other
hand, is only designed for visual performance, not for the
circadian system, that is, the system which influences the
biorhythm. The called-for 500 lx in the workplace (horizon-
tal measurement) is far too low in this regard.12 If one were
to provide the amount of light necessary for the biorhythm
solely with the help of artificial light, the result would be a
drastic jump in the average amount of energy that is con-
sumed and a corresponding increase in cooling loads.
Moreover, light quality is much diminished by the use of
artificial light, because the latter only renders parts of the
spectrum and distorts the appearance of colours in the
interior.

5.2 Light effect as a result of dust in an Asian temple.

5.3 The photometric units: luminous flux (Φ), illuminance (E)
and luminance (L)
5.4 Sensitivity of the human eye to brightness in dependence of wave-
length
5.5 Church St. Thomas Aquinus, Berlin (1999), Höger Hare Architects

59
 Colour temperature in the short-wave range has a positive
100%
influence on hormone production and seasonal changes in
1 2 light have a positive effect on mood. Given the same illumi-
75
nance, daylight has twice the influence on the circadian
50 system than an incandescent lamp.13 It is the only available
25 and, moreover, free source for a higher and more effective
0
level of illumination. A positive psychological effect of light
5.6 400 500 600 700 800 mm is achieved when a room appears bright and open. There
is a close correlation with the room-enclosing surfaces.
Thus, a room that is predominantly black has an entirely
different effect on people than a room with light surfaces
and identical illuminance. The guidelines for building plan-
2 3 2 ning include a statement that windows should offer an
unobstructed view. This is vital, because the information,
4
1 which the user in the interior gathers from looking through a
window, (e.g., pertaining to season and weather), is essen-
5 tial for his or her comfort. Daylight makes it possible to
create an environment, the brightness of which would be
6 perceived as uncomfortable if it were created with artificial
light. In other words: the reliability of visual performance,
which artificial light offers in theory, is outweighed by the
1 Daylight, exterior 4 Illuminance (nominal value)
2 Luminaire 5 Artificial light component increased readiness for greater performance in daylit
5.7 3 Light sensor 6 Daylight component rooms. Psychological glare is a subjective impediment,
which differs for daylight and artificial light under identical
objective conditions (contrast and luminance). The cause
for this differing evaluation has not been fully explained sci-
entifically. 14 Recently, experiments have been undertaken
with variations in artificial light in the workplace. But even in
this case, daylight is preferable over artificial light, because
the changes in daylight are unpredictable and hence more
interesting to people.

Balancing Daylight and Artificial Light

Daylight differs qualitatively and quantitatively from artificial
light in many different aspects, for example, in spectral
composition and brightness as well as in fluctuation over
the course of a day. This is why daylight cannot be
replaced by artificial light. Human beings need daylight
because it satisfies two basic needs: illumination of the
room and the biological stimulation of the psychological
and physical sense of well-being. It is generally agreed
that working in daylight causes less stress and discomfort
than long-term working in artificial light, and that the latter
can even have a negative impact on health.15 For this
reason, interiors designed for daytime use and occupation
are preferably lit with daylight, restricting the use of artificial
light, whenever possible, to those times when daylight is
unavailable. Economic and ecological arguments also sup-
port the minimized use of artificial light. While daylight is
freely available in the form of solar energy, artificial light
consumes electricity and is thus a major contributor to the
operating costs of buildings and to the stress on the envi-
ronment. Sunlight is not only free, with a luminous power of
roughly 110 lm/W, it is also far more efficient than artificial
sources (e.g., incandescent lamp 12 lm/W, fluorescent
lamp 80 lm/W). At the same time, artificial light, and the tre-
mendous wasted energy which is radiated as heat, contrib-
utes a great deal to room temperatures in summer, that is,
to cooling loads.

A prerequisite for saving energy consumed for lighting is to

provide automatic control of the artificial lighting system in
dependence of daylight. The required use of artificial light

60
 in addition to daylight can be quantified with the help of
calculating the daylight autonomy (percentage of annual
work hours with daylighting) or utility lighting (percentage
of annual lighting available through daylight).16 The term
lumination, introduced by Aydinli17, takes not only the day-
light-dependent use of artificial lighting into account, but
also a quantification of daylight use when the artificial light-
ing is dimmed. Various processes are used to calculate
annual power consumption (i.e., energy costs for artificial
lighting). A standardized analysis process is anticipated
when the German Institute for Standardization implements
the EU-guideline on the “total energy efficiency of build-
ings.” Monitoring of case studies of the IEA18 reveals clear
differences in energy consumption for artificial lighting in
dependence of daylight utilization.

Basics of Daylighting

Daylight Availability under Overcast and Clear Sky

Daylight availability, solar altitude and sunshine hours are
strongly dependent on the location of the site. A climate
analysis is therefore absolutely essential in the planning of
building designs and particularly in daylighting design. The
daylight availability in the exterior space is many times
greater than in the interior of a building. Thus, an overcast
sky provides an average of approximately 10 000 lx, which
can be utilized for lighting in the interior. In summer, this
value rises up to 100 000 lx under clear skies. We differen-
tiate between direct and diffuse radiation. The latter is
largely non-directional and is the product of scattering of
solar radiation in the atmosphere. Direct radiation, on the
other hand, is directional depending on the solar azimuth.
In Germany, an annual average of 37 per cent19 of direct
radiation are incident on a vertical facade with southern
exposure, dropping to roughly half that value for east- and
west-facing facades. Direct radiation is dependent on the
degree of cloudiness and is subject to strong variation
depending on weather conditions. Daylighting design is
5.8 based on an evenly overcast sky (e.g., daylight factor). In
reality, however, the luminance varies according to solar
azimuth and building orientation. It is greatest, for example,
when the azimuth is at its highest, in which case it would
make sense to deflect the zenith light into the interior.

Design Parameters: Investing Space with Light …

“Architecture is the sage and correct play of the bodies in
light.”20

Urban Planning
In addition to the climate conditions, the location of a build-
ing in its immediate environment plays an important role.
Shading from neighbouring buildings or trees as well as
orientation influence the incidence of daylight into the inte-
rior to a considerable degree. These parameters must be
taken into consideration from the very beginning in the ini-
tial sketches of a design, because they have the strongest

5.6 Influence of daylight on biorhythm (1) and eye sensitivity (2).

5.7 Daylight-dependent control of artificial lighting.
5.8 Urban district in Shenzhen, China (2001)

61
 impact on the subsequent energy consumption in a build-
ing. A downtown district in the Chinese city of Shenzhen
(Fig. 5.8) is a negative example. The distance between the
apartment blocks is extremely small. As a result, there is no
more than a minimum of air movement and no light pene-
trates into the spaces. This is exacerbated by another
major problem arising from the large glass and metal sur-
faces on the facades: the reflection from these facades can
lead to pronounced reflected glare even in north-facing
rooms. This parameter must also be taken into considera-
tion in the building design. The shape of the building dic-
tates the orientation and depths of rooms, which play an
important role later on for the design of the building skin
and the need for artificial lighting. In high-rises, room depth
and height, planned courtyards, atria or light wells as well
as terracing or recesses, which are intended to allow day-
light to penetrate from the top down to the ground floor, are
important parameters.

Building Skin
The building skin creates the transition from interior to exte-
rior and vice versa. Designs may vary between perforated
facades (fenestration) or fully glazed facades. The building
5.9 skin forms a membrane, which regulates the quality of inte-
rior lighting in conjunction with use and ensures the
exchange of light, air and heat. At the same time, it pro-
vides weather protection, influences the appearance of a
building, creates a sphere of privacy and sometimes even
serves as an advertising platform.

Interior
The interior is only perceived as a result of light. Key plan-
ning and design parameters are the surface structure of
the space-enclosing surfaces, the position of the worksta-
tion in relation to the window and the arrangement of the
furnishings. Bright surfaces are generally preferable over
dark surfaces because they reflect more light, and matte
surfaces are preferable to glossy surfaces.

Shading and Glare Protection

“A glass house without shading is like a Porsche without
breaks.”21

An effective shading system prevents overheating in a

building’s interior and adapts to different weather and light
conditions. The aim is to reduce energy consumption for
cooling and lighting – which constitute a large percentage
of the total energy consumption in office buildings – and to
provide a glare-free work environment. Generally speaking,
it is easiest to provide shading for south-facing facades
because of the high solar altitude, which facilitates light
deflection. East- and west-facing facades, on the other
hand, must contend with stronger incident solar radiation
as a result of lower solar altitudes. Shading and light
deflection are difficult to realize in these conditions. A pos-
sible solution is to replace the more common horizontal
shading elements with vertical elements to better reflect
solar incidence from shallow angles. Accordingly, the
shading system determines the look of a facade in a build-
ing depending on orientation. The system may be hidden
unobtrusively in the facade cavity or serve as an expres-
sive design element. Many moveable shading systems are
equipped with automated controls for optimum efficiency.

62
 Such automated systems respond to the current incidence
c
of solar radiation and are usually coupled with the building
automation system. The clear advantage is that such sys-
tems prevent overheating in the interior as a result of errors
in manual operation or when users are absent. At the same
b
a time, they monitor the interactions between heating, cool-
ing, ventilation, shading and glare protection in a central-
ized fashion, ensuring optimum adjustment and
harmonization. The disadvantage is chiefly experienced by
the user, whose freedom of choice is limited and who may
5.10 a b c experience a constantly adjusting shading system as an
unwelcome distraction. Complementing automatic controls
with manual options is a good solution because it enables
the user to adjust lighting conditions on an individual basis.
When this option is not provided, experience has shown
1 that users try to manipulate the system or even switch off
the controls.
3
2
Basics of Calculation: Drawing Light – Calculating Light –
Simulating Light
“Shadows have always been the brushwork of the tradi-
tional architect.”22

D = Ds +Db +Di Architectural drawings have always used light and shadow
1 = Sky factor (Ds) to render facades, for example, in a more plastic fashion.
2 = Built-environment reflection (Db) Geometry is the basis according to which shadows are
3 = Interior reflection (Di)
5.11 drawn, making it possible to determine the precise per-
spective of shadows depending on the time of day and
the orientation and location of the building.

Daylighting is planned on the basis of standardized

5.12 guidelines.23 In Germany, DIN standards for window
dimensions are mainly based on visual contact with the
outside world, and less on the daylight quality in the inte-
rior. Daylight is measured with the daylight factor, that is,
the ratio of interior to exterior illuminance under an overcast
sky (the mathematical mean at a height of 85 cm above
floor level). However, the daylight factor does not indicate
the quality of daylighting in interiors; it is only helpful in
rapidly assessing the minimum requirements for wall
openings.

According to the daylight factor, the values in rooms

located on the north and south side of a building are simi-
lar, even though the light conditions are clearly different in
reality. Other important planning and design parameters
are, for example, the interior illuminance for open or closed
shading and glare protection, as well as the distribution of
light in the room for direct solar incidence and the resulting
luminance, which is an important factor in terms of glare.
Additional factors in this case are the direct incidence from
the visible portion of the sky, external reflection onto build-
ings on the opposite side and onto the ground as well as
reflecting surfaces in the room.

5.9 Pool, Bad Elster (1999), Behnisch and Partners. The screen-printed,
pivoting glass louvres provide shade and glare protection.
5.10 Comparison in interior illuminance according to window position.
5.11 Sky factor; external and internal reflection
5.12 Public library, Landau (1998), Lamott Architects. Rigid wooden louvers
mounted in front of the glass facade provide shading.

63
 Today, the realistic rendition of architectural scenes is no
longer a problem thanks to advanced CAD technology.
Excellent visual renditions of this kind are usually created
for competitions or presentations to good effect. Things are
more complicated, however, if the aim is to “cast scenes in
the appropriate light,” that is, when the rendition is to be
accurate from the perspective of lighting engineering.

The current marketplace offers a variety of software for

daylight simulation. There are simple programmes, which
are usually capable of calculating both artificial light and
daylight;24 they also provide data on the overcast sky, the
daylight factor and the resulting distribution of illuminance
and luminance in the room. These programmes are mainly
used to establish minimum window dimensions and mini-
mum brightness ratios for daylight and artificial light. They
are less helpful, however, in assessing the quality of light.
They are easy to operate and can be used to rapidly esta-
blish basic results with regard to the size and position of
openings during the design process. Other programmes
take the clear, sunny sky into consideration and are there-
fore capable of providing realistic and physiologically cor-
rect calculations. These programmes import CAD files and
utilize them for the simulation. In addition to illuminance
and luminance, they also provide accurate data on materi-
als, with the option to modify individual characteristics. For
the calculation of diffusing, defracting or directing charac-
teristics, however, it is frequently necessary to consult
additional programmes that are customized for the specific
case. The complex nature of these programmes requires a
great amount of training and the relevant expertise for reli-
5.13 able interpretation.

Daylighting Design Principles

Skylights
Lighting from above – through openings in the roof – is far
more efficient than lighting from the side – through open-
ings in the walls – because the entire hemisphere is avail-
able as a light source. Windows set into walls, on the other
hand, can only tap into half of the hemisphere as a light
source and thus achieve only one fifth of the illuminance
given with skylights of the same size. A second reason,
why windows are less effective, is the distribution of bright-
ness under an overcast sky, which diminishes by approxi-
mately one third from the zenith to the horizon. Another key
advantage of skylights is that they allow light to penetrate
into floors of any depth. As little as 20 per cent of skylight
area per floor area can achieve comfortable daylight fac-
tors of roughly 5 per cent. It is important, moreover, to con-
sider the solar heat gains in conjunction with daylighting.
The incline of skylights in relation to the sun is, therefore,
an important factor in the optimized use of solar energy for
lighting and heating/cooling. Passive solar heat gains are
desirable for heating applications; they are undesirable,
however, with regard to cooling applications, which are of
prime importance in work environments, where solutions,
which allow only diffuse light to penetrate and deflect direct
sunlight, are preferred. In the case of hall roofs, this is often
achieved by means of transparent north sheds with an
incline of 60°, which do not allow direct light to penetrate,
even though they create fewer advantageous lighting con-
ditions than horizontal windows. The large roof area of

64
 shed roofs, moreover, often results in considerably higher
heating energy consumption than horizontal roofs without
raised inclines. Skylights with vertical glass areas are the
least effective solution from a lighting perspective.

The horizontal glass roof at the University of Bremen exem-

plifies the effective realization of shading and daylighting
with the help of customized glass (Fig. 5.13): a colour
screen print provides sun and glare protection; evenly dis-
tributed lighting in the entrance lobby from direct sunlight
in daytime supplemented by artificial light at night (radiant
luminaires above the roof) is provided with the help of indi-
vidual glass elements with light-directing holograms.

Light Shafts and Atria

5.14 Light shafts and atria are architectural means of introduc-
ing daylight into compact buildings with deep floors, which
would be difficult to light via the external facades. Offices
adjacent to such light shafts or atria, even those located in
the least advantageous position, must satisfy all the
requirements for daylighting, meaning, the minimum day-
light factor and, above all, visual contact with the outside. A
w survey carried out by Hans Jürgen Schmitz25 indicated that
h : W = 2:1 A visual contact with the outside through an atrium has a sig-
1:1 B nificant influence on user acceptance. This means that
0,5:1 C atria with full-time workstations should not be fully
0,25:1 D
A enclosed; in other words, a glass roof alone is not sufficient
B
and should be complemented by a glass facade to the
h
exterior. Sufficient daylighting for workstations on the
C
lowest level is ensured if the angle of light incidence does
D
not surpass roughly 45° across the entire height of the
A atrium, as demonstrated in computer simulations and
measurements. Terraced floors or cone-shaped courtyards
are additional architectural tools used to realize high user
density in combination with good daylight conditions.
8 8 Narrow atria and courtyards can be realized when there
7
are no full-time workstations on the lower levels. Narrow
6 45 °
7 courtyards or shafts can considerably augment measures
5
for directing sunlight at the roof level, especially on sunny
4 6
5
days.
3
4
2 3
1 >45 °
2
1
Windows
B The arrangement, size and division of windows play an
important role in daylighting. Thus, floor-to-ceiling windows
5.15
allow daylight to penetrate deeper into the space, whereas
a glass breast wall has virtually no advantageous effect for
the interior. To ensure sufficient illumination in side-lit
rooms, the room depths must not exceed 2.5 times the
window height. Light-directing measures must be imple-
mented for rooms with openings on one side and greater
depths. In these cases, a horizontal division of the opening
areas is recommended to provide areas with views of the
6

4 5.13 Entrance lobby, University of Bremen (2001), Jan Störmer Architects.

Light-directing holograms are integrated into the roof (cf. Fig. 5.25).
5.14 R & D centre, Meiningen (2002), Kauffmann, Theilig and Partners.
3
Light-directing systems bring daylight into the offices.
5.15 Daylight availability under overcast sky: for different roof openings (A),
2 and for rooms adjacent to an atrium according to floor level. The angle
of incident light for the lowest level should not fall short of 45° (B).
1 5.16 Principle of sunlight deflection in atrium in comparison to conventional
5.16 solution without light deflection.

65
 outside and with shading as well as for daylight incidence
and light direction. The new office building for Deloitte &
Touche in Düsseldorf (Fig. 5.17) is a good example. The
following basic principle applies: the taller the window, the
better the resulting daylight utilization. Other factors, such
as shading projections, can have a negative influence
because they reduce not only direct radiation but also the
percentage of diffuse light under an overcast sky – an
effect, which is not as advantageous in Germany as it is in
other countries with more solar radiation. In terms of office
building interiors, a facade system can be said to be well-
designed if it allows diffuse light to penetrate into the room,
but deflects direct light in order to avoid excessive solar
gains and, above all, to provide a glare-free work environ-
5.17 ment. Reflected glare on monitors can occur even in north-
facing rooms or under overcast skies; the same is true for
direct glare when looking out of a window. Glare protection
is required in the last case; it should be adjustable inde-
pendent of the shading system and, ideally, still allow for
f : h = 1,5 : 1
1,6 : 1
1,9 : 1
2,4 : 1

visual contact with the outside.

h

A
B
Light-directing, Glare- and Sun-protection Systems
C The design of transparent building components and win-
D dows is, on the one hand, defined by the primary function
of light penetration and visual transparency. On the other
A
D C B A hand, these elements fulfil an important control function
with regard to strongly fluctuating radiation intensities and
are also relevant for aspects of lighting and heating/
A
cooling. The primary function is fulfilled in the arrangement
0,25 : 1 = d : h B and orientation of the building, the sizing and placement of
0,50 : 1 C windows, and the selection of the most transparent glazing
for the least favourable conditions, (e.g., an overcast sky).
0,75 : 1 D
To some degree, interior lighting can also be improved with
1,0 : 1 E the help of light-directing systems.26 These systems make it
A
d possible to light very deep rooms through windows or very
B tall and narrow rooms through skylights. Deflection of dif-
h fuse light from the bright zenith range of the overcast sky,
C frequently employed for window installations, has proven
D elaborate and inefficient because of the moderate availabil-
E ity of light. There is, however, no viable alternative for north-
facing rooms. A far more effective approach is to redirect
B direct sun radiation, especially in combination with shading
5.18
measures, for example, rigid, horizontal louvres in the
upper half of the window, frequently referred to as light
5.19
shelves. There is a risk of glare, however, when the sun is
low in the sky, unless a moveable shading system is pro-
vided. The House of Commons in London (Fig. 5.29) is a
successful example of integrating light-directing and venti-
lation functions in the facade. The rigid, internal and exter-
nal horizontal louvres serve to redirect diffuse light,
distribute artificial light and provide shading. Moveable
light-directing louvres in the top half of the window can
reflect direct sunlight into the depth of a room. So-called
light-deflecting glass has been available in the market-
place for some years. It allows for glare-free distribution of
sunlight in the depth of a room without the need for addi-
tional flexible components. The system effects vertical and
horizontal deflection of direct radiation, creating even and
glare-free lighting up to a room depth of 10 m. Glare pro-
tection, that is, protection against direct sun incidence in
the occupied area or high luminance near windows, should
Section be flexible and user-operated.
Plan

66
 Relevant installations such as roller blinds or Venetian
5.20 blinds need not be identical with thermal sun protection;
they can also be mounted separately and on the inside of
the window. This also provides additional passive solar
heating in the cold season. The thermal sun protection
should not interfere with daylighting and visual contact with
the outside, a stipulation that is not so easy to fulfil if one
takes a look at standard blinds. Artificial light is frequently
required in interiors when the shading system is activated.
Many different solutions can be categorized according to
the following, simplified, criteria:

Flexibility:
• constantly in effect (e.g., anti-sun glass)
• effective depending on solar altitude, rigid (e.g., roof
overhang, rigid louvre)
• flexible according to user manipulation (moveable instal-
lations such as blinds, Venetian blinds, awnings, horizontal
and vertical louvres, switchable glass27)
5.21
Reduction of radiation transmission:
• undifferentiated reduction of global radiation (direct and
diffuse, from all directions)
• selective spectral reduction of the infrared range of solar
radiation (not visible)
• selective directional reduction of direct solar radiation
(transparent for diffuse radiation)

Placement:
5.22
• external, in front of glazing
• internal, behind glazing
5.23 • internal, on room side of glazing

Flexible solutions are extremely advantageous for daylight-

ing. Conversely, constant reduction of transmission as well
as rigid shading depending on solar altitude are particu-
larly disadvantageous for natural light in a room especially
under an overcast sky.

Daylighting is influenced by the different options for reduc-

ing the transmission of solar radiation: undifferentiated
reduction without consideration for direction, spectral
range and radiation intensity, (e.g., in the case of standard
anti-sun glass), also limits light transmission, which is a dis-
advantage especially on overcast days. Selective spectral
anti-sun glass has high light transmission and low infrared

5.17 Office building, Düsseldorf (2003), Deilmann, Koch and Partners

Light-directing glass in the facade enable daylighting of a second
workstation even when the shading system is in use. (cf. Fig. 5.26)
5.18 Daylight availability under overcast sky: for side-lit room with varying
window-sill heights (A), for side-lit room with different roof overhangs
(B).
5.19 Light distribution with light-directing elements in the facade and reflec-
tion off the ceiling.
5.20 Shading and light direction with light shelves, functional diagram for
New House of Commons, Westminster, London.
Daylighting design: Michael Hopkins & Partners
5.21 Flexible shading system in the form of louvred blinds; the louvres can
be utilized in part for redirecting sunlight.
5.22 Functional principle of light-deflecting glass
5.23 Administration building in Wiesbaden, Herzog and Partners Light
shelves in the shape of scoops re-direct the direct sunlight.

67
 transmission, (e.g., total energy transmittance g/light trans-
mission t = 0.25/0.50) whereas g and t are approximately
identical with standard anti-sun glass. Transparent shading
systems, which target direct solar radiation for deflection
and allow diffuse light to penetrate, provide daylighting,
visual contact and glare protection. Uni-axial tracking of
the sun is essential for these solutions, which operate with
transparent and directionally selective holograms incorpo-
rated into the glass.

The functional principle of transmission holograms for the

purpose of directing light and which can be integrated in
laminated glass as transparent film, is shown in Figure
5.25. Light is only redirected in case of a defined angle of
incidence and is combined with spectral colour splitting, as
5.24 in a prism. So-called white light holograms, which remix the
rainbow colours into white, are used for room lighting. The
placement of the shading system has primarily an influence
on thermal conditions; it is far more deleterious on the
inside than on the outside or in the interstitial space
between panes. On the other hand, the increased dirt
factor on external installations can also have a negative
α impact on the lighting functions. Combining the different
β
principles for light-direction, glare and sun protection
1 2 opens up a variety of options for diverse locales and archi-
tectural ideas. (see pp. 142ff)

A Plea for Utilizing Daylight

1 Incident light at
an angle of ¬ The authors are active at the interface of research and
2 Holographic grating development, on the one hand, and concrete implementa-
tion of daylighting concepts, on the other hand. In this con-
5.25
tribution, they have sought to address the most important
topics on daylight utilization, in particular those that are
pertinent to current debates on the theme, and to provide
relevant examples. The use of solar radiation for lighting is
a discipline that has been long neglected. With expert
planning and design, however, the available options offer
tremendous advantages for people’s health, well-being and
performance in the workplace, but also for sustainability as
a result low energy costs. Aside from the qualitative signifi-
cance of daylighting for humans and architecture, which
has been described in detail, it is important to draw atten-
tion to its ecological and economic relevance: daylight,
without pollutants, is readily available and is environmen-
tally friendly and cost free.

Architecture that is optimized for daylighting can drastically

lower the operating costs of non-residential buildings with-
out any notable increase in construction costs. Compara-
tive observation of selected office buildings has shown that
daylight-dependent control of the lighting system and opti-
mized light-directing and shading systems translate into
annual power savings of 25 kWh/m2 or roughly 2.5 ™/m2.28
The savings potential is even greater in terms of personnel
costs if one includes the reduction in illness and the
increased performance of the building’s users in the calcu-
lation. The gain of a single working day represents roughly
25 ™/m2 per year, according to the authors’ experience.
The sooner a targeted use of daylight is included in the
architectural design process, the better the opportunity to
develop an efficient solution and to reduce technical meas-
ures – and therefore costs and energy consumption – to a

68
minimum. Given the complexity of the field, the collaboration
of architects, experts and light engineers, on the one hand,
and clients as users and financial backers, on the other
hand, has gained in importance as well. This means, how-
ever, that the architect, who continues to act as a generalist
and relies on experts for individual areas, has to become
informed in all areas and must explore the most important
issues in order to optimize and harmonize this collaboration.
This effort is worthwhile, because designing with daylight is
appealing in ways that working with artificial light can never
be.

Notes/Bibliography:
1 Vitruvius. On Architecture, volume 2. Zurich/Munich 1987, 6.36
2 Frank Lloyd Wright cited in Baker, Nick; Stoemers, Koen: Daylight
Design of Buildings. London, 2002, p. 4
3 Jörg Probst from Gertec Engineers in a lecture for students at the Uni-
versity of Dortmund on June 4, 2003
4 Systéme international d‘unités
5 In Germany: German Institute for Standardization: DIN 5034. Daylight
in Interiors, Berlin 1985-1999
6 Schmitz, Hans Jürgen: “Tageslicht im Atrium. Akzeptanz von Arbeit-
splatzbedingungen in Büros an Atrien unter besonderer Berücksichti-
gung der Tageslichtverhältnisse.” (Dissertation),
Marburg, 2002, pp. 129ff 5.24 SUVA-building, Basel (1993), Herzog & de Meuron. The external glass
7 DIN 5035 Lighting with artificial light skin, added during the upgrade, is divided into horizontal bands,
8 Szokolay, Steven V.: Environmental Science Handbook. Lancaster/ which assume different functions.
London/New York 1980, p. 90 5.25 Functional principle of holographic-optical elements
9 Guide on Interior Lighting, CIE Publication, Paris, 1986 5.26 Office building, Düsseldorf (2003), Deilmann, Koch and Partners.
10 Kramer, Heinrich; von Lom, Walter: Licht. Cologne, 2002 Light-directing glass in upper half of window (cf. Fig. 5.17).
11 Cakir, Ahmet; Cakir, Gisela: Projekt Tageslicht. Berlin, 2001, p. E 53
12 Rea, Mark S.: “Light – more than just seeing.” (Dissertation), Lighting 5.26
Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York,
pp.3ff
13 ibid. p. 7
14 Cakir, Ahmet; Cakir, Gisela: Projekt Tageslicht. Berlin 2001, p. E 44
15 International Energy Agency: Daylight in Buildings. A Source Book on
Daylighting and Systems and Components. A Report of IEA SHC Task
21/ECBCS Annex 29, July 2000, pp.1-1ff
16 Görres, Marcus: “Entwicklung eines Berechnungsverfahrens zur Opti-
mierung des Energieverbrauchs künstlicher Beleuchtung.” (Disserta-
tion), Dortmund, 2001, pp. 25ff
17 Aydinli, Sirri; Krochmann, J.: “Solarstrahlung – Wärmegewinn und
Kühlleistung.” Technik am Bau, 8/1984, pp. 563–567
18 International Energy Agency: Daylight in Buildings. A Source Book on
Daylighting and Systems and Components. A Report of IEA SHC Task
21/ECBCS Annex 29, July 2000, pp.1–1ff
19 VDI 6011 – VDI-Richtlinien zur Tageslichtnutzung, Düsseldorf, 2002
20 Le Corbusier. “Vers une architecture.” 1923
21 Peter C.von Seidlein cited by Compagno, Andrea: “Sonnenschutz-
maßnahmen an Fassaden.” Glas 2/2003, p. 42
22 Frank Lloyd Wright cited by Baker, Nick; Stoemers, Koen: Daylight
Design of Buildings. London, 2002, p. 4
23 In Germany: DIN 5034 Tageslicht in Innenräumen [Daylight in Interiors]
24 Suppliers of the relevant software are listed on the following Internet
sites: www.relux.biz; http://floyd.lbl.gov/radiance/framew.html;
www.siview.de; www.al-ware.com; www.ibp.fhg.de/wt/adeline
25 Schmitz, Hans Jürgen: “Tageslicht im Atrium. Akzeptanz von Arbeit-
splatzbedingungen in Büros an Atrien unter besonderer Berücksichti-
gung der Tageslichtverhältnisse.” (Dissertation), Marburg, 2002,
pp.129ff
26 Müller, Helmut F.O.: “Dynamische Raumbeleuchtung.” Danner, D.;
Dassler, F.H.; Krause, J.R. (ed.): Die klima-aktive Fassade. Leinfelden-
Echterdingen, 1999, pp. 40ff
27 Switchable glass can modify its transmission coefficient, electrochro-
matic glass (e.g., through a voltage feed).
28 International Energy Agency: Daylight in Buildings. A Source Book on
Daylighting and Systems and Components. A Report of IEA SHC Task
21/ECBCS Annex 29, July 2000, pp. 5–11ff
29 Brainard G.C. “Photoreception for regulation of melatonin and the cir-
cadian system in humans.” Fifth International LRO lighting research
symposium, Orlando, Florida 2002

69
Projects

Page Projects Useable area Passive measures

72 Passive-energy terraced housing 820 m2, advantageous A/V-ratio; south orientation; decentralized controlled
Johannes Kaufmann 9 residential units ventilation/heating via heat exchanger

78 Housing estate in Kolding 4885 m2, advantageous A/V-ratio; south orientation; facade ventilation; heat gain via
3xNielsen 59 residential units solar wall; thermal storage in party walls between apartment units

82 Passive-energy terraced housing approx. 157 m2, advantageous A/V-ratio; controlled heating/ventilation via heat- and geother-
Johannes Brucker 18 residential units mal heat exchanger

88 Point blocks in Innsbruck 21500 m2, 0.2 A/V-ratio; decentralized controlled ventilation and heating via heat
Baumschlager & Eberle 298 residential units exchanger; micro heat pump

94 Lawyer’s practice in Röthis 250 m2 advantageous A/V-ratio; south-west orientation; sunshade louvers;
Reinhard Drexel controlled heating/ventilation via earth collectors and heat exchanger; micro
heat pump

98 Sport hall in Wängi 4686 m2 hybrid facade system; active heat gain system and passive heat storage;
Fent Solare Architektur controlled ventilation via heat exchanger

102 Secondary school in Klaus approx. 6844 m2 natural lighting via windows and skylights; blinds for shading; controlled
Dietrich und Untertrifaller heating/ventilation via earth collectors and heat exchanger

108 Conference and exhibition building approx. 3000 m2 membrane roof: shading/dimming and daylight direction via rotating louvers
Herzog + Partner in ETFE-cushion; controlled heating/ventilation via heat exchanger and
groundwater cooling

112 Office building in Solihull 5800 m2 shading provided by rigid aluminum louvers in gable wall; blinds on north-
Arup Associates west side and moveable wooden shutters on south-east side; lighting/
ventilation via solar chimneys; building components as storage mass

118 Administration building in Recanati 3088 m2 sun-protection roof with fixed aluminum louvers; natural ventilation and light-
MCA Mario Cucinella Architects ing via facade; skylights above atrium; building components as massive
(thermal) storage

124 Administration building in Landquart 4541 m2 automated building system: heating/cooling; daylighting/artificial lighting;
Bearth & Deplazes shading provided by external awnings; building components as storage
mass

130 Administration building in Würzburg approx. 2541 m2 automated building system: light-directing aluminum louvers in double
Webler und Geissler facade; double-skin facade as climate buffer; ventilation via atrium/facade;
chilled ceiling;

136 Solar factory in Braunschweig 8215 m2 0.36 A/V-ratio; natural lighting/ventilation via skylights; controlled heating/
Banz + Riecks ventilation via heat exchanger;

142 Academy of further education in Herne 13000 m2 microclimatic envelope; daylight direction via holographic optical elements;
Jourda Architectes for internal houses via light shelves; controlled heating/ventilation via heat
Hegger Hegger Schleiff Architekten exchanger and underground ducts

148 Reichstag in Berlin 11000 m2 dome: daylight direction/air exhaust for plenary chamber via daylight
Foster and Partners cone; controlled heating/ventilation; aquifer storage; heat exchanger;
dessicative and evaporative cooling and absorption-system

70
Active measures Supplementary heating Heating energy demand Primary structure
collectors for warm water Pellets-supplementary end house: 19 kWh/m a
2 prefabricated timber components
heating row house: 12 kWh/m2a

collectors for warm water district heating 29 kWh/ m2a brick walls

collectors for warm water district heating 12.5 kWh/m2a prefabricated timber components; sandlime
5 m2/house; blocks
photovoltaic connections

collectors for warm water gasheater 20 kWh/m2a reinforced concrete slabs

140 –190 m2/building

collectors for warm water electric heating 34.5 kWh/m2a timber skeleton construction

collectors for warm water exist. oil heating 4.11 kWh/m2a timber skeleton construction

Photovoltaics wood chip combustion 15 kWh/m2a prefabricated timber components

collector connections

collectors heat and power plant 28 kWh/m2a timber skeleton construction

photovoltaics

– gas boiler 50 kWh/m2a steel structure

– – – reinforced concrete

– gasheater – reinforced concrete

collectors for warm water heat and power plant 35 kWh/m2a steel skeleton construction

collectors/photovoltaics CHP rapeseed oil 27 kWh/m2a light-weight timber construction,

reinforced concrete

photovoltaics 9 300 m2/roof CHP gas < 50 kWh/m2a timber skeleton construction
800 m2/south-west facade detached houses
*integrated solar power plant

photovoltaics 300 m2 MHKV rapeseed oil – existing structure: solid construction

dome: steel construction

71
 Passive-Energy Terraced Housing
in Dornbirn
Architect: Johannes Kaufmann, Dornbirn
Energy consultants: E-Plus, Ralf Lenninger, Egg

Enjoying a view to the Bregenz Forest, this row of nine ter-

raced houses with a communal unit at the end is situated on
the outskirts of Dornbirn in Vorarlberg, Austria. A group of
clients, including the architect himself, joined forces to realize
this scheme. The dwellings form the first stage of a mixed
development. Further housing strips and a commercial unit are
also planned. The use of prefabricated timber elements
helped to ensure low production costs and a short construc-
tion period. The individual two-storey houses, each with a floor
area of roughly 80 m2, allow a flexible use of the internal
spaces. The only fixed elements are the ground floor kitchen,
laid out along the western party wall of each house, and the
WCs and bathroom on the ground and first floors. From the
open kitchen and living area, a single-flight staircase, with
storage space beneath, leads to the upper level. Here, there
are two rooms, with the bathroom in the middle and a separate
WC. In the entrance hall of each dwelling, a trap door in the
floor provides access to a small cellar space containing
mechanical services, which comprise a combination of individ-
ual and communal systems.
The high density of the development means that the site has
been exploited with great economy. It was nevertheless possi-
ble to create a small open space with a timber patio on the
south side of every house. Pivoting shutters provide visual
screening to the balconies and the private points of access on
the garden side. A small porch-like structure, consisting of a
landing with a side wall and roof in fibre-cement sheeting,
forms a sculptural element on the north face of each house.
The porches afford protection against the weather and also
define the entrance situation. Parking spaces will be provided
later in the form of an underground garage.
The consortium of clients received a grant from the state of
Vorarlberg from funds to support environmentally friendly hous-
ing in the region. The level of financial support was calculated
according to a points system based on a comprehensive list of
criteria. These included the use of ecological building materials
and forms of construction, and other measures designed to
promote passive low-energy housing. The system provides
support for individual building concepts drawn up for specific
situations. The scheme was planned and executed in such a
way that it would achieve the maximum possible subsidy under
this assessment system. With this low-cost development, the
architect and other clients have managed to reconcile the
needs of qualitative design with high environmental standards.

72
 1

aa
2

Site plan
scale 1:1000
Section
1 1
Ground and a a
first floor plans 5 4
scale 1:200 4
3
1 Ventilation and
heating runs 6 6
2 Basement space
3 Kitchen/Living room
4 Room
5 Bathroom
6 WC

73
 1 1
5

2
2
5 6

3
7

4 8

Construction
The ten terraced units were erected in a dry form of construc-
tion with prefabricated, multilayer timber elements. An amend-
ment of the state building laws in Vorarlberg allowed the party
walls to be built in timber. Executed in a two-leaf form of con-
struction for sound-insulating purposes, they provide a certi-
fied one-hour fire resistance. Only one cross-wall, between
houses 5 and 6, had to be built in reinforced concrete as an
additional means of fire protection. It acts as a rigid slab that
also serves to brace the row in the longitudinal direction. The
ground floor slab, consisting of softwood box elements filled
with insulation, is borne by the concrete basement units on the
north side of the houses and a strip foundation along the south
side. The upper floor construction consists of prefabricated,
five-ply, solid laminated-timber elements spanned between
the party walls of the houses. There are no further finishings on
top: the smooth softwood surface forms the actual flooring. It
was also possible to do without impact-sound insulation within
the individual dwellings. The soffit is finished with a sus-
pended layer of larch boarding, with electrical runs laid in the
intermediate cavity. A prefabricated, solid laminated-timber
construction was also used for the flat roof. The outer walls
consist of insulated timber box elements, complete with the
necessary door and window openings. Work executed on site
included the triple glazing, the external horizontal larch board-
ing, the roof insulation and finishings, and the gypsum fibre-
board linings to the internal walls.

Horizontal section through

south facade
on ground floor;
joint between construction
elements;
assembly sequence
scale 1:20

1 internal wall elements

2 85/50 mm timber
stud with sealing strip
3 external wall element 2
(window)
4 hinged shutter
5 internal wall lining
6 vapour barrier folded
back at edge
7 external wall element 1
8 external cladding

74
Passive-energy standard Vitiated air is sucked out in the kitchens and Diagram of heating system
The passive-energy standard was achieved here bathrooms. The ventilation plant draws in fresh 1 Solar collectors on roof of houses 1–3
by using highly insulated external construction air via a heat-exchange unit, heats it further over 2 Pellet-fired boiler in basement of communal
elements, with triple insulated glazing and con- a heating grid if necessary, and then feeds it unit to supplement heating supply at times of
trolled air-supply and extract systems; and by into the rooms. The heat-exchange unit exploits peak demand
ensuring that the building skin is otherwise air- waste heat from the kitchens and bathrooms. 3 Solar combination tank (2,000 l) in basement
tight. The primary-energy needs are 60–80 per The heating grid is fed with hot water from a solar of communal unit
cent lower than for conventional buildings of this combination tank. 4 Heating supply connection to communal unit
kind. The compact volumetric form and the The towel-rail radiators in the bathrooms are 5 Heating and ventilation connection to
broad areas of glazing to the south faces of the supplied with hot water from a central source. individual houses
houses also contribute to energy savings. The communal hot-water supply, also using rain- 6 Radiators in bathrooms and in communal unit
The individual dwelling units have their own heat- water, is heated by solar collectors. 7 Ventilation plant in basements of houses with
ing and ventilation plant. Vertical and horizontal In the event of an energy shortfall, a pellet-fired water/air heating grid for additional heating
ducts for heating and ventilation and the water boiler is available as well. This supplementary supply at times of peak demand; and air/air
supply are located on the western side of the source of heating and the solar combination hot- heat exchange for normal demand
houses along the party walls. In the living rooms water tank are situated in the basement of the 8 Recirculated water draw-off points for
and bedrooms, fresh air is blown in from above. communal unit. individual houses

4 5
2

75
Section scale 1:20

1 20/60 mm aluminium angle frame

28/150 mm larch glazing strips
triple glazing: 3≈ 6 mm glass
+ 2≈ 16 mm cavities
2 50/20 mm galvanized steel flat frame
3 Ø 4 mm steel cable
4 8 mm fibre-cement sheet cladding
5 27 mm three-ply laminated sheeting 2 3
6 balcony slab suspension:
Ø 12 mm threaded rod welded to
100/150/5 mm galvanized steel plate
Ø 12 mm nut and washer
7 40 mm impregnated veneered plywood,
4
varnished
8 10/140 mm galvanized steel cantilevered
bracket
Ø 12 mm steel sleeve threaded internally 5
120/200/15 mm head plate
9 125/58 mm larch strips 6 7
10 20 mm larch strip flooring
18 mm oriented-strand board

10

76
 12

11

13
vapour barrier 30 mm battens
280 mm thermal insulation between moisture-diffusing windproof layer
80/280 mm joists 21 mm laminated-softwood sheeting
20 mm sawn softwood boarding 280 mm mineral-wool insulation between
moisture-diffusing protective layer 60/280 mm softwood studding
11 60 mm layer of gravel; separating layer 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard
two-layer bituminous membrane vapour barrier
20–120 mm rigid-foam insulation 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard
finished to falls 15 124 mm laminated-softwood floor element
120 mm rigid-foam insulation with smoothed top surface 14
self-adhesive vapour barrier 30 mm softwood battens
136 mm wrot softwood roof element 20 mm larch boarding
12 62 mm extruded aluminium friction fixing 16 8/50 mm galvanized steel flat bracket,
strip to three edges fixed on rake
triple glazing: 3≈ 4 mm glass 100/180/8 mm head plate
+ 2≈ 12 mm cavities 100/50/8 mm fixing lugs
35/100 mm larch frame 17 8 mm coated fibre-cement sheeting
13 larch casement with triple glazing: plastic sealing layer, adhesive fixed
3≈ 4 mm glass + 2≈ 12 mm cavities 18 Ø 125 mm stainless-steel air-supply duct
14 external north wall element: 19 21 mm film-coated laminated-timber sheeting
20 mm larch boarding on 60/80 mm softwood bearers
15

16

17

18

19

77
 Housing Estate in Kolding
Architects: 3XNielsen, ¹rhus
Lars Frank Nielsen, Kim Herforth Nielsen

This Danish development, comprising 59 terraced houses and

a building with communal facilities, was the outcome of a com-
petition for environmentally friendly construction. To achieve a
maximum exploitation of solar energy, the houses are turned
at an angle of 15° to the north-south axis, thereby ensuring the
ideal orientation for buildings at this latitude. The north-facing
external walls are in a well-insulated multilayer form of con-
struction. The south faces, in contrast, are fully glazed. Inte-
grated in the glazing of every house is a vertical solar wall
element between 6.00 and 8.40 m2 in area. Behind the double
glazing in these strips is a black, perforated sheet-steel panel,
with a cavity and a layer of insulation to the rear. When
exposed to solar radiation, the steel panel heats up and
warms the air in the cavity. The system is used as a supple-
mentary form of heating, complementing the central heating
supply from the community building.
Site plan The solar walls are divided into two sections. The lower part
scale 1:2500 serves to preheat the fresh-air intake, while the heat gains in
the upper part are stored in the 290 mm concrete party walls
between the houses. If the temperature within the solar wall
rises above 30 °C during the heating period, a fan is switched
on which blows the heated air into the storage walls. These, in
turn, yield their heat at night to the dwellings. At the top of
the solar walls are ventilation flaps. In summer, when the fans
are turned off and heating is not required, the flaps can be
opened to allow warm air to escape, thus avoiding overheating
of the wall.
Two different types of prefabricated thermal storage walls
were developed. The system for the party walls consists of
concrete units with built-in heating tubes with hot-air circula-
tion. For the outer walls to the end houses of each row, hollow
cellular concrete elements were manufactured with an integral
layer of broken stone.
On completion of the work, test measurements were made in
two representative houses to determine the thermal behaviour
of the solar walls and the storage mass. Parallel to this, a
survey was carried out among the residents. The wall systems
have proved effective, and the users are satisfied with the
system. In the case of the solar wall strips, the costs were
7 per cent higher than for conventional forms of construction
(i.e. a standard glazed facade). The costs for the storage wall
were 45 per cent higher than for a normal brick wall. The
energy savings achieved with this system (115–125 kWh/m2a)
compensate for the greater outlay, however1.

1 1 kWh in Denmark costs ™0.06 (figures for 2000 = year of measurement).

78
 a b

Floor plans • Section

scale 1:200
2
1
1 Hall
2 Kitchen
3 Living room
3 4 4 Dining room
5 Terrace
6 Void
7 Bathroom
5 8 Bedroom
9 Balcony
a b

6 7

8 8

9
aa

79
 a b c

e A End wall system B Party wall system

g Hollow concrete elements with an integral layer Concrete dividing wall with heating tubes laid out
f of stone chippings. Fresh air enters in the lower in circular form in the core. Heated air is fed into
part of the wall and rises through the stones to the storage element at floor level. It flows through
the top. Heat is absorbed in the concrete, and the circular arrangement of tubes and heats the
h the cooled air returns through ducts to the base. concrete.
Every house has a glazed solar wall with an Each of the thermal storage elements in the con-
effective area of 5.20 m2, of which 4.20 m2 are crete walls has an area of 7.40 m2, of which 6 m2
used for the thermal storage system. are actually used for storage purposes.

Diagram of solar wall

system

a glazed facade 1
b absorber sheet and cavity
c thermal insulation
11 13
d warm air 12
e cool air 2 14
f fan 3 4
g thermal storage mass
h heated fresh air 5

Section scale 1:20

1 240/20 mm steel
channel section
2 sheet aluminium
ventilation element with 7
insect screen
3 30 mm thermal
insulation
4 22 mm plywood
5 95/50 mm wood frame
with Ø 40 mm ventilation 8
opening
6 steel bracket
7 ventilation flap
8 solar wall construction: 15
double glazing in
aluminium frame:
2x 4 mm float glass +
12 mm cavity
3 mm black, perforated
sheet-steel absorber
125 mm mineral wool
100 mm lightweight 9
concrete wall
9 fan
10 Ø 180 mm ventilation
duct
11 2 mm roof sealing layer
12 mm plywood 10
300 mm mineral wool
vapour-retarding layer
with capillary action
22 mm wood battens
13 mm plasterboard
12 70/300 mm timber purlin
13 2 mm sheet aluminium
14 3 mm sheet aluminium
windproof layer
9 mm composite wood
board
15 110 mm brick skin
130 mm mineral wool
100 mm lightweight
concrete skin bb

80
 Thermal behaviour of solar walls and storage
120 120
elements
100 The graphs show that the system functions well
100
in practice. Although the solar walls are not in
80 80 use in summer, they can be activated whenever
needed. The yield is approx. 114 kWh/m2 (air
60 ducts) and approx. 124 kWh/m2 (stone layer),

Yield in kWh/m2
Yield in kWh/m2

60
taking account of heat-transmission losses.
40 40 Measurements of solar radiation show that par-
tial shading caused by neighbouring buildings
20 20 and the growth of vegetation have reduced the

N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

effectiveness of the system. Without shading

0 0 losses, the energy yield would be roughly 25 per
A j f m a m j j a s o n d B j f m a m j j a s o n d cent higher – between 150 and 160 kWh/m2a.

A External wall system

B Party wall system

81
 Passive-Energy Terraced Housing in Ulm
Architect: Johannes Brucker, Stuttgart
Mechanical services: ebök, Tübingen

Restrained in its design and economical in its use of

resources, this development in Ulm, Germany, comprises 18
passive-energy houses laid out in three stepped tiers. Despite
the high density of the estate, which was dictated by cost fac-
tors, the different levels of the housing strips mean that every
dwelling enjoys panoramic views and a great deal of sunlight
from the south. The architects chose a mixed form of construc-
tion: the south facades consist of large, prefabricated timber
elements, while the external walls on the north side and the
load-bearing party walls were constructed with large sandlime
blocks. The use of reinforced concrete floor slabs allowed the
creation of three column-free storeys that the occupants can
lay out according to personal needs and which can be restruc-
tured at a later date. In addition, it is possible to divide the
houses into two independent units or to install an office.
The individual dwellings do not have their own separate heat-
Site plan ing systems. Uncontrolled heat losses are avoided by means
scale 1:2500 of tightly sealed joints in the outer enclosure as well as a high
standard of thermal insulation: 40 cm in the roof, 30 cm in the
outer walls and 20 cm beneath the base slab. The balconies
and porches are discrete constructional elements set in front
of the facades to avoid creating thermal bridges. In addition,
all windows are triple glazed. The ventilation plant not only
heats the intake of fresh air; through heat recovery and a pro-
cess of geothermal heat exchange, it ensures an agreeable
indoor climate and good air quality. If the energy from these
sources plus that derived from insolation is not adequate in
cold weather, a back-up system is available: residual heat can
be drawn from the return flow of a district-heating service to a
conventionally built block of flats nearby. The hot-water supply
is provided by solar collectors concealed in the planted roof.
A photovoltaic plant for the generation of electricity can be
added if required. The requisite connections have already
been installed.

A Exploitation of B Thermal insulation C Ventilation and heat

solar energy, and and airtight skin recovery
daylighting system
1 25 – 40 mm thermal 1 ventilation plant with
1 hot-water collector insulation heat recovery
2 photovoltaic installa- 2 peripheral airtight 2 geothermal heat
tion (optional) layer exchange
3 daylight deflection 3 non-bearing
(optical system) perimeter insulation
4 passive direct with thermal
exploitation bridges at point
fixings

82
 3 2 1 2 1

A B C
2
3

83
aa

Ventilation
Every house has a mechanical air-supply and
extract system with a heat-recovery facility. Fresh
air is sucked in via a filter and can be preheated
if required before being fed into the internal
spaces. Conversely, exhaust air is sucked out
and drawn over an air-to-air heat exchange unit
before being emitted from the building. The
volume of air and the air-change rate can be
regulated by the occupants in a series of steps.

Hot-water supply
Part of the hot-water supply is provided by a
thermal solar installation with a collector area of
roughly 5 m2 per house. The collectors are inte-
grated in the extensively planted roof.
The requisite electrical connections and a control
mechanism have been installed for a photo-
voltaic collector system to generate electricity.
Scope is thus provided for the generation of
additional power from solar energy.

Supplementary heating system

In the event of the heating supply proving inade-
quate in cold weather, a reserve source is avail-
able in the form of the municipal district-heating
supply. The plant for the present estate is con-
a a nected to the district-heating intake station in a
neighbouring block of flats, whereby only the
return flow is used.

Section
Ground floor layout
scale 1:500

84
 1

Section
scale 1:250
Sectional details
scale 1:20 3

1 roof construction:
100 mm extensive planting (two layers)
3 mm roof sealing layer on
synthetic-fibre felt
25 mm laminated wood construction board
140/420 mm (av.) timber beams
420 mm (av.) mineral-wool thermal insulation
13 mm chipboard
aluminium-coated polythene vapour barrier
12.5 mm plasterboard, smoothed and painted
2 wall construction:
textured rendering with two coats of paint
4 mm reinforcing layer
300 mm rigid-foam thermal insulation
150 mm sandlime block walling (large blocks)
3 mm skim-coat of plaster
woodchip paper, painted
3 plastic casement with triple glazing
4 floor construction:
20 mm oak parquet
4
45 mm screed on separating layer
20 mm impact-sound insulation
5 wood front door with rigid-foam core
6 terrace construction:
400/400/50 mm concrete paving slabs
40 mm layer of gravel
6 mm granular-rubber mat
roof sealing layer
30 – 80 mm rigid-foam insulation finished to falls
200 mm rigid-foam thermal insulation
vapour barrier
200 mm reinforced concrete floor slab,
smoothed and painted on underside
7 aluminium external sunblind

86
1

87
 Point Blocks in Innsbruck
Architects: Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau
Mechanical services: GMI Grasser & Messner, Dornbirn

Innsbruck, the capital of Tyrol in Austria, lies surrounded by

mountains in the broad valley of the River Inn. The Lohbach
development, a publicly assisted housing estate, was erected
in an attractive situation on the western outskirts of the city
beneath the wooded foothills of a chain of mountains to the
north. The six blocks of flats were constructed as low-energy
buildings. They are laid out offset to each other in chequer-
D board fashion and stepped up the gently sloping site at vari-
B
ous levels. As a result, the sun is able to penetrate deep into
F the courtyard spaces between the buildings. The layouts of
C
A
the flats in blocks A and B and in blocks D and E are identical.
E The central building, block C, contains dwellings for senior
citizens as well as communal spaces and care facilities. Con-
tinuous balconies around the outside of the blocks provide
protected outdoor spaces, and there are surprising views to
the surrounding landscape in all directions.
The compact volumes of the individual structures with their
outer buffer zones were the starting point for the innovative
energy concept. On the roof of every block, solar energy is
harnessed by collectors and used to heat the hot-water supply
and to preheat the fresh-air intake. Individual heating and ven-
tilation needs are met by decentralized compact ventilation
appliances in every dwelling. Prior to this scheme, the
mechanical services concept had been tested in other devel-
opments that were much smaller in scale. The concept and
the form of construction were coordinated to provide a high
level of comfort for the 298 dwellings (with a total floor area of
21,500 m2), at the same time ensuring a low heating-energy
factor of 20 kWh/m2a. That means a reduction of CO2 emis-
sions of 237 tonnes a year compared with the usual figure for
new housing developments in Austria (60–80 kWh/m2a).

1 1 1

1
C
Site plan
scale 1:5000
First basement
garage level beneath 1 1
block C with solar
storage tanks (1)
scale 1:1500

88
a a

Ground floor plan

Standard floor plan
scale 1:500
Block C
Dwellings for senior
citizens
Section
scale 1:500

F C A

aa

89
 The compact form of the blocks, with a good ratio between the
Exhaust air External air
kitchens, footprint area and the volume (0.2), provides a sound basis for
bathrooms, WCs
minimizing energy losses. The entrance halls act as buffer
Exhaust-air External-air zones and reduce the problem posed by the front doors of the
filter filter
dwellings – normally the weakest point of the outer skin in
Heat recovery terms of energy losses. The flats are heated largely via the
ventilation system, with the use of minimally dimensioned heat
pumps. In this system, fresh air has to be preheated to at least
Heat pump
5 °C, since the heat pump would no longer function efficiently
Reheating
at lower temperatures, and there would also be a danger of
condensation freezing on the outgoing side of the heat-
Air-supply fan Air-extract fan
exchange unit. The large number of dwellings inevitably
necessitates a greater volume of fresh air. Cost constraints
Air supply living rooms Vitiated air
A and bedrooms and lack of space led to a decision to provide heating via
water-filled solar storage elements rather than by means of an
earth grid. On the roofs of the blocks, a mixture of glycol and
A Diagram of compact ventilation appliance water in the solar collectors is heated and pumped to the heat-
with minimum-sized heat pump exchange units in the solar storage elements. The heat from
B Part floor plan showing ventilation runs in
diagrammatic form this medium fluid is transferred to the water in the storage
C Section showing energy concept (without tanks, and the cooled medium is then returned to the collec-
radiators) tors. The tanks are situated in those corners of the basement
scale 1:200
garages that cannot be used as parking spaces. Solar storage
elements have a further advantage over earth grids in that they
allow temperatures to be controlled. They can also be used in
summer to help heat the hot-water supply.
Decentralized compact ventilation appliances with flat heat-
exchange elements and minimum-sized heat pumps have
been installed in the bathroom of every dwelling behind room-
height glass sliding doors. Regulated by pressing a simple set
of buttons, the appliances can be operated at three different
levels to meet individual heating and ventilating needs. The
pretreated, filtered air supply is blown into the living spaces
by rotary fans. Exhaust air is sucked out via disc valves in the
sanitary and ancillary spaces. A special video film was pro-
duced and distributed to every household to instruct residents
in the operation of the system. When the external temperature
falls below 10 °C, a gas heater is automatically activated
and supplies a conventional radiator installed in every flat.
The radiator provides residents with an additional source of
heating or a place to dry wet clothing. The outer skin of the
building is so highly insulated that the internal temperature
generated by secondary heat sources (people, appliances
and lighting) would not fall below about 15 °C, even if both
heating systems were out of action.

90
 6

7 9

10 4

Heating and ventilation (diagrams B and C)

• Air is sucked in via the roof (1). In winter, cold

external air is heated to a temperature of
0 –10 °C by means of the solar storage unit (2).
When no solar heating of the air intake occurs,
8 this function is performed by a gas heater (3).
• In the ventilating appliances in the dwellings
1 (4), the fresh-air intake is heated to 16–20 °C
by heat extracted from exhaust air (5). In this
9 process, 80 per cent of the thermal energy
from the exhaust air (20–22 °C) is recovered
without any contamination with vitiated air.
11 • In the event of no heating being necessary as
a result of heat gains from people, lighting or
3 insolation, the fresh-air intake is fed into the
living rooms and bedrooms without being
preheated. When heating is required, the
fresh-air intake is heated to roughly 30–40 °C
by a minimum-sized heat pump (4).
6 5 • Fresh air is conveyed to the ventilation inlets
10 (6) in the living and sleeping areas via ther-
4 mally insulated ducts in the concrete floor
7 slabs.
• Vitiated air is removed from the kitchens, bath-
rooms and WCs by suction. The air from the
living rooms and other spaces flows out
through slits beneath the doors (7). Cooking
fumes are extracted separately via activated
carbon filters.
• Exhaust air passes through a heat-recovery
plant in the ventilation installation (4) before
being emitted at roof level (8).

Solar heating of hot water and preheating of air

supply

Solar heating of the hot-water supply occurs by

means of solar collectors (9) and central solar
storage elements (2).
• When insolation occurs, the solar collectors,
with an area of 140–190 m2 per block, yield
their heat to the central solar storage elements
(80 –105 m3 per block) situated in the corners
of the basement garages.
• In summer, the requisite hot water is heated in
the storage elements to a temperature of
40 – 60 °C and then fed into hot-water tanks in
the individual dwellings (10), where it can be
reheated by the heat pump; (roughly 65 per
cent more efficient than an electric water
heater).
• In winter, solar heat is used to warm the air
2 supply (11). At this time of year, the storage
temperature can sink to 5 –15 °C. With tempe-
ratures around 20 °C, the collectors can yield
solar heat. Using conventional collectors,
therefore, very high yields of around 450 kWh
per square metre of collector area can be
C achieved per annum.

91
92
 1

10

4
Section scale 1:50
11
1 glass roof over entrance hall (U = 1.1 W/m2K)
2 roof construction (U = 0.13 W/m2K): 5
80 mm extensive planting layer
filter mat; drainage layer
root-resistant layer 6
two-layer bituminous membrane 9
300 mm thermal insulation; vapour barrier 3
200 –280 mm reinf. conc. roof slab to falls
3 precast concrete element 6 m long
4 four-part sliding-folding shutter:
0.6 mm preoxidized sheet copper, 10
adhesive fixed and riveted to frame
30/20/2 mm stainless-steel RHS frame
5 friction clamp for locking shutters
6 12 mm laminated safety glass balustrade 7
matt finished with PVB film
7 window element with triple glazing
(U = 0.60 W/m2K) 11
8 external wall construction (U = 0.16 W/m2K):
18 mm pine boarding 8
13
80 mm rock-wool thermal insulation
200 mm rock-wool thermal insulation
vapour barrier; 180 mm reinf. conc. wall
15 mm plaster 12
9 floor construction in dwelling:
15 mm oak composite parquet panels
granular-cork mat on 50 mm screed
35–30 mm impact-sound insulation
25 mm levelling layer of sand
220 mm reinf. conc. floor slab filled and
smoothed
10 lightweight wall to hall (U = 0.23 W/m2K)
11 solid oak front door
12 door mat integrated in frame
13 plasterboard-lined balustrade with stainless-
steel handrail
14 floor construction in entrance hall:
20 mm Solnhofen stone
20 mm bed of mortar; 60 mm screed
30 mm impact-sound insulation
90 mm filling; 200 mm reinforced concrete
175 mm thermal insulation 15 14
15 roof light to bear foot traffic:
laminated safety glass (2≈ 10 mm)
16 floor construction in basement garage:
stone paving on mortar
400 – 600 mm waterproof concrete

16

93
 Lawyer’s Practice in Röthis
Architect: Reinhard Drexel, Hohenems
Mechanical Services: Christof Drexel, Reinhard Weiss, Bregenz

In the centre of Röthis, a small community in Vorarlberg,

Austria, a cubic structure with shingle facades stands self-
confidently between the old village church and a number of
buildings of traditional construction. Having grown derelict
over the years, this former agricultural outhouse was demol-
ished down to the foundation walls and has now been rebuilt
and converted into a legal practice for the client. A reinforced
concrete skeleton-frame structure braced by a staircase was
inserted within the existing refurbished walls, which now con-
sist of stone and tamped concrete. The building has been
raised in height, and the new concrete floors are supported
on each storey by eight steel columns. A construction joint
between the solid masonry plinth walls and the timber facade
above marks the transition between old and new. The two
parts are constructionally and thermally separated. The new
external walls are in a three-layer lightweight stud construc-
Site plan tion with a high degree of thermal insulation (overall thickness
scale 1:2000 36 cm). Other aspects that support the passive-energy
design are the compact cubic form of the building and the
good ratio between the footprint area and the volume.
The facades are clad with a homogeneous skin of untreated
Canadian larch shingles. The extensive areas of glazing are
covered externally by bays of timber strip cladding. Above
balustrade level, these sunshading strips are divided into
top-hung pivoting elements in 80 ≈ 2,000 cm specially manu-
factured bead-blasted aluminium frames. The elements,
which can be manually operated by the staff to provide pro-
tection against insolation and glare, form an important part
of the passive energy concept. Triple glazing was used
throughout for the room-height windows behind the facade
shading. While the large bays of fixed glazing consist of
coated glass with an argon-filled cavity (U = 0.6 W/m2K),
the glazing to the casement doors is filled with krypton
(U = 0.7 W/m2K).
Internally, the building is distinguished by its meticulous
detailing: exposed concrete surfaces with an oiled finish,
which brings out the grain of the wood shuttering; black bitu-
minous terrazzo; and perforated birch plywood to the ceilings.
Instead of a conventional heating installation, a controlled air-
supply and air-extract system were foreseen, with a minimally
dimensioned heat pump and a heat-recovery facility. The
external air is preheated by a roughly 50-metre-long geother-
mal collector. The fresh-air ducts are incorporated in the solid
concrete floor slabs and function in the nature of a hypocaust
system. A dynamic simulation program was used to test the
energy concept at the planning stage, allowing any necessary
constructional changes to be made in good time.

94
Section aa
scale 1:250

a a

1
Floor plans
2
scale 1:250 4 3
1 Lobby
2 Archive
3 Discussion room
4 Office

95
Temperature graphs
°C 30° °C 35°
2 3 4
1 Ambient temperature 25° 30°
2 Ground floor temperature 20° 5 6
25°
3 First floor temperature 15°
4 Second floor temperature 10° 20°
5 First floor office temperature 1
5° 15°
6 First floor discussion room temperature
0°
10°
A Max. floor-by-floor and overall heating loads -5° 1
on two cold days in February 5°
-10°
B Max. first floor temperature on a hot day at -15° 0°
the beginning of July A 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24h B 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24h

Dynamic simulation of building and installations

1. Goals
A Winter:
• to determine maximum heating loads zonally
and on each floor in order to test the scope for
heating with compact heat pumps;
• to determine the monthly and yearly thermal
requirements for heating, and the resultant
energy factor;
• to draw up a heating-energy balance to clarify
the potential savings through the use of a
comfortable system of ventilation and a geo-
thermal heat-exchange unit, as well as the pro-
portion of internal solar gains that could be
exploited to heat the building.
B Summer:
• to determine maximum temperatures and
annual duration of peak temperatures in
excess of maximum tolerable level (28 °C) in
order to ensure comfortable conditions.
2. Results
The building is divided into six zones (offices and
ancillary spaces on each floor). The diagram for
summer (B) shows that the maximum tolerable
temperature (28 °C) is exceeded for 40 h/a – an
acceptably low figure. The peak temperatures
occur largely as a result of the orientation of the
glazing – especially in the upper-floor offices –
when external temperatures are > 30 °C.
The diagram for winter (A ) shows the floor-by-
floor heating loads on two cold days in February.
On the second day, when there was a high level
of insolation, the increase in temperature on the
ground floor is already clearly recognizable in
the morning. Because of their south-west aspect,
the upper floors heat up in the early afternoon.
On a cold day with a lot of solar radiation, the
total heating load for the building is around zero.
This can be attributed to internal heat gains. The
maximum heating loads in the building occur in
the early morning, so that the additional electrical
heating needed under extreme conditions
becomes largely superfluous in the course of the
day in view of the thermal gains that occur.

3. Experience in use
Experience of the system after one year in opera-
tion confirmed the accuracy of the simulation
results. After the addition of a draught-excluding
lobby at the entrance, it proved possible to do
without the additional source of heating alto-
gether. The operating costs for heating and
ventilating the office building, with an overall floor
area of 250 m2, are approx. ™ 350 per annum
(figures for 2003).

96
1

5 6

Vertical section · Horizontal section

scale 1:20

1 50 mm layer of gravel
7 8 two-layer bituminous membrane
2≈ 120 mm mineral-wool thermal insulation,
adhesive fixed with bitumen
vapour barrier
240 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
15 mm perforated birch plywood suspended
soffit with protective matting and
mineral-wool insulation between
30/50 mm battens
2 box gutter
3 8 mm larch shingles 210 mm long
9 27 mm wood boarding
windproof layer, adhesive fixed
3≈ 120 mm mineral-wool thermal insulation
10
between
60/120 mm timber studs
4 threaded fixing rod welded to steel fin
5 60/110 mm laminated timber bearer
6 110/90 mm Douglas fir window frame
7 10 mm laser-cut aluminium pivoting side arm
8 28/120 mm wood louvres
9 30 mm mastic asphalt with smoothed surface
10 mm granular cork matting
240 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
b b
15 mm perforated birch plywood suspended
11 soffit with protective matting and
mineral-wool insulation between
30/50 mm battens
12 10 Ø 40 mm aluminium tube
with integrated cylindical motor
13 11 triple glazing (U = 0.6 W/m2K)
12 80/40/4 mm aluminium RHS
13 Ø 60 mm aluminium tube
14 18 mm birch-veneered chipboard
15 200/400 mm reinforced concrete column

14 15 3

11

12

13 8 7 bb

97
 Sports Hall in Wängi
Architects: Fent Solar Architecture, Wil

In Wängi, Switzerland, the existing multi-purpose sports hall

has now been extended by a new hall – the first minimum
energy (“minergy”) sports hall in that country. During the plan-
ning phase, heating-energy needs were calculated at
4.11 kWh/m2a. In other words, the energy consumption is
90 per cent below that of a conventional sports hall. The clear
cubic volume of the new structure and its facades, consisting
of prefabricated wood-and-glass elements, form a bold con-
trast to the existing brick building. A two-storey entrance tract
between the halls links the two structures. On the ground floor
is a large foyer for visitors. Access for pupils is at subfloor
level. Internally, the finely articulated load-bearing structure is
in native timber, which has been left exposed. To achieve the
required minimum-energy standard, the building was con-
structed with a solar-active “Lucido” glass facade, a system
developed by the architects themselves. Thick layers of insula-
tion and an airtight skin also serve to reduce the heating
needs. The thermal insulation in the east and west facades is
160 mm thick; in the north and south facades, it is 200 mm
thick; and in the roof, 400 mm thick. Preheated air from the
Lucido facades also flows into the cavity between the thermal
insulation and the planted layer of the roof.
The Lucido facade functions as follows. Sunlight penetrates a
single outer pane of toughened glass, and the solar energy is
absorbed by a layer of wood louvres in the cavity to the rear.
The air in the cavity is heated to a temperature of around
70 °C. This thermal energy is stored and released later into the
interior. In view of the high temperatures involved and the ther-
mal expansion they cause, the elements are point fixed with
slotted openings at 1.25 m centres.
The system of fenestration for the hall consists of nine open-
able casement units within a larger area of fixed triple glazing
(U ≤ 0.8 W/m2K). The post-and-rail construction was executed
to passive solar-energy standards, one important criterion of
which is that a building should have an airtight seal (n50 =
0.6 h-1). In the present hall, a value of 0.2 h-1 was achieved.
The ventilation plant, with scope for heat-recovery, produces
a a
warm air via an air/water exchange system. The air is then
blown into the hall. The energy needed for this process is
provided by the heating plant in the existing hall. In the first
year of operation, additional thermal energy was required
from November onwards, but by the beginning of February,
it was possible to heat the sports hall entirely from solar
sources. In comparison with a conventional hall, the
Wängi community saves roughly 14,750 litres of fuel oil a
Site plan year, and carbon dioxide emissions are reduced by roughly
scale 1:2000 50 tonnes.

98
 aa
Section
scale 1:500

°C 80° °C 80° Measurements made when hall in use:

70° 70°
60°
4
60°
2 3 1 External temperature
50° 50° 2 Temperature in space between
4
40° 40° glass and louvres
3 5 6 7
30° 30° 3 Temperature in spaces between
1
20° 20° wood louvres
5 6 4 Temperature of inner face of wood
10° 1 2 10°
louvres
0° 0°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24h 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24h 5 Temperature of Fermacell thermal
storage element
A Summer day: measurement period 0–24h; B Winter day: measurement period 0–24h; 6 Wall temperature internally
for position of measurement points, see p. 100 for position of measurement points, see p. 100 7 Internal air temperature

99
b a

1 summer
2
3

4 (-)

winter
5 (4)
6 (5)

7 (6)

Function of Lucido facade element In summer, the rays of the sun fall on the facade Valuation after measurements made
Fixed close behind a single pane of toughened at a steep angle and are largely reflected by the when hall in use:
glass, a wood louvre structure absorbs thermal glass. Since the louvres provide mutual shading, Good energy efficiency in terms of
energy. The prismatized single glazing facilitates high temperatures occur only at their tips. Con- heat storage and the reduction of heat
the absorption of oblique rays of morning and vection currents in the cavity increase, and losses in winter; good insulating prop-
evening light. Behind the louvres is a daytime excess heat is borne off. erties in summer.
thermal storage layer, consisting of plasterboard In winter, the sun‘s rays fall at a much lower angle
and softwood. of incidence. They penetrate the glass and warm C Section through wall construction
The wall system is a hybrid form of construction, the angled louvres. At lower temperatures, the with heat-absorbent wood louvres
in which solar energy is actively absorbed and convection process decreases. The cavity and a external
stored. The conventional wall serves as a pas- the spaces between the louvres then function as b internal
sive thermal storage element. The ventilated a thermally insulating layer. The stored solar Measurement in summer
cavity between the glass and the louvres serves energy and the actual thermal insulation reduce (in brackets)
to control the heat balance. The absorption pro- heat losses to a minimum. In the sports hall,
cess is regulated in summer and winter in which has a volume of roughly 10,000 m3, there
accordance with the angle of incidence of the are virtually no fluctuations in temperature, and
sun and the cavity ventilation. users enjoy an agreeable indoor climate.

100
1

3 2
Sections through facade
scale 1:20

1 roof construction:
80 mm substrate layer on roof sealing layer
18 mm oriented-strand board
80 mm cavity
5 18 mm oriented-strand board
400 mm cellulose thermal insulation
vapour-retarding layer
with black absorbent felt
32 mm three-ply laminated softwood sheeting
2 insulated duct
3 wall construction:
4 mm prismatic toughened solar glass
30 mm cavity
40 mm wood louvres
windproof layer
15 mm cellulose-bonded gypsum board
160–200 mm cellulose thermal insulation
sealing layer
32 mm three-ply laminated softwood sheeting
4 triple glazing (U = 0.6 W/m2K)
6 5 flat roof construction:
20 mm mastic asphalt
250 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
7 finished to falls
50 mm cement-bonded lightweight
wood-wool slabs
6 up-and-over door:
composite wood board with insulation
7 floor construction in sports hall:
15 mm poured polyurethane surface layer
100 mm screed on separating layer
160 mm polyurethane thermal insulation
damp-proof membrane
250 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
50–100 mm lean concrete
400 mm layer of broken glass

101
 Secondary School in Klaus
Architects: Dietrich and Untertrifaller, Bregenz
Mechanical services: IGT Consulting & Engineering, Hohenems

Vorarlberg, a small state in Austria, is known for the high archi-

tectural quality of its buildings. In the realm of environmental
and solar construction, too, one finds pioneering projects such
as the secondary school in Klaus, which was executed as
a passive-energy structure. With a heating requirement of
15 kWh/m2a, a controlled air-supply and extract system com-
bined with an air/earth heat-exchange grid, and the appropri-
ate insulation values, the school complies with Vorarlberg
standards for passive-energy buildings. This timber structure
is thus a pilot scheme in the field of school construction.
On the basis of a study it had commissioned, the local author-
ity decided to sell the old school building, for environmental
and economic reasons, and to replace it with a new one. An
existing sports hall tract has been retained and will be refur-
bished later in a second phase of construction. The school is
situated directly on the road between the town of Klaus and a
nearby industrial area. The clearly articulated volume of the
three-storey building, together with a two-storey linking tract to
the existing sports hall, screens the tree-lined playground from
the road. The school provides teaching for 12 classes. The
pupils come from Klaus and the two nearby communities of
Weiler and Fraxern. At the head of the classroom tract is a
two-storey entrance space, which is also used as an assembly
hall. The upper floor of the linking tract accommodates a
municipal library. Access to the two-bay teaching tract is via a
long corridor illuminated by roof lights. WCs, ancillary spaces
Site plan and mechanical services are housed in box-like structures
scale 1:3500 inserted within the layout. Light wells extending over the full
height of the building allow daylight to penetrate to the lower
1 New school building
2 Sports hall tract floors. The main classrooms on the ground and first floors of
3 Former school building the eastern tract are connected by bridges to the corridors.
Sunshading to the windows is provided by automatically con-
trolled louvres, which can also be individually operated if
3 required. The fully glazed south face of the assembly hall is
protected against insolation in summer by a 30 per cent per-
forated sheet-copper screen fixed to a steel frame structure.
The building consists entirely of prefabricated timber ele-
2 ments, with the exception of the staircase cores, which are
in reinforced concrete. The school cost only 3 per cent more
than a comparable building in a conventional, solid form of
construction. From the outset, the architects and mechanical
1 services engineers collaborated to achieve a school that
would comply with passive-energy standards. A lot of persua-
sion was needed during preliminary discussions with local
authority committees to ensure not only a high level of archi-
tecture, but the best and most efficient mechanical services
for the situation.

102
 4 5

Section
scale 1:500

4 Air intake
6
5 Vitiated air
aa 6 Air intake via
earth grid

103
 Section • Floor plans 1 Assembly/ Ancillary spaces
scale 1:1000 Recreation hall 5 Teachers’ room
2 Classrooms 6 Special classrooms
3 Corridor zone 7 Library
4 WCs/Services/ 8 Services

8 bb

2 2

b b
3 1 3
4 4

5 6

Ventilation each room is based on a requirement of 15 m3 Heating/Cooling

By choosing ecological building materials, con- per person per hour. In the central air grid, the Heating in the classroom tract is provided by the
structing a compact, well-insulated, airtight skin finely filtered air supply is generally preheated to ventilation plant. A night-time heating grid has
(nL 50 ≤ 0.6), and installing a controlled, passive 18 °C. It can be further heated to a maximum also been installed in every room to allow individ-
heating and ventilation system, it was possible to temperature of 28 °C by drawing it over duct ual temperature control.
reduce the heating needs below 15 kWh per m2 heating grids. Ventilation heat losses are mini- Additional heating needs for the assembly hall
heated floor area per annum. The school building mized by the controlled air-supply and extract and library – which were not executed as
is supplied by a central ventilation plant with an system, coupled with heat recovery by means of passive-energy structures – are met by the
airflow volume of 35,000 m3/h. The fans were rotary heat-exchange units. In this way, noise dis- central calorific boiler. The low-temperature
equipped with frequency transformers to regu- turbance caused by tipped or fully opened win- underfloor heating system installed in these
late their rotational speed in accordance with dows is obviated. areas also serves to dry the floor in winter and
ventilation needs. The controlled extraction of carbon dioxide and on rainy days.
Connected to the ventilation plant is a three-layer foul air ensures a good internal air quality and In summer, the fresh air intake is passively
air/earth grid that preheats or cools the fresh air hygienic conditions. In winter, the air is also precooled by drawing it over the air/earth grid.
intake. The calculated volume of fresh air for drawn over a central contact humidifier. Further air conditioning is not necessary.

104
 °C 35°

25°

15°

5°

-5°

-15°
A 1 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 31

B C
0 kWh
Statistical calculation of cost effectiveness (costs in euros)
Alternative A – supply for new school building and sports hall
Boiler capacity: 367 kW
-10,000
Gas boiler Wood chips Pellets Chips 257 kW Pellets 257 kW
367 kW 367 kW 367 kW Nat. gas 110 kW Nat. gas 110 kW

Plant investment 30,800.– 51,900.– 52,022.– 67,607.– 60,467.– -20,000

Additional investment 3,000.– 36,900.– 16,684.– 38,800.– 26,474.–

(storage space, etc.)
-30,000
Subsidies 0 18,165.– 18,208.– 18,138.– 15,639.–

Investment costs incl. subsidies 33,800.– 70,635.– 50,498.– 87,729.– 71,302.– -40,000

Fuel needs 1 550,500 kWh 0 0 165,000 kWh 165,000 kWh

Fuel needs 2 0 570 m3 112,347 kg 400 m3 78,673 kg
-50,000
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Fuel costs 1 (per unit) 0.0239 0 0 0.0365 0.0365
Fuel costs 2 (per unit) 0 18.16 0.145 18.16 0.1450
Total fuel costs (per annum) 13,157.– 10,351.– 16,290.– 13,287.– 17,429.–

Additional investment costs – 36,835.– 16,698.– 53,929.– 37,502.–

over gas plant

Fuel cost savings (per annum) – 2,806.– (+ 3,133.–) (+ 130.–) (+ 4,141.–)

Amortization period – 13.13 years

At the beginning of the planning phase, alterna- Building management also underwent simulation tests. The heating and
tive concepts were investigated to obtain a com- To avoid problems which might arise at the inter- ventilation plant is controlled by a bus system.
parison between different types of plant (diagram faces between the individual mechanical ser- The operation of all mechanical services in the
B). When the sports hall is refurbished, thermal
. vices and to minimize the cost of repairs and school is subject to constant supervision by
energy will be supplied by a central boiler fired maintenance, products from a single manufac- means of a digital spatial schedule. To test the
by wood chips. The appropriate connections turer were installed as far as possible. The plant effectiveness of the concept and to make any
have been foreseen in the new building. is situated in a services room in the basement. necessary adjustments, measurements will be
Elements requiring intensive maintenance are taken over a period of five years.
Active exploitation of solar energy easily accessible in the metal coffered ceilings
The central hot-water supply is from an electric of the circulation zones on the various floors. A Temperature graph in classroom (January);
boiler. Connections for solar collectors have also Service runs within the wall or floor construction comparison of room air, external air, and target
been provided. Photovoltaic modules have been were avoided as far as possible. temperature with heating
installed on the flat roof of the assembly hall and In addition to carrying out a thermal-dynamic B Comparison of different types of plant in
the library. The power they generate is fed into simulation of the building at the beginning of the respect of energy and cost savings
the public grid. planning, the operation of the ventilation plant C Energy needs in classroom tract in one year

105
 Cross-section through classroom tract
scale 1:20

3
4

1 100 mm extensively planted layer 8 3 mm sealed epoxy-resin floor finish

three-layer bituminous sealing membrane 60 mm screed
300 mm rock-wool thermal insulation 25 mm impact-sound insulation
vapour barrier; 22 mm oriented-strand board 50 mm stone chippings
5 520–380 mm laminated timber beams to falls 9 33 mm laminated wood sheeting
22 mm oriented-strand board 100 mm rock wool between
12 mm birch plywood suspended soffit 80/380 mm laminated timber beams
2 220/640 mm laminated timber edge beam with 33 mm laminated wood sheeting
27 mm laminated timber sheet, adhesive fixed birch plywood suspended soffit 12 mm
3 flat aluminium louvre sunblind 10 30 mm oriented-strand board
4 540/60 mm laminated timber lining to reveal 80/280 mm timber joists
5 triple glazing (U = 0.6 W/m2K): 6 mm toughened 22 mm oriented-strand board
6 glass + 4 mm float glass + 6 mm float glass with services space
2≈ 14 mm cavities suspended soffit: 12 mm alum. sandwich slab
6 triple glazing (U = 0.6 W/m2K) in wood frame 11 240/520 mm laminated timber beam
(U = 0.78 W/m2K): glazing as pos. 5 12 triple glazing (U = 0.6 W/m2K): 16 mm toughened
7 20 mm natural silver-fir boarding on glass + 8 mm toughened glass + 16 mm lam. safety
30 mm battens and 40 mm counter-battens glass with 2≈ 12 mm cavities
windproof layer; 2≈ 40/60 mm halved bearers with 13 three-layer bituminous sealing membrane
rock-wool insulation 70 mm rock wool; vapour barrier
33 mm laminated construction board 18 mm oriented-strand board
180 mm rock-wool insulation between 160 mm rock-wool insulation between
180 mm laminated timber beams 60/160 mm timber studding
33 mm lam. construction board; vapour barrier 18 mm oriented-strand board; vapour barrier
50 mm rock wool between 84 mm battens 12 mm birch plywood
35 mm cavity; 12 mm birch plywood 14 laminated wood sheeting, impregnated

7 8 9 10

106
12

13

11

14

107
 Conference and Exhibition Building
in Osnabrück
Architects: Prof. Thomas Herzog +
Hanns Jörg Schrade, Munich
Mechanical services: NEK Ingenieurgruppe, Brunswick
Consultants for energy technology: ZAE Bayern e. V., Garching

Designed for the German Federal Environmental Foundation in

Osnabrück, Germany, this conference and exhibition centre
was to provide ideal daylighting conditions combined with an
efficient indoor-climate concept. In addition, the brief called for
an extensive use of natural materials, functional flexibility, and
the creation of close links with the adjoining park. The client
also required an environmentally sustainable development that
would conserve energy and natural resources without incur-
ring additional construction costs. The building has a timber
skeleton-frame structure and a height of 6.50 m. In the confe-
rence and exhibition areas, the full height was exploited to pro-
vide the appropriate spatial conditions. At other points, it was
possible to create storage and office spaces on two levels. The
structure is braced by a three-storey reinforced concrete core
that houses sanitary and technical services. Set on top of this
are a photovoltaic plant and vacuum-tube collectors.
Site plan The transparent, ventilated membrane roof forms the outer
scale 1:4000 weatherproofing skin. The single-layer tensioned ETFE sheet-
Floor plans
scale 1:1000 ing is fully recyclable, and its anti-adhesive properties mean
that the surface is self-cleaning. A multilayer construction
1 Foyer allows every bay of the roof to be adapted to the functional
2 Exhibition space
3 Conference space
needs of the spaces below. Over the office and storage areas,
4 Offices for example, there is an opaque internal layer with a high
5 Store degree of thermal and sound insulation. In contrast, a translu-
6 Cafeteria cent form of construction was chosen for the roof over the con-
7 Void
ference and exhibition spaces. This allowed them to be
illuminated by zenith light, which ensures a much higher radi-
ant intensity than side-lighting. Pivoting louvres between the
membrane skin and the glazing layer provide protection
against insolation and control the ingress of daylight. On hot
days, the louvre elements are computer operated to follow the
course of the sun. It is also possible to darken the conference
room completely.
The roof construction allows major savings to be made in the
amount of electrical energy needed for lighting. In addition,
direct insolation via the facades and roof results in a high pas-
sive thermal yield during the heating period. In summer, in
contrast, effective sunshading helps to minimize cooling-
energy needs. Special permission had to be obtained from the
building authorities to realize this form of construction.
In winter, a cogenerating plant supplies heating energy to the
new centre and the existing administration building. In
summer, room temperatures can be lowered by a groundwater
cooling system coupled with the underfloor heating installa-
tion. On hot days, a heat-exchange unit cools the intake of
fresh air that flows through the ventilation plant, while in winter,
the fresh air can be warmed.

108
 a

4 5 4 5

3 1 5 7 5

2 7 6 7

109
 7

Section scale 1:750

A Ventilation diagram
B Groundwater cooling diagram
Section through facade and roof scale 1:20

1 single-layer ETFE membrane prestressed on

four edges
2 120/80 mm galvanized steel RHS
3 aluminium pivoting louvres for sunshading/
daylighting control/darkening space below
4 sheet-metal covering for blackout purposes
5 triple glazing: 6 mm toughened glass with
low-E coating + 5 mm float glass + 10 mm
lam. safety glass with low-E coating
+ 2≈ 12 mm cavities with argon filling
6 160 mm white-coated thermal insulation
39 mm laminated timber sheeting
7 fly screen: white woven glass fabric
8 double glazing: 10 mm toughened glass +
16 mm cavity with argon filling + 6 mm
toughened glass with low-E coating
9 3 mm sheet aluminium fixed sunshading 8
louvres bent to shape on
Ø 8 mm stainless-steel cable

aa

26 °C

16 °C
B

110
 1

4 6
3

Ventilation Warm, vitiated air rises to the ceiling, where it is Heating and cooling
In addition to the scope provided for individual sucked out. In other words, only the lower part of The new and existing structures are heated by a
ventilation via the windows, a mechanical ventila- these large spaces has to be air conditioned. cogenerating plant. Direct insolation via the
tion system was installed that serves the offices, The installation also serves as a smoke-extract facades, and especially via the roof, also yields
and the conference and exhibition spaces. On system in the event of fire. considerable thermal gains. As a result of effi-
hot days, the intake of external air is cooled to The air supply rate is based on the volume of cient sunshading and the groundwater cooling
about 23 °C by a heat-exchange unit coupled fresh air necessary to maintain hygienic condi- system, only minimal energy is needed for cool-
with a groundwater cooling system. Over the tions. The air intake is centrally filtered. There is ing in summer. Water is pumped through tubes
year, the combined air-intake and extract duct no recirculation of air and no humidification or beneath the foundation slab and cooled by
achieves a heat-recovery rate of more than dehumidification. This means that the relative groundwater before being circulated through the
80 per cent. humidity internally is roughly the same as that of building via the underfloor heating system. With a
In the conference and exhibition spaces, the air the extenal air: in winter, it is very low; in summer, temperature of approx. 20 °C, the water cools the
supply is blown in at low speed from the bottom, relatively high. On the other hand, the technical internal spaces to about 26 °C. A far smaller air-
so that there is always a layer of fresh air above resources are on a modest scale, and energy flow volume is required for the night-time removal
floor level, and in summer it is relatively cool. consumption is low. of excess heat than for air cooling.

111
 Office Building in Solihull
Architects: Arup Associates, London

At first sight, the new Arup office in Solihull near Birmingham

would seem to be a straightforward, pragmatic building in
which the architects were able to perfect their strategies for
energy-efficient construction. Special importance was
attached to natural lighting and ventilation, which had a great
influence on the form and construction of the building. The
compact, deep wings contain more or less continuous open
spaces that allow a flexible use of the structure and support
the interdisciplinary collaboration that takes place within the
planning teams. The two storeys in both of the linear tracts are
linked by openings in the floor situated on the central axes.
Carpeted floors and acoustic “wings” fixed to the ceiling lights
provide the requisite sound insulation in these large spaces.
Y-shaped steel columns support the striking structures that
project above the roof. These solar stacks, which bring day-
light into the office spaces and also serve to ventilate them,
made it possible to design spaces with a depth of 24 m.
Daylight is able to penetrate to the heart of the building via the
north-facing angled glazing to the roof lights. Automatically
controlled flaps on the opposite side, in conjunction with flaps
in the facade, ensure a largely natural form of ventilation inter-
nally. Only the computer centre and the auditorium are air
conditioned by means of a displacement system, in which
external fresh air is used for most of the year. The different
forms of facade construction and sunshading are an integral
part of the energy concept, with fixed aluminium fins in front of
the windows in the end facades, internal sunblinds to the
glazing in the north-west face, and external wood shutters to
Site plan the windows in the south-east face. The ventilation and sun-
scale 1:3000 shading are automatically controlled, whereas the sliding win-
dows and wood shutters can be manually operated by the
staff. Precast concrete hollow-plank floor and roof slabs with
exposed soffits provide solid structural elements that can be
thermally activated. In summer, they are cooled at night by air
that flows in via automatically controlled flaps.
Up to now, the building has proved itself in use, even during
the record heatwave of August 2003, when external tempera-
tures rose to 35 °C. On cold winter days, the great tempera-
ture differences in the high spaces and cold-air drop on the
inside of the facades can result in a certain loss of comfort.
The running costs are far below those for conventionally air-
conditioned office developments. Now that the building has
been in operation for two and a half years, the practice
expects a saving on energy costs amounting to £80,000, with
a further £70,000 saving on maintenance costs.

112
113
 Section
4 scale 1:750
4
1 Air supply
2 Mechanical night-time/winter
ventilation
2 3
3 Thermal storage mass
3 2 4 Air extract
2
1 3 1 2
1 3 1 Upper floor plan
Ground floor plan
aa scale 1:1000

5 Open-plan office
6 Cellular office
7 Auditorium
8 Café
9 Entrance hall
10 Conference room
11 Computer centre
a 12 Fitness room
13 Testing workshop
6 6
6 5
Section through south-east facade
scale 1:20
8
14 13 mm plywood surround with
sheet-aluminium cladding
15 45 mm red cedar window shutter
16 mechanical operating gear
17 automatically operated insulated flap
for night-time/winter ventilation
18 wall construction:
20 mm red cedar boarding
50 mm cavity
5 breather membrane
18 mm plywood
120 mm mineral-wool insulation
6 vapour barrier
7 6 12 mm medium-density fibreboard

a Passive energy concept with high

proportion of natural lighting,
effective sunshading,
natural ventilation,
compact building form

Automatically operated flaps in the solar

stacks on the roof serve to remove vitiated air
from the entire internal space (flue effect).
The north-facing sloping glazing in these roof
elements also allows daylight to penetrate to
6 13 the central office zones below, thus enabling
deep layouts and compact building volumes
12 to be created.

5 11 The facades and sunshading vary according

to the situation. The glazing in the north-west
face is shaded by internal blinds. On the
south-east face, there are external wood
shutters and automatically operated flaps for
night-time and winter ventilation. Fixed alu-
9 minium louvres provide shading to the win-
dows in the end facades (north-east and
south-west). The ventilation and sunshading
systems are automatically controlled. The
10 5 sliding windows and wood shutters can be
manually operated.

Precast concrete floor slabs with exposed

soffits provide a solid mass that can be ther-
6
mally activated: in summer, the slabs are
cooled by the ingress of air at night.

Bolted sections of the load-bearing steel

structure can be dismantled and reused, as
can the precast concrete floor elements (no
composite form of construction).

114
17

14

15

16

17

14

15

16

18

115
 2 1

4 4

6
6

Section through 1 40 mm powder-coated low-E coating + 5 roof construction:

solar stack aluminium wind baffle panel 22 mm cavity with 0.6 mm coated sheet steel
scale 1:20 2 40 mm insulated aluminium vertical sunshading louvres + 260 mm mineral-wool insulation
ventilation flap 10.8 mm laminated safety glass vapour barrier
3 insulating double glazing: 4 150/50/6 mm aluminium-covered 150 mm prec. conc. hollow slabs
6.4 mm toughened glass with steel RHS 6 cable duct

116
 Administration Building in Recanati
Architects: MCA, Mario Cucinella Architects, Bologna
Mechanical services: Ove Arup & Partners, London
Daylight studies: École Polytechnique, Lausanne

In the hot, dry climatic conditions of southern Europe, ade-

quate cooling and ventilation of buildings in conjunction with
optimum daylighting are essential. Erected next to an existing
structure, the new headquarters of a lamp manufacturer in
Recanati, Italy, were designed to allow a maximum of natural
lighting and ventilation for most of the year. This rectilinear
administration building with a footprint of 40 ≈ 19.3 m is laid
out around a central planted atrium and contains four floors of
open-plan offices, and areas that can be partitioned off. The
administration is situated on the first floor. The management
occupies the top floor, where there is access to an adjoining
roof terrace. Spaces for mechanical services are housed in the
linking tract to the existing building.
The 100 m2 atrium facilitates the ingress of daylight for the
internal offices. Situated on one side of the atrium are the cen-
tral staircase and lift in a metal-and-glass form of construction.
The distribution of daylight and the sense of transparency in
this area are enhanced by the glazed balustrades and walls to
the atrium. At the top of this space, 12 lantern lights in the roof
allow daylight to penetrate into the interior of the building.
The form of the roof lights also supports the natural ventilation
system by functioning as a central extract route for vitiated air
from the various floors of the complex. At the same time, day-
A light entering from above is deflected in such a way as to
avoid unwanted glare and shadows at the workplaces around
the atrium. The south face of the building is fully glazed.
A sunshading roof with fixed aluminium louvres protects the
office areas within against overheating. The east and west
facades are translucent. As a result of these measures, it was
possible to ensure the requisite level of natural illumination for
all workplaces.

A Axonometric
B Section
scale 1:500
C System diagrams:
ventilation • sunlighting
• thermal mass

118
 B

119
 Third floor plan
First and
second floor plan
Ground floor plan
scale 1:500

To optimize the daylighting and ventilation con-

cepts, various measurements were made during
the design and construction phases.

A Daylight studies
Taking into account various factors, such as the
construction of the roof lights, the sunshading
roof, the facades and the atrium, measurements
showed a daylight factor of between 10.3 and
6.1 per cent with an overcast sky where there is
no sunshading roof. With a sunshading roof, the
daylight factor was between 10 and 5.7 per cent.
With a clear sky, the corresponding figures were
between 13 and 7.4 per cent and between 12.7
and 7.4 per cent respectively. The 300 – 500 lux
illumination required for workplaces in buildings
is therewith guaranteed in all areas. The highest
values were calculated for the office zones
around the atrium. Individually adjustable sun-
shade blinds were installed here to avoid glare.

B Sunshading to south facade

Daylight studies were carried out on a 1:50
model at the École Polytechnique Lausanne
(EPFL) to ascertain the effectiveness of the
sunshading. The measurements showed that
the facade required 100 per cent shading in
summer and 80 per cent shading in the transi-
tional seasons. This served to determine the dis-
tribution and size of the aluminium louvres. The
3.70-metre-high vertical section of the sunshad-
ing roof is set 6.70 m in front of the facade and
contains a series of horizontal louvres at 50 cm
centres. In the horizontal plane of the roof, the
louvres are fixed to the supporting structure at
an angle of 45°. They are most densely grouped
(at 40 cm centres) in the middle, since this zone
protects the facade against the sun when it is at
its zenith in summer.
a

C Natural ventilation and cooling

The concept was optimized in collaboration with
the engineers Ove Arup & Partners.
In each of the southern facade bays, there are
two opening lights in the upper and the lower
areas. Fresh air flows in through the open win-
dows at the bottom and escapes via the roof
lights and the openings in the upper part of the
facade. On windless days, the distribution of air
layers in the atrium gives rise to a kind of stack
effect, which serves to bear vitiated air out of
the building at the top through the roof lights.
When internal heat loads rise on extremely hot
summer days, supplementary fans can be
switched on to to augment the ventilation. Cool-
ing in summer and heating in winter are aided
by the solid mass of the unclad reinforced con-
crete floor slabs and the outer masonry walls. a

120
121
 A Vertical section through edge of roof
and roof light
B Vertical section through office space
scale 1:20
C Horizontal section
Facade details 1
scale 1:5

5 4

10

7 6
8 7

11 12

1 double glazing (12 + 12 + 10 mm)

2 ventilation grille with aluminium louvres
3 80 mm aluminium sandwich panel
4 roof construction:
2 mm PVC sealing layer
self-supporting panel with 50 mm rigid-foam
insulation, bitumen-coated
5 steel Å-beam 140 mm deep
6 steel Å-beam 220 mm deep
7 steel Å-beam 220 mm deep
8 steel Å-beam 270 mm deep
9 steel Å-column 240 mm deep
10 Ø 160/30 mm steel tube
11 aluminium sunscreen louvre
12 Ø 200/30 mm tubular steel column

122
 14 13

16

15

17

13 200/100/15 mm steel RHS

14 light fitting
18 15 1 mm sheet-aluminium light deflector
16 550/550 mm concrete column
17 aluminium facade rail
18 double glazing (8 + 12 + 6 mm)
19 19 aluminium facade post
20 radiator
21 services duct
22 hollow-floor system
23 aluminium sunscreen louvre
24 elastic seal
20 25 1.5 mm sheet aluminium

22 21

18

25

19 19

24

23

13 13

123
 Administration Building in Landquart
Architects: Bearth & Deplazes, Chur
Mechanical services: Andrea Rüedi, Chur

Designed for an insurance company, this five-storey adminis-

tration building is located in the station district of Landquart in
the Grisons, Switzerland. The block is surrounded by a mixture
of structures dating from the past three centuries. The strict
cubic lines of the new development form a striking contrast to
this heterogeneous urban environment, which is reflected in
the steel-and-glass curtain-wall facades of the insurance
building. The ventilation flaps and the moving parts of the
external sunshading system are integrated flush with the outer
skin. When the awnings are extended, the rectilinear form of
the building is enlivened by an array of pale-green diagonal
sails. In addition, coloured fabric curtains have been hung
internally behind the broad areas of glazing.
The floor slabs are supported without intermediate columns by
six reinforced concrete cores, which house staircases, lifts
and sanitary facilities. The ground floor is laid out with a lobby
Site plan scale 1:2000 and a reception area for clients. On the four upper floors, a
series of colourful office landscapes has been created with
open-plan spaces, combination and cellular offices. The roof
storey contains conference and training rooms and a cafeteria.
The individual floors are separated from each other in terms of
their indoor-climate technology and are also divided along
their longitudinal axes into north- and south-oriented zones.
Set out along the northern face are small single-person offices
and group rooms divided by transparent glazed partitions.
Along the southern side, open working and service zones
alternate with sitting areas.
The indoor climate is regulated by a sensor-responsive control
and instrumentation system that activates the appropriate
mechanical services. The system controls the automatic exten-
sion arms of the blinds as well as the motor-operated ventila-
tion flaps in the facade. Artificial lighting within the building is
activated by means of a daylight-linked mechanism.
In summer, air-extract fans can be switched on to augment
the natural night-time ventilation; while two separate heating
circuits on each floor – for the north and south zones – can
be operated as a supplementary form of heating in winter.
The control and instrumentation system is integrated in the
computer network for the building, allowing members of the
staff to regulate individual services via their PCs. In critical
situations, an automatic control system intervenes to maintain
a balance in the indoor climate. Scope is provided for the
addition of further functions in the future to improve the exploi-
tation of energy.

124
 8 8
10 9 7

Roof storey

3 4

5 6
Upper floor Floor plans
scale 1:500

a 1 Lobby
2 Reception
3 Single office
3 4 Combination office
2 5 Open-plan office
6 Sitting area
7 Training room
1 5 8 Conference room
9 Cafeteria
Ground floor 10 Roof terrace
a

125
 aa

Activated Turned off/Closed Remarks

1. Night-time cooling Indoor temperature measurements
(May–September): at 11 p.m.
stage 1: open windows Ti > 22 °C and Ti ≥ Te -6K 6 a.m. All windows on all floors open
stage 2: open windows
and roof fans Ti > 22 °C and Ti ≥ Te -2K 6 a.m. When strong winds, only certain windows open
roof storey: ventilation with cooling Ti > 24 °C and Ti ≥ Te -2K 6 a.m. Cooling at full capacity / windows closed

2. External shading: External radiation measurements High wind speeds, –

on roof mast (W/m2) precipitation Sunshading 24 hrs. not in operation so that
October–April: solid mass of building can absorb solar heat
Ti at 6 a.m. < 22 °C
South-facing windows > 200 W/m2 < 150 W/m2
East-facing windows > 200 W/m2 < 150 W/m2
West-facing windows > 200 W/m2 < 150 W/m2

3. Heating (floor by floor): Two reference temperatures in each case:

average values for north and south zones
on each floor
Northern zone π 21.5 °C average temperature π 22.5 °C
Southern zone π 20.5 °C average temperature π 21.5 °C

4. Controlled window ventilation: CO2 control measurements close to

critical values: ventilation time increased
Winter: mid-November Air change: 0.25 (flaps opened Saturdays, Sundays,
to mid-February by automatic time switch) holidays 5 p.m.–7.30 a.m.
Summer: mid-June
to end of August Air change: 0.25 (as above) as above
Transitional periods: Air change: 0.35–0.6 (flaps
opened by automatic time switch)
Ventilation scenarios for strong wind
conditions: window opening north and south
zones alternately; or only every alternate
Roof storey flap opened in south zone
(no daytime window ventilation)

5. Ventilation in roof storey: At Ti > 25 °C: cooling activated Ti < 23.5 °C Switched on when required;
turned off by automatic time switch

Heating and ventilation components, although the control system can In summer, excess heat from electrical appli-
In winter, the building is largely heated by solar be programmed to provide shading or ventilation ances, people in the building and diffuse solar
radiation, which enters through the large areas of by means of air circulation. The solid structural radiation is also absorbed by the solid construc-
double glazing on the south side (U = 0.8 W/m2K; elements along the south side form an energy tion members. The internal air temperature then
g = 0.46%). Protection against glare is provided reservoir and are able to react with fluctuations rises a little above that of the enclosing ele-
by internal fabric curtains. The solar energy is in temperature. The greatest changes occur on ments. Although the structure undergoes an
absorbed by the structure itself, which acts as sunny days (temperature increase of about 2 °C) increase in temperature during the day, it can
a storage mass. The primary storage elements and on days with an overcast sky (temperature be cooled at night by ventilation through open
(i.e. floors, walls, furniture and fittings exposed decrease of about 2 °C). With external tempera- window flaps. With high external night-time tem-
to the direct rays of the sun) are heated first. tures around 0 °C, the heated storage mass peratures, ventilation fans are automatically
After one to two hours, the increase in the sur- can keep the building warm for one and half switched on to remove internal heat. Excess
face temperature of the primary elements causes days without further supplies of thermal energy. cooling of the storage mass is avoided by pro-
the internal air temperature to rise. These thermal To cope with longer periods of cold weather, gramming the central control system to close the
gains are, in turn, absorbed by secondary stor- the building should be kept at a temperature of ventilation flaps. For most of the time in summer,
age elements such as the walls and ceilings that 2–4 °C above the average target room tempera- one can reckon with internal temperatures below
are not exposed to direct sunlight. In sunny con- ture of 19 °C. A supplementary gas-fired heating 25 °C. During heatwaves, however, these may
ditions, insolation causes the internal air temper- system with convectors serves to maintain the rise to external levels. Air-extract fans in the roof
ature to rise in the course of the day by 4 °C solid mass of the building at a basic temperature storey are then automatically turned on to cool
above the morning temperature of the building of 20 °C. the building.

126
Section • Elevation
scale 1:500
Control system
parameters
Ti = internal
temperature
Te = external
temperature

127
Vertical section through facade
scale 1:20 1

5 9

1 roof construction (U = 0.15 W/m2K):

11 80 mm extensive planting layer
filter mat; drainage slabs
20 mm root-resistant layer
polythene separating layer
two-layer polymer-bitumen membrane
230–260 mm foamed-glass insulation to falls
10 bitumen undercoat
400 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
2 blind with folding arm
12 3 10 laminated safety glass balustrade
4 terrace construction (U = 0.15 W/m2K):
40 mm concrete paving slabs
40 mm layer of fine gravel; filter mat
6 two-layer polymer-bitumen membrane
220–280 mm foamed-glass insulation to falls
bitumen undercoat
400 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
5 acrylic fabric sunblind
6 60 mm edge rail to blind with alum. fascia
7 40/40/2 mm alum. channel extension arm
8 post-and-rail construction with
7 double glazing (U = 0.8 W/m2K; g = 0.46 %):
8 mm toughened glass + 12 mm lam. safety
glass in 60/180 mm alum. facade sections
9 anti-glare louvres to south face
10 100/150 mm steel section
11 curtains in wave-like tracks
12 15 mm stone flooring
8 85 mm screed; polythene separating layer
80 mm mineral-fibre impact-sound insulation
300 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
13 14 13 224/109 mm convector
14 electrical duct
15 15 metal grating
16 aluminium opening flap with 80 mm insulation
and coated sheet aluminium covering
17 coated aluminium ventilation grating

128
 16
Horizontal section
though ventilation flap
scale 1:10

8 7 17

129
 Administration Building in Würzburg
Architects: Webler and Geissler, Stuttgart
Mechanical services:
Ingenieurgesellschaft Püttmer IGP, Ludwigsburg

This development was designed as the headquarters of a

facade manufacturing company. The form, construction and
skin of the building as well as the plant and the central control
technology were coordinated with each other to create a com-
plex with a holistic solar-energy system. Fossil fuels are used
to meet only peak demands. The two storeys of the building,
each 4.10 metres high, were designed as open-plan spaces,
with individual rooms divided off by frameless glazed parti-
tions. The centre and visual focus of the development is a
planted atrium with a pool of water and a glass roof that can
be raised and slid to one side. A key element of the energy
concept is the double-skin facade, which acts as a climatic
buffer. The external skin is in a post-and-rail construction with
fixed glazing; the internal skin consists of prefabricated
elements with manually operated sliding doors and motor-
operated bottom-hung lights for ventilation purposes. The
fresh-air supply is drawn from the 60 cm intermediate space
between the two skins. Flaps in the outer skin – in the plinth
zone and in the upstand roof – serve to regulate natural verti-
cal convection, while axial fans at the corners of the building
create horizontal currents that distribute the preheated fresh
air. Lightweight metal blinds reflect sunlight either away from
the building, or into the interior via soffit panels lined with
cotton fabric. On the south and west faces of the structure, the
lower sections of the louvres have a dark coating on one side
and can be adjusted separately from the upper part. Depend-
ing on the angle at which the louvres are set, the degree of
thermal absorption can be increased. During the cold months
of the year, they serve to preheat the air intake that flows over
them. In summer, when the blinds are closed and the air flaps
are open, the building is cooled by a process of convection
ventilation. Additional night-time cooling is achieved via the
atrium roof and the bottom-hung windows opened in a tipped
position. When cooling is required, a 200-square-metre
collector installation produces cold water by means of an
adsorption heat pump. The water is then fed into ceiling cool-
ing panels along the glazed facades and around the atrium.
If required, the system can also provide energy for the under-
floor heating. If the various elements of the system do not
cover all needs, a cogenerating plant is also available to
supply electricity and thermal energy. Since both the cooling
soffits and the underfloor heating are water-fed systems, the
two circuits can be used reciprocally. Some 250 sensors serve
to measure the relevant data, on the basis of which, the control
centre can respond to demands via more than 500 activating
points. In addition, individual users can modulate the system
via their PCs.

130
 Ground floor plan
scale 1:500
6
1 Entrance
7
2 Reception
5 3 Waiting area
4 Conference room
5 Kitchenette
6 Planted area
7 Water pool
1 2

4 3

131
Energy behaviour
Various series of measurements were made to
determine the energy concept for the building.
Evaluations of the system show that in the course
of a year, the energy needs for the present
development are only about a quarter of those
for conventional buildings.
In the summer months in particular, there is great
scope for savings, since the energy consumption
for cooling is minimal. The outer face of the sun-
shading in the facade intermediate space is
highly reflective. This allows most of the solar
radiation to be screened off before it can heat up
the building. The coefficient of thermal transmis-
sion for the entire facade is less than 0.1 W/m2K.
The ventilation flaps in the secondary facade in
the plinth zone and the roof upstand are gener-
ally left open. The efficient ventilation this
ensures in the facade intermediate space pre- 1 2
vents any build-up of heat.
On hot, sunny days, solar energy is also used
Lighting workplace is not occupied or when daylight con-
to cool the building. A thermal solar collector that
Since roughly 40 per cent of the energy used in ditions are adequate, the artificial lighting is auto-
follows the course of the sun supplies hot water
conventional office buildings is required for artifi- matically turned off. In the case of the lighting
for the adsorption cooling plant, which can gen-
cial lighting, a further important aspect of the unit that was analysed, this means an energy
erate temperatures of 15–18 °C from this source.
energy concept for the present structure was the consumption of 270 Wh compared to 1,008 Wh if
When the cooling load is smaller, an adiabatic
optimization of lighting conditions. The wholly the lighting were to be switched on for the entire
recooling plant supplies cold water for the
transparent facades allow a maximum exploita- working day. That represents an energy-saving
cooling soffits. These are designed as aluminium
tion of natural light. The aluminium louvre ele- potential of about 73 per cent. The control
grid elements with a standard grid dimension
ments in the facade intermediate space deflect system used in this building guarantees con-
of 80 mm along all three axes. This form of
daylight on to the cotton fabric stretched over the stant, optimum lighting conditions for the work-
construction means that the energy-exchange
soffits, from where it is reflected down to the places with a minimum use of electrical energy.
area is roughly four times greater than in the
office workplaces. Artificial light fittings are also
case of ceilings with a smooth, closed surface.
integrated in the ceiling elements. The energy- 1 2.30 ≈ 2.30 m grid cooling-soffit element,
The specific cooling capacity of the grid soffits
saving lamps are subject to individual controls consisting of an aluminium grating 80 mm
is 163.9 W/m2.
for each workplace by means of light and move- deep and endless copper tubing
Other elements of the summer cooling concept
ment sensors. When members of the staff are at 2 2.30 ≈ 2.30 m spring-stretched cotton-fabric
include the exploitation of thermal storage
their desks, the artificial lighting is increased or soffit element in aluminium frame
mass, and night-time cooling of the building.
reduced in intensity in a series of steps in
By using materials such as stone for the floors,
accordance with daylight conditions. When a All ceiling elements can be folded down.
and constructional solutions such as the grid
cooling soffits and the ceiling linings in airy,
stretched cotton fabric, it was possible to make
full use of the thermal storage capacity of the
structure. The lowest temperature is attained
around 7 a.m. when work begins. The building
then heats up very slowly with an amplitude of
3 °C and reaches its highest temperature around
3.30 p.m.
During the winter months, the double-skin facade
reduces thermal losses from heat transmission;
under sunny conditions, they can be further
reduced by exploiting solar radiation. On a sunny
winter day when the external temperature is
-2 °C, a temperature of 38 °C is reached in the
south facade when the air-intake and extract
flaps are closed and the absorption property of
the sunshading louvres is effectively used. In the
facade intermediate space on the north side of
the building (i.e. the face turned away from the
sun), a temperature of 8 °C was reached after
activating the circulation fans. This additional
thermal buffer reduces the heating-energy needs
of the building even further.

Natural ventilation
The openable glass roof over the atrium is the
most important element of the natural ventilation
system. Four times a day, it is automatically
raised to allow an intermittent air change: in the
early morning before work commences, during
the breakfast and lunchtime breaks, and in the
afternoon. The roof is 12 ≈ 12 m on plan and has
an opening height of 20 cm, so that the ventilat-
ing cross-section is 9 m2. Under certain weather
conditions – precipitation, wind speeds greater
than 70 km/h, and extremely low external temper-
atures – the roof is kept shut, or the opening time
is reduced. When weather conditions permit, the
roof can also be opened independently of the
automatic system.

132
°C

Heating-energy consumption in kWh/m2 per month

Cooling-energy consumption in kWh/m2 per month
External mean monthly temperature in °C

A Axonometric diagram of indoor-climate functions

B Sectional diagrams of energy concept for summer
and winter months (daytime and night-time) A

Summer day Summer night

Winter day Winter night

133
 8
4

7
6

Axonometric facade detail

Sectional details of 16 mm cavity with inert-gas filling
facade scale 1:10 6 mm float glass with low-E
coating
1 sheet aluminium covering with 6 aluminium frame, thermally
anti-drumming coating divided
2 upper ventilation flap with brush 7 aluminium grating
seal at sides 8 perforated lightweight metal
3 aluminium ventilation louvres with louvre blind:
fly screen upper section with white coating
4 outer glazing skin: on both faces;
8 mm toughened glass (externally) lower section with dark coating
22 mm cavity with inert-gas filling on one face;
6 mm float glass with low-E coating both sections independently
5 inner glazing skin: operable
6 mm toughened glass (externally) 9 lower ventilation flap

134
 2

5 8 4

6 6

135
 Solar Factory in Brunswick
Architects: Banz + Riecks, Bochum
Mechanical services: Solares Bauen, Freiburg

Located near the Mittelland Canal to the north of Brunswick,

Germany, is the headquarters of a manufacturer of solar
equipment. The growth of business and the reorganization of
the working sequences this necessitated led to the construc-
tion of a new administration and works building. Perhaps the
most striking feature of the production halls is the external
steel load-bearing structure with an extensive solar-energy
installation. The building has a compact, rectilinear form; the
ratio of ground area to volume is 0.36. Cut into one side of the
complex is a deep courtyard space around which the offices
are laid out. A central corridor along the long axis of the build-
ing links the production areas with the administration. This
access corridor and the office areas were executed in a rein-
forced concrete form of construction and provide thermal stor-
age mass for night-time cooling in summer in combination with
the ventilation plant. On the ground floor of the corridor is a
Section single-storey strip containing ancillary spaces. The mechani-
scale 1:750 cal services are openly laid out on the first-floor gallery above.
Layout plans
scale 1:1500 The central zone also serves as a recreational area and meet-
ing point. Standing on the load-bearing reinforced concrete
structure are seven A-shaped steel elements from which the
roof construction is suspended by tension rods. A horizontal
steel frame above the roof bears the compression loads from
the suspension structure as well as the loads from the timber
roof beams. An alternative solution with laminated timber or
trussed beams was also investigated and compared with this
form of construction. By locating the load-bearing structure
externally, it was possible to reduce the thermally relevant
volume by 15 per cent with the same internal space.
The lightweight timber construction spans the manufacturing
and storage areas without intermediate columns. The long
facades consist of heavily insulated timber-frame elements. As
a further means of improving the energy balance, the delivery
areas were incorporated within the outer skin.
It was possible to achieve a zero-emission building through
an intelligent reduction of the electrical and thermal needs
for heating, cooling, ventilation and the office installations,
and through the use of regenerative sources of energy. Solar
collectors and a photovoltaic plant cover up to 30 per cent
of the overall energy needs. The remaining energy demands
are met by a local cogenerating plant fuelled by rape oil.
The concept allows the plant (with a primary energy require-
ment of 90 kWh/m2a) to operate without the emission of
greenhouse gases.

136
 aa

1 1

2 4 4

5 6

1 Deliveries
3 4 4 3 2 Store 4 4
3 Production
4 Administration
1 1 5 Recreation
area
Ground floor 6 Development Upper floor
a

137
 Natural and artificial lighting Heating and ventilation
The offices in the administration zone receive To reduce the thermal needs for heating, all con-
daylight through the courtyard facades. Com- struction elements are highly insulated. The con-
bined lighting and indoor-climate simulations trolled air change takes place via four ventilation
were carried out to determine the optimum trans- units with heat-exchange facilities. To prevent an
parent area of the skin (av. daylight factor = uncontrolled air change via the numerous joints
4.5 per cent). In summer, the ingress of heat is between the prefabricated timber elements, the
restricted by areas of obscured glass and open- units were designed with rebated abutments and
ing lights with vacuum insulation panels. The hall an inlaid sealing-strip to ensure a tight fit. The dif-
areas receive daylight via roof lights (av. daylight ferential pressure test carried out after comple-
factor = 3 per cent). The optimization of natural tion showed that the volume of uncontrolled air
lighting reduces the need for artificial lighting. A emission was very low (n50 = 0.22 h-1, compared
central control system coupled to daylight condi- with a passive-energy standard of n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1).
tions regulates the use of artificial lighting, which The outer skin is so effectively sealed that it was
is provided by economical TL5 lamps. These can possible to achieve a heat recovery level of up
be dimmed by electronic control gear. In spite of to 80 per cent through the ventilation system.
all the energy-saving measures, 40 per cent of Separate ventilation systems for the offices and
the electrical consumption is still accounted for the hall allow the heating and air supply to be
by lighting. matched to the respective needs.

collector bay 3 collector bay 2 collector bay 1 collector bay 4

57 m2 57 m2 57 m2 30 m2

R & D (energy emergency cooling

from heat- (cogenerating unit)
exchange unit
tests to sprinkler
storage tank)

thermal reservoir for heating plant A approx. 0.750 m3

R & D (heat R & D (heat for

sprinkler storage tank 1 as heating and cooling area

sprinkler storage tank 2 as heating and cooling area

air-extract heat
thermal reservoir for heating plant B approx. 9 m3

extract for boiler heat-exchange

pump 6 kW th
installation) unit test)

cogenerating hot-water supply

hot-water supply
unit 160 kW th for changing
for kitchenettes

approx. 340 m3

approx. 160 m3
(heating and/or rooms, wash-
and sinks
electricity) rooms, kitchens

group radiators
group radiators
air-extract heat axes D–H
axes A–B
pump 9 kW th (offices and
(offices)
social spaces)

R & D (use of
waste heat from
test equipment)

group ventilation: Key

group ventilation: group ventilation:
working areas generation (heating/cooling)
working area 4 working area 3
1+2 consumption (heating/cooling)
heating water (supply)
heating water (return)
Mechanical services diagram heat-exchange unit

138
Each of the three hall areas is served by a sepa- centre is used to supplement the heating for the offices are heated to 20 °C by means of radiators
rate ventilation plant. The spaces are heated to storage hall in winter. fixed in front of the fascia elements beneath the
at least 17 °C exclusively via the air supply. In windows. The incoming fresh air is mixed with
the lower part of the hall (up to a height of 2 m) In the office areas, heating and ventilation as well the air heated by the radiators.
an air-change rate of 2 h-1 is necessary to main- as night-time cooling are provided by a simple
tain the air quality during production and when air-extract system with heat-recovery facilities. Energy balance
lorry deliveries are made. The overall air-change Exhaust air from the offices is sucked out via The goal of a zero-emission balance over the
rate is low (0.35 h-1). By optimizing the cross- three roof fans. Heat pumps in the services cen- whole year was achieved through the exclusive
sections of the ducts, it was possible to reduce tres remove the thermal energy from the vitiated use of regenerative sources of energy for the
the specific energy needs of the ventilation plant air and store it in the reservoirs. In its place, fresh services. Heating energy is provided by a
to only 0.45 Wh/m2. In summer, ventilation is pro- air enters via nozzles in the balustrade walls of monovalent cogenerating plant powered by rape
vided by opening the roof lights and the gates, the facade. These air-supply elements are cen- oil (180 MWh/a), by thermal solar collectors
which are operated by a central control system. trally controlled and can be turned off if required. (20 MWh/a) and by excess heat from the devel-
To prevent loss of heat through cross-currents, To avoid any sensation of draughts, the fresh-air opment department (20 MWh/a). Electrical
only one gate at a time can be opened in winter. supply is distributed via a fascia element needs are covered by a photovoltaic installation
Non-insulated sprinkler tanks in the halls act as beneath the windows. Night-time ventilation is (45 MWh/a) and the cogenerating plant
thermal reservoirs for energy generated by the effected by increasing the rotational speed of the (115 MWh/a).
collectors and also provide low-temperature fans. In summer, the greater airstream volume
radiant heating. Excess heat from the computer cools the solid mass of the building. In winter, the

Mechanical services
layout
scale 1:750

1–4 Hall areas

5 Services centre A
6 Services centre B
7 Ventilation
appliances
2 1 8 Sprinkler tanks

red air supply

brown vitiated air
6 8 cyan sprinkler
blue electrical
supply
yellow lamps

7 7 7 5

4 3

139
 9 8

9
3

5 6

10

140
Sections scale 1:20
Abutment between elements scale 1:5

1 hall roof construction (U = 0.16 W/m2K):

1.8 mm plastic sealing membrane
40 mm rock-wool thermal insulation
22 mm oriented-strand board
240 mm mineral-wool thermal insulation
0.23 mm vapour-diffusing layer
12 mm oriented-strand board
140/620 mm laminated timber beams
2 2–3 mm compression sealing strip
3 fixed double glazing on laminated timber
construction (U = 1.4 W/m2K; g = 58 %)
4 roof construction over deliveries area:
1.8 mm plastic sealing membrane
130–20 mm polystyrene insulation to falls
25 mm oriented-strand board
220 mm mineral-wool thermal
insulation between
118/233 mm laminated timber joists
0.23 mm vapour-diffusing layer
12 mm oriented-strand board
5 160/500 mm laminated timber beam
6 180/260 mm steel RHS
7 wall construction (U = 0.20 W/m2K):
high-compression laminated facade sheeting
40 mm wood battens
16 mm composite wood board
240 mm mineral-wool thermal
insulation between
240 mm timber studding
22 mm oriented-strand board
8 roof light (U = 1.50 W/m2K; g = 50 %):
translucent perspex external layer
16 mm translucent thermal insulation
perspex bearing layer
9 photovoltaic installation:
850/1,400 mm photovoltaic modules
Ø 127/7.1 mm steel tubes
steel Å-beam 300 mm deep on
cruciform steel supporting element and
Ø 127/6.3 mm steel tube
10 hall floor construction (U = 0.30 W/m2K):
50 mm monolithic screed
200 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
two-layer polythene sheeting
120 mm rigid-foam polystyrene insulation

141
 Academy in Herne
Architects: Jourda Architects, Paris
Hegger Hegger Schleiff Architects, Kassel

With the construction of the Mont-Cenis Academy for the fed-

eral state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany, an entire
urban district has been remodelled. The measures cover a
total area of about 60 acres and include not only the academy
itself, with a footprint of 16,000 m2, but a large landscaped
park to the north and a 12-acre housing development. Within
the glazed outer skin of the structure are administration and
seminar spaces, a hotel, living quarters, a restaurant and dis-
trict administration offices, together with a library and a com-
munity hall. These various functions are accommodated in
self-contained structures set within the outer enclosure. As a
result of the protection against the elements afforded by the
skin, and the passive solar energy this form of construction
yields, the hall space is in the nature of an outdoor environ-
ment with an especially mild climate. In summer and winter,
the temperatures and other climatic conditions resemble those
in Nice. The skins of the timber-clad structures within the outer
enclosure do not have to be wind- or rainproof, so that it was
possible to execute them in a simple form of construction.
Heated areas could be kept to a minimum, since access to
the internal structures is largely from within the hall.
The 2.50–3.20 square metre photovoltaic modules integrated
in the glazed roof function not only as a power-generating
system. Through the nature of their cells and the density to
which they were laid, the units also regulate the shading and
indoor climate within the outer skin and help to prevent over-
heating. The photovoltaic modules cover 9,300 m2 of the roof
area and an additional 800 m2 of the south-west facade, thus
forming the world’s largest solar power plant integrated in a
building – with a total capacity of up to 1 MW and an energy
supply of approximately 750,000 kWh/a.
The initial design idea was to create a large glazed hall with a
cloud-like roof structure that would act as a “micro-climatic
skin” and generate passive solar energy. In close collabora-
1 2 3
tion with specialist planners, engineers and consultants, the
a architects then developed a concept for a photovoltaic instal-
a lation in which the cloud-like effect would be created by vary-
4 5 6 7 ing the density of the individual modules. In the areas over the
internal building volumes, the modules are laid to a density
of 86 per cent, thereby providing the requisite sunshading. In
the transitional zones to the areas of clear glazing, a density of
58 per cent was achieved by increasing the spacings between
Layout plan
scale 1:3000 the modules, thus softening the contrast in brightness and cre-
ating a finely graduated lighting environment. In the central
1 Library 5 Restaurant zone, the glass roof was constructed without solar cells to
2 District administration 6 Academy
3 Hotel 7 Academy ensure adequate daylighting in the areas below. In this zone,
4 Community centre administration there are also large numbers of opening lights, which serve as

142
 aa
Longitudinal section • Internal elevation
scale 1:1000

143
Solar-power installation a means of ventilation. This not only improves the indoor cli-
This development contains the world’s first solar mate; it also increases the effectiveness of the solar installa-
installation in which the individual photovoltaic
elements were not simply assembled on top of tion, which would not work efficiently if the internal space were
the roof, but form the actual roof surface itself. overheated. Along the edge of the roof are decentralized
The modules, which were specially developed for modular inverters that convert solar energy into 220-volt alter-
this purpose, consist of mono- and polycrystalline
nating current. In order to achieve an overall capacity of 1 MW
photovoltaic cells from various manufacturers.
Each unit is embedded in a 2 mm layer of high- and at the same time to create the desired amorphous cloud-
transparency cast resin between two layers of like effect in the roof area, solar cells from different manufac-
toughened glass with a low-iron content: a 4 mm turers and of varying size and capacity were installed. At
outer layer facing the sun and an 8 mm inner
layer. The glass has a particularly high light- selected points, holographic-optical elements were also incor-
transmission quality in the spectral range of sili- porated in the roof. They deflect light into the conically shaped
con cells. library and reception spaces, resolving it into the colours of
Roughly 600 decentralized modular pulse
the spectrum.
inverters with a low saturation voltage and a
short switchover time transform the direct current From the commencement of construction planning, the con-
generated by the photovoltaic plant into alternat- cept of a “micro-climatic skin” was investigated and optimized
ing current and also condense it. by means of calculations and computer simulations. Simula-
Total roof area 12,600 m2 tions were also used to determine the distribution of the photo-
Area of PV roof modules 9,300 m2 voltaic modules and to ensure the requisite daylight quality in
Area of PV facade modules 780 m2 all zones. Light-deflecting flaps were fixed to the windows of
Standard PV roof module 1.16 ≈ 2.78 m
the structures within the outer enclosure to improve the natural
Standard PV facade module 1.16 ≈ 2.40 m
No. of PV roof modules 2,905 lighting in internal areas. To avoid overheating, the roof and
No. of PV facade modules 280 facade lights can be opened in summer, so that the enclosed
No. of modular inverters approx. 600 spaces are ventilated by cross-currents. Fresh air is supplied
Efficiency of monocrystalline solar cells 12.8 %
Efficiency of polycrystalline solar cells 16.0 %
to the internal structures by natural and mechanical means via
Inclination of roof modules 5° underground ducts. In winter, heating-energy requirements
Angle of facade modules 90° are reduced by the warm air that collects beneath the glazed
Output per module 250 – 416 Wpeak roof as well as by a heat-recovery facility in the ventilation
Total output 1 MWpeak
Reduction of CO2 plant. The heat given off from the internal structures is used
emissions approx. 450 tonnes/a to preheat the fresh-air intake. In the present scheme, there
Mean insolation 975 kWh/m2a is an energy saving of roughly 23 per cent compared with
Energy supply 750,000 kWh/a
conventional buildings that have the same degree of thermal
insulation, but that are not located within a climatic skin; and
compared with a comparable air-conditioned building, there is
a roughly 18 per cent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.
The annual thermal heating needs are less than 50 kWh.
Given optimum operating conditions, the overall energy
requirements are around 32 kWh/m2a.
The load-bearing structure and facade construction are in
timber – a regenerable raw material. Looking out at right
angles to the facades, the hall space seems to extend into the
park-like landscape beyond, whereas from an oblique angle,
one becomes aware of the principle of volumes and spaces
within a larger enveloping space.
Gas from a former mine is burned in a cogenerating plant to
produce electricity. On dull days with low atmospheric pres-
sure, the mine gas is more plentiful and compensates for the
small solar-energy yield under these conditions.

144
 Summer Transitional period Winter

Sections: ventilation diagrams

Temperatures and air-currents

within the glazed skin

A Sequence of sections •
Plan

c temperature and airstream

simulations in sectional
representation
d temperature and airstream
simulations in plan
representation

B Cross-section
A
a hot, windless summer day
b cold winter day; wind
speed 3.5 m /s

Ventilation diagram Winter Energy concept

The ventilation of the glazed enclosure is auto- The building skin reduces heat losses from con- The electricity generated by the photovoltaic
matically and centrally controlled. Weather data vection and protects against wind, precipitation installation is stored in lead-acid batteries
are provided by a weather station and a sensor. and external noise. Fresh air sucked in from out- with a total energy content of 1.2 MWh and a
side is preheated by means of insolation and the capacity of 1.5 MVA. The batteries differ from
Summer surplus heat from the internal structures, as well as conventional lead-acid types as a result of
The large sliding gates in the end faces allow by heat recoved from the vitiated air in the ventila- constructional improvements and new connec-
natural ventilation. Warm air rises to the top and tion plant. The annual heating needs are less than tion technology, which result in a longer life,
escapes through the openings in the roof. In its 50 kWh/m2; in other words, 23 per cent less that the and greater energy effectiveness and high-
place, fresh air is sucked in through the ventila- energy required by a conventional building of the current capacity. The two cogenerating units
tion flaps in the lower part of the facade. Addi- same insulation standard. The air is preheated to (each with a capacity of 253 kWel) produce
tional cooling is provided by vegetation and around 8 °C in the underground ducts before being approx. 1.9 million kWh/a of electricity and
areas of water. The photovoltaic modules in the fed into the internal structures. 2.7 kWh/a of heat. The use of mine gas for
south-west facade and on the roof act as sun- these units corresponds to a natural gas input
shading areas. The internal structures can be Transitional seasons of 630,000 m3/a and results in a CO2 reduction
ventilated naturally and mechanically. Seven The internal structures are supplied with fresh air of 10,000 t/a. The successful operation of the
underground ducts, each one metre in diameter, via the micro-climatic skin. The air enters through plant has resulted in a greater consumption of
are used to draw in fresh air, which is cooled and inlets in the lower area of the facade. Vitiated air mine gas: since 2000, operations have been
fed into the internal structures. escapes via the upper ventilation flaps. increased by 1 MWel and 1.2 MWth.

145
 1

7
5
9

9
aa

Sections through outer facade

and internal structures
scale 1:20

1 laminated safety glass to roof:

6 mm partially toughened flint glass +
photovoltaic cells in 2 mm cast resin +
8 mm partially toughened flint glass
2 inverter a a
3 galvanized steel gutter
5 10
4 fast-flow rainwater system
5 facade: 18 mm toughened glass in
aluminium adaptor frames fixed to
60/160 mm laminated timber facade posts
6 300/400 mm laminated timber edge beam
7 opening light
8 timber roof truss
9 vertical timber facade truss
10 380/140 mm laminated timber rail
11 steel shoe to post
12 internal roof construction:
22 mm laminated construction board
granular rubber mat; sealing layer
160 mm mineral-wool thermal insulation
vapour barrier
200 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
13 light reflector: white-veneered wood
14 double glazing with 27 mm laminated
safety glass inner layer 11
15 wall construction:
20 mm three-ply lam. softwood boarding
sealing layer
100 mm mineral-wool thermal insulation
vapour barrier
20 mm three-ply lam. softwood boarding
16 120/40 mm wood slats on
100 mm steel Å-bearers

146
1

12

13

14

15

16

147
 Conversion of Reichstag Building into
German Bundestag in Berlin
Architects: Foster and Partners, London
Energy concept and mechanical services:
Kuehn Bauer Partner, Munich

The conversion of Paul Wallot’s Reichstag building (1894) into

a modern seat of parliament is the central symbol of the city of
Berlin in its role as German capital. The scheme involved the
redesign of the building and its restructuring internally, the
insertion of a new debating chamber and the construction of a
fully glazed cupola at the top. One of the main objectives was
the installation of an energy supply system that would con-
serve resources. The planning of this new parliamentary build-
ing aimed to achieve clear energy savings in combination with
a reduction of the use of fossil fuels. Elements of the mechani-
cal services system developed for the Reichstag a hundred
years ago were also incorporated. In view of the large mass of
the building, the structure itself acts as an energy store. An
even indoor climate is achieved throughout the year by heat-
ing and cooling with a minimum supply of energy. The thermal
activation of the structural elements allows the heating require-
Site plan scale 1:10,000 ments in winter to be covered at low-temperature levels. In
Section scale 1:1500 summer, the system is reversed, and heat is removed from the
building by a constant process of cooling the structure.
As a symbol of the renewal of a building that remains largely
unchanged outwardly, the new cupola, which is visible over a
great distance, is not merely a reconstruction of the historical
dome. Internally it is accessible via a visitors’ ramp in the form
of a double helix with a public viewing platform at the top.
Through the glazed inner roof, one has a view into the debat-
ing chamber below. At the same time, the dome is an impor-
tant element of the daylighting, heating and ventilation
systems. The 24 curved steel ribs of the cupola, which have a
triangular cross-section of varying depth, are supported on the
roof of the building by a circular box girder. The ribs are also
welded at the top to a circular tie beam and are braced by
17 horizontal ring beams, to which they are connected by
cast-steel nodes welded on to the ribs. The scale-like glazing
to the entire surface of the cupola consists of laminated safety
glass in aluminium frames. A 300 m2 photovoltaic installation
with a peak capacity of 40 kW supplies energy to the ventila-
tion plant and the sunshading system in the dome. Two motor-
operated power plants generate the electrical energy for the
complex of parliamentary buildings in a heat-and-power
cogenerating plant fuelled by vegetable oil. Surplus heat from
the firing process is fed into a seasonal store, which can be
tapped when needed. This combination of different, mutually
complementary measures reduces CO2 emissions from about
7,000 tonnes to 1,000 tonnes per annum.

148
aa

149
 Solar energy and energy reservoirs
The energy supply for the Reichstag building
forms part of a network operated in conjunction
with other parliamentary buildings in the Spree-
bogen area. The supply concept is based on a
system of decentralized motor-operated plants
that function parallel to the public grid. These
electrical generators work on a cogenerating prin-
ciple, producing heat and power. The generators
are fuelled with vegetable oil methylester (also
known as bio-diesel). Through the use of this
regenerable source of energy, it was possible to
reduce CO2 emissions by more than 50 per cent
in comparison with fossil fuels. With an electrical
capacity of roughly 3.2 MVA, the cogenerating
plants cover approximately 80 per cent of the
electrical needs of the Reichstag; while the sur-
plus heat produced in this process covers roughly
90 per cent of the heating needs of the building.

a a

CO2 non-fossil CO2 fossil CO2

rape oil as fuel rape oil methyl- diesel oil as

ester as fuel fuel

methanol from
petrochemistry

rape cul- oilmill esterifi- oil

tivation cation refining

import

Practice: • rape cake as • glycerine as

• extensive cultiva- feedstuff (soya basic chemical mineral
tion on disused substitute) substance (sub- oil
areas stitute for syn- reserves
• with use of liquid thetic glycerine)
manure (rape =
nitrogen-binding
agent)
Perspective: • rape straw as Use of additional Use of additional
• use of bio-diesel fuel fossil energy: fossil energy:
in agriculture 15–50% 18%

Fourth floor plan • Ground floor plan

scale 1:1500

Use of vegetable oil as renewable raw material to

generate the energy supply
Energy stored in aquifer reservoirs
A Temperature curve for cooling reservoir
B Temperature curve for heating reservoir

150
If neither heating nor cooling, but only electricity reversed. The water then yields its heat to the of flow in this case is approx. 300,000 l/h. The
is required, surplus heat from the generating building via heat-exchange units, after which it is cold water, with a temperature of 5–10 °C,
process is fed in the form of hot water into a pumped back below ground at a temperature of absorbs heat from the building and excess heat
300-metre-deep aquifer reservoir. Salt water at approx. 20 °C. from the cooling plant. The temperature of the
a natural temperature of 20 °C is pumped to In order to store water at a mean temperature of water is increased via a heat-exchange unit to a
the surface via one of two bore holes about approx. 50 °C, salt-water-bearing layers 300 m maximum of 28–30 °C. Cooling for the combined
800 metres apart. The water is heated to approxi- beneath the earth‘s surface are used. A layer district energy system is thus generated with a
mately 70 °C with the excess thermal energy of Rupelean clay ensures a natural separation minimum of additional primary energy: 55 per
from the cogenerating plant and pumped down of the heated lower layer and the cool, water- cent direct cooling from the aquifer cooling reser-
the other bore hole. The maximum capacity of bearing layers above. Exploiting the temperature voir, 40 per cent from surplus heat (dessicative
this system is 100,000 litres per hour. A strata of of the warm water drawn from the reservoir, it is and evaporative cooling and absorption) and
boulder clay above the zone of warm ground- possible to operate air-heating grids, underfloor 5 per cent from electrically operated compres-
water acts as an insulation layer and prevents heating systems, etc. If the temperature is not sors. The energy balance near the surface
heat rising to the surface. A lateral dissipation of high enough, a CFC-free heat pump can be remains unaffected. Since a constant supply of
the thermal energy is not possible either, since switched on. heat to the groundwater would be environmentally
there are no groundwater currents. In winter, the As a means of cooling the building and the air unacceptable, the heated water is cooled again in
energy in the aquifer reservoir can be used for in summer, groundwater can be drawn via a winter by means of absorption heat pumps. The
the low-temperature heating system (approx. number of bore holes from a second aquifer res- use of the aquifer reservoir allows the cogenerat-
65 °C), in which case, the direction of flow is ervoir at a depth of 30–60 m. The maximum rate ing plant to be operated at an optimum capacity.

O2 CO2

Rape CO2 Power Heating Cooling

°C
9.0
Storage temperature in

8.0

7.0

Absorption 6.0

Cogenerating cooling plant/ 5.0

Esterification Heat pump Commencement of draw-off from
plant 4.0
reservoir (3,600 m3 per day)

End of input at a temperature

3.0 of 5 °C and max. 7,200 m3 per
day (total 300,000 m3 in winter)

2.0

1.0

0.0

Months after end of cold-water input

Thermal reservoir – first years of operation

70.0 20,000

60.0
warm-water bore hole
Mean temperature:

15,000
50.0

40.0
10,000
30.0

Input into reservoir

20.0 Draw-off from reservoir
5,000

10.0

0.0 0
Years

Summer Winter Summer Winter B

151
11

Natural ventilation
The use of double-skin facades with motor-
operated and/or manually openable windows 5
facilitates the natural ventilation of the internal 6
spaces. The two skins of glazing in elliptical alu- 1 7
minium sections consist of an inner, thermally 8
divided glazing layer, a cavity containing mova- 2 3 4
ble sunshading elements, and a fixed outer pane
of glass with a peripheral ventilation joint. 9
Depending on the external temperature and wind
conditions, between half and five times the air 10
volume of the rooms can be changed every hour.
Sensors also allow the windows to be opened by
a central control system. As a result, natural ven-
tilation is possible for a large part of the year.
Since the outer skin of glazing protects the inner
skin, the latter can be left open as a means of
night-time cooling. 11

Vertical section through double-skin facade 12

scale 1:10

1 steel bearers, adjustable in three dimensions

13
2 stainless-steel anti-pigeon wires
3 rock-wool thermal insulation
4 sheet-aluminium lining to reveal
5 air seal and vapour barrier
6 silicone seal
7 extruded aluminium section with integrated 14 15
guide for cable and heating runs
8 concealed electrical chain operation
9 thermally divided extruded aluminium
section, with wet-look silver finish
10 low-E double glazing:
16
8 mm toughened glass + 10 mm laminated
safety glass (U = 1.1 W/m2K)
11 extruded aluminium frame for fixed glazing
12 electrically operated sunshading and
anti-glare blind; louvres 50 mm wide
13 plastic guide track
14 aluminium head strip
15 facade heating element with stainless-steel
17 17
fixings for water-bearing copper pipes
16 fixed glazing: 12 mm toughened glass, fixed
in extruded aluminium sections with silicone
adhesive
17 sliding door
18 extruded aluminium fixed ventilation louvres 18
19 track for sliding door
20 stainless-steel tray with stainless-steel grating
20
19

152
Ventilation of debating chamber daylighting cone at the centre of the cupola.
Large-scale ventilation shafts created in the Within this structure is a large ventilation plant.
building 100 years ago are today used for the Heat is recovered from the vitiated air by means
fresh-air supply to the debating chamber. Air is of heat-exchange units. The waste air is finally
drawn in over the western portico and flows emitted at the top of the cone – at the level of the
through large shafts and collector spaces. Low viewing platform – and escapes through the
airstream speeds and the small degree of resist- 9-metre-diameter central opening in the cupola.
ance in the ducts mean that pressure losses The floor-level air-input system, intuitively devel-
within the system are reduced to a minimum. oped in 1883 for this building, formed the basis
The fresh air is heated or cooled by large heat- of the present ventilation concept. Elaborate
exchange units. Slowly rotating fans propel the numerical simulations of the airstream patterns
conditioned air over a large area into a plenum within the debating chamber in relation to the
beneath the debating chamber, from where it is level of occupation were carried out to tune the
fed through perforated mesh in the floor and ventilation system to an optimum level.
through the loose-weave carpet into the parlia-
mentary space. The air is slowly distributed
throughout this space, rising to the top as it
increases in temperature. The warm, vitiated air
is extracted via openings in the funnel-shaped

153
154
A
Part section through cupola
scale 1:100

C
B

155
 1

3 2

4
5

10

11

156
A
12

14
13

15

Air supply and extract in debating chamber;

air-conditioning plant
Sectional details through cupola
scale 1:20

1 laminated safety glass:

2≈ 12 mm toughened glass
2 210/100 mm steel trapezoidal hollow section
3 aluminium glazing section
4 laminated safety glass:
2x 8 mm toughened glass
5 cast-steel node
6 ring beam: Ø 50 mm round steel members
20 mm sheet steel
7 Ø 60 mm steel hanger for viewing platform
8 dome rib: Ø 50 mm round steel members
23 mm sheet steel
9 10 mm synthetic mortar on 15 mm steel plate
with 4 mm metal damper plate, adhesive
fixed beneath
10 stainless-steel handrail
11 laminated safety glass balustrade:
2≈ 8 mm toughened glass
12 6 mm sheet-steel wind deflector
13 3 mm sheet steel
14 Ø 114.3/4 mm steel tube
15 ring beam: Ø 50 mm round steel members
10 mm sheet steel

157
Vertical section through cone
scale 1:20

2 3

6 5

14
15

16

9 10

17

19 18 11

20

13
12

158
Daylighting
In contrast to the historical dome by Paul Wallot,
the new glazed cupola is used for daylighting the
interior and forms an integral part of the energy
concept. A concave conical steel construction
with a maximum diameter of 15 m and lined with
360 mirror units was inserted within the cupola
and reflects daylight into the debating chamber
below. A 12-metre-high shading element that
rotates about the cone protects against glare and
reduces the amount of energy required for cool-
ing. The exact position of this element is compu-
ter controlled on the basis of data provided of 24
measurement points. The deflection of daylight
into the chamber helps to reduce the energy con-
sumption for electric lighting. A daylight-related
dimming system reduces the power needs even
further. At night, in contrast, the cupola is a radi-
ant beacon on the skyline, reflecting out the inter-
nal illumination via the mirrors.

1 adjustable sunshading element:

edge beam consisting of Ø 51/6.3 mm and
Ø 101.6/10 mm steel tubes, with
12 mm sheet steel
2 Ø 50/3 mm aluminium tubes
3 180/180/15 mm steel SHS
4 200/60 mm steel ring beam
5 wall construction:
202 mm welded steel bearers
120/550/1.25 mm insulated sheet-steel
panels
trapezoidal-section ribbed metal
sheeting 35/201 mm
6 mirror element in aluminium frame
7 55 mm glazing: 2x laminated safety glass
8 65/180/8 mm welded steel triangular section
9 3 mm sheet stainless-steel ventilation louvres
10 steel Å-section 100 mm deep
11 5 mm sheet stainless steel
12 Ø 625.9/100 mm stainless-steel ring
13 Ø 20 mm stainless-steel rod
14 8 mm toughened safety glass covering
15 Ø 114 mm aluminium section
16 80 mm concrete slabs on mortar pads
17 sprinkler supply
18 3 mm sheet-steel panel
19 heating supply pipe to metal sections
20 cable runner for acoustic insulation sail

159
Glossar

Environmental factors

The Sun Thermal flow/wind

The sun is the centre of our solar system and contains nearly 98 per cent of Thermal flow (thermal convection) occurs when surfaces of differing compo-
its mass. sition warm to different degrees. While light surfaces reflect most of the
sun’s radiation, dark surfaces absorb it. The latter warm up more quickly in
Mass (kg) 1.989 x 1030 the morning, warm air pockets detach from the ground as it warms up and
Mass (earth = 1) 332 830 warm air rises. Cooler surrounding air flows in from below to fill these pock-
Equatorial radius (km) 695 000 ets, resulting in a low-pressure area. In a high-pressure area, air coming
Equatorial radius (earth = 1) 108.97 from above flows into the low-pressure area from the side. The air is warmed
Mean surface temperature (photosphere) 6000 °C and simultaneously increases in density and decreases in humidity. During
Mean core temperature 15000000 °C this process the air contracts. New air masses stream into the area and pre-
vent the formation of clouds.
The radiation of the sun reaches the earth’s atmosphere with an intensity
of roughly 1 340 W/m2. It is reduced to approximately 100 W/m2 by the A mean surface temperature is measurable on the earth during all these
atmospheric influence of a cloudless sky, and drops to 50 W/m2 on overcast processes. It does not fully correspond to the real temperature near the sur-
winter days. In southern regions with predominantly clear skies, such face of the earth, because incident electromagnetic waves cause the
as the Sahara, insolation is 2 200 kWh/m2 per year, in Germany approxi- atmospheric particles to oscillate. This process is referred to as greenhouse
mately 900–1 200 kWh/m2 depending on location. effect and threatens to compromise the temperature balance of the earth.
This is nevertheless a considerable energy potential: 1 000 kWh is the
numeric equivalent of the calorific value of 100 l heating oil. Global radiation
is the measurable solar radiation on the earth’s surface. It is composed of
diffuse sky radiation and direct solar radiation.

The Earth Heat, water, air

Mass (kg) 5.976 x 1024 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is covered in water. The thermal storage
Equatorial radius (km) 6 378.14 capacity of the oceans is essential for the stabilization of the earth’s temper-
Rotation duration (days) 0.99727 ature. Liquid water is the cause of erosion and weather formations above
Rotation duration (hours) 23.9345 continents.
Period of revolution (days) 365.256 The earth’s atmosphere contains 7 per cent nitrogen and 21 per cent
Mean revolution speed (km/s) 29.79 oxygen with traces of argon, carbon dioxide and water. The minute portion
Equatorial surface gravitation (m/s2) 9.78 of 0.03 per cent trace gases in the atmosphere plays a key role in maintain-
Average surface temperature 15 °C ing the surface temperature since the trace gases absorb the long-wave
Atmospheric pressure (bar) 1.013 heat radiation from the earth. This natural greenhouse effect raises the
mean global temperature to 15 °C. Without this effect, the temperature of
The earth’s diameter is 12 756.3 km. The earth consists of different layers the earth would by roughly 33 °C colder.
with varying chemical and seismic characteristics (depth in km):
The release of gases that impact the climate and accumulate in the
0–40 crust atmosphere triggers a man-made greenhouse effect in addition to the
40–400 solid outer mantle natural greenhouse effect. The former causes a dramatic rise in global
400–650 transition zone temperatures. These effects result in a wide range of climate changes.
650–2 700 plastic inner mantle
2 700–2 890 D-layer
2 890–5 150 liquid outer core
5 150–6 378 solid inner core

160
Absorber Air change [h-1] Biogas
The most important component of the solar col- Indicates the frequency with which the air volume Combustible gas generated from the bacterial
lector (∫ p.166), which collects incident solar in a room is exchanged per hour. An air change decomposition of animal and vegetable wastes
radiation, transforms it into heat and transfers it of 1 h-1 means that the entire volume of air is with a calorific value of approximately 5 kWh/m3.
to a carrier medium. The absorber is usually exchanged each hour. (∫ biomass)
composed of metal plates with good thermal
conductivity, dark coating and integrated heat- Air collector Biomass
transfer tubes. Solar collector with air as carrier medium. For Reproductive fuels of organic or animal origin
applications where the warmed air is used regenerate within a given period by comparison
Absorptance α directly in the subsequent or connected process to fossil fuels. Biomass is generated by biochem-
Ratio of absorbed radiant energy Hα to the total (warm air heating, industrial dryers). ical transformation of sunlight (photosynthesis)
incident radiant energy Ho (Hα = Ho · α). (∫ p. 166) and is, therefore, stored solar energy. The use
of biomass as an energy source means that the
Absorption chiller Air distribution/-duct CO2 cycle remains largely unchanged. This
Device for generating cold energy in a thermo- Air ducts constructed from aluminium sheet, gal- differentiates biomass from other renewable
dynamic process by means of absorption. vanized sheet steel, masonry and concrete, etc., resources such as solar energy, wind- and water
Absorption is the dissolving of gases by liquids. are used to transport air from the outside to the power.
It is limited and decreases with rising tempera- conditioning and ventilation devices, into the
tures. A refrigerant, which reaches the boiling rooms and then again to the outside. Air distribu- Blower-door-test
point at a very low temperature, is warmed in tion in the rooms should be even and draught- Standardized test procedure employed to deter-
the device. The refrigerant evaporates and free. The ducts must conform to fire-safety and mine the air tightness of buildings. A fan set into
extracts heat from the surrounding field. The sound-protection standards. the external wall (e.g. door opening) is used to
vapour condenses and releases the previously blow air into the building. The positive pressure
absorbed heat in the liquefier. This system is a Air mass (AM) resulting in the interior forces air to escape to the
viable application when cooling cycles result Equivalent relative air mass used to describe the outside through leaks in the building compo-
in the availability of excess heat at sufficiently length travelled by light passing through the nents. The volume of escaping air is measured.
high temperatures, because cooling energy is atmosphere. AM0 corresponds to the solar spec-
principally generated with thermal energy. trum in space, AM1 is the average spectrum at Boreholes
the equator. AM1.5 is the reference spectrum for Depending on the type of ground, boreholes are
Adiabatic cooling/evaporative cooling all standard test conditions for solar installations rammed, injected or drilled, to a depth ranging
The cooling that occurs when a liquid evaporates and corresponds to the mean spectrum at 45 ° from 8 to 30 m, even deeper in rock (deeper
as a result of extraction of the “evaporation heat” latitude. boreholes can also be operated without anti-
required for evaporation is referred to as evapo- freezing agents). Different borehole lengths are
rative or adiabatic cooling. The evaporation proc- Air-only system used to create heat or cold sumps, e.g., for air-
ess is accelerated when the resulting vapour is In air-only systems, the transport and distribution conditioning or free cooling in summer. If the
rapidly flushed out by a dry stream of air, allow- of all required thermal energies is effected exclu- ground has a good storage capacity, excess
ing a constant influx of fresh, unsaturated air. sively via air volume flow, which are conditioned solar- and ∫ CHP waste heat can be stored for
(warmed/cooled) in a centralized or decentral- later use. Consistent performance is achieved by
Adsorption ized system arrangement. combining boreholes and heat pumps.
Surface retention of water molecules from the air
on a porous solid substance. Air velocity Building component heating / -cooling
Comfort parameter in a room. Air velocity over System employed to activate the thermal mass of
Adsorption chiller 10 cm/s is perceived, and velocities over 20cm/s building components for the purpose of heating
Conditioning device in which humidity is extracted are experienced as uncomfortable. and cooling. Building component heating/cooling
from the air by means of ∫ adsorption. Humid air is usually effected via floors, ceilings or walls into
flows through large heat wheels (drying rotors) Amorphous cells/silicon (∫ p. 164) which water-filled coiled pipes are integrated.
with many small channels, which increases their The temperatures of the carrier medium are simi-
surface ratio. The surface of the channels is Annual heating requirement Qh [kWh/a ] lar to the room temperature. Up to approximately
covered in an adsorptive coating. For dehumidi- Heating requirement of a building over the 28 °C are required for heating and up to approxi-
fication, humid air is drawn in and transported course of a year. mately 18 °C for cooling.
through the rotor. The strongly hygroscopic
(water-absorbing) adsorptive coating extracts Annual primary energy requirement Bus / bus system
humidity from the air and binds it to the rotor. Qp [kWh/m2a] The bus system represents a link for data
As the water vapour condenses, latent (humid) Energy required to cover the total energy require- exchange between several communicating build-
heat is transformed into sensible heat and trans- ment in consideration of the energy required for ing system devices, sensors and control termi-
ferred to the air. The dry air is therefore warmed processes outside of the building for harnessing, nals and the building automation system.
as it exits from the device. A second blower transforming and distributing the relevant fuel. Sensors record current state data, actors trans-
heats the air to over 100 °C. This second stream mit all registered changes to the recipients in the
of hot air is also transported through the rotor in Aquifer form of specially coded switching signals. LON
a cycle that is separated from the humid air. ∫ Seasonal energy storage (Local Operating Network) or EIB (European
The water retained in the pipe (channel) is Installation Bus) systems are commonly used to
expelled and absorbed by the warm air. This Auxiliary energy control building functions.
air from the regenerating cycle is expelled to Energy required to operate system components
the outside. The two air streams – process air such as circulating pumps, controls, etc. Bypass diode
and regeneration air – are separated by special Protects the cells of a PV modules against ther-
sealing barriers, with the constant revolution of Available daylighting mal damage when individual cells are partially
the rotor perpetuating the alternation of the Percentage of annual lighting provided by day- shaded while other cells are fully exposed to
adsorptive and regenerative cycles and thus light. radiation.
allowing for continuous operation.
A/V-ratio [m-1] CIS semi-conductor
Aerogel Unit of measure expressing the compactness of Copper-indium-diselenide semi-conductor for
Highly porous, homogenous silicate glass a building form through the ratio of the heat- photocells in thin-film technology.
structure, the conductivity of which lies below transmitting surrounding area (A) to the heated
that of the value for static air. Solar radiation building volume (V). Collector (∫ S. 166)
is not reflected from the inner pore surface;
aerogels are therefore suitable as transparent Azimuth angle φ Combined heat and power plant (CHP)
thermal insulation between two glass panes. Deviation of angle of collector or photovoltaic A generator produces electrical power and heat
surface from geographical south orientation. in a coupled heat-and-power process by means
φ = 0° means that the surface orientation is true of the combustion of fossil fuels, biogas, rape-
south (west φ = +90°; east φ = –90°). methyl ester or wood. High efficiency is ensured

161
through the utilization of the waste heat and low Earth collectors Fossil fuels
transfer losses in decentralized systems. An exchange cycle filled with brine collects earth Raw materials extracted from the earth’s crust
heat in a system of pipes installed at a depth of such as coal, natural oil, natural gas and
Condensing gas boiler roughly 2 m below ground. In a modified version, blended products such as oil sand or oil shale.
Optimized gas boiler, which utilizes the fuel effi- the foundation slab itself is designed as an The former can be directly transformed into heat-
ciently and also harnesses the latent condensing energy absorber for cooling purposes. ing energy by combustion. The latter require
heat through cooling of the fuel gas. additional energy to separate the mineral materi-
Efficiency η (Eta) als. All fossil fuels release a high CO2-content
Conditioning systems Ratio of effective energy to supplied energy. during combustion.
Conditioning systems regulate air temperature
and humidity throughout the year, maintaining Energy Conservation Regulation (EnEV) Fuel cell
desired values. They unify all four air-handling On the Federal Republic of Germany the EnEV System for the generation of power and heat
functions in one system and feature: humidifier, replaces the Insulation Regulation from 1995 where chemically stored energy is directly trans-
cooler (simultaneous dehumidifier) and heater. (WSchV 95), which prescribes the maximum formed into electrical power and heat at a very
Return air and outside air are mixed in a mixing annual heating requirement, and the Heating high rate of efficiency. This is achieved, for
chamber and filtered. Installation Regulation (HeizAnlV). For the first example, within the context of a controlled reac-
time, the building in its entirety is taken into con- tion of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) to deliver
Conductivity λ (Lambda) [W/mK] sidering, rather than each individual building the end product water (H2O). The required
Value of heat [W], which is conducted in 1 h component. The EnEV regulates the primary hydrogen is produced beforehand in an electro-
through 1 m2 of a 1-m-thick material layer, at a energy requirement for building heating, ventila- lytic process by means of photovoltaic current.
constant temperature difference of 1 K between tion and domestic water heating; this require- High-temperature fuel cells transform natural gas
the surfaces. Low conductivity means that the ment incorporates all insulating and system into electrical power with a high degree of effi-
material has excellent insulating characteristics. technological measures. The EnEv was drafted ciency and generate waste gases in the process,
to achieve a considerable reduction of CO2 in which can be utilized for heating purposes.
Crystalline cells / silicon cells (∫ p. 164) accordance with the Kioto Protocol.
Geothermal energy
Daylight autonomy Energy factor Energy stored in the form of heat below the sur-
Annual percentage of work hours illuminated by Defines the energy consumed in the building. face of the earth. The principal source of geo-
means of daylighting. Power and heat consumption are “added” to thermal energy is the heat released upon the
arrive at this factor. disintegration of radioactive isotopes in the
Daylight deflection earth’s interior.
Technology employed to direct diffuse daylight Energy piles
deep into a room with the help of mirrors or light- The foundation piles are designed with inte- Geothermal heat exchanger
directing systems. grated pipes as heat exchanger units. They are Outside air is conducted through underground
(∫ Light direction) in direct contact with the soil or the groundwater. pipelines to condition the supply air for a build-
ing.
Daylight factor Energy roof (∫ Solar roof)
Ratio of illuminance at a point in the interior to the Global radiation
external illuminance under an overcast sky. The Envelope area Energy composed of direct solar and diffuse sky
daylight factor diminishes the greater the dis- The sum of all areas that enclose a building from radiation on the surface of the earth.
tance between the point and the window. the exterior, soil and unheated rooms.
Gravitational ventilation
DEC installation Environmental factors Free ventilation as a result of the suction caused
(Desiccant and Evaporative Cooling) (∫ p. 160) when windows, doors or eaves/ridge elements
Installation for the cooling and dehumidification are opened.
of outside air for building ventilation. It extracts ETFE film
humidity from the fresh supply air by warming the Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene film with low own Gross density [kg/m3]
exhaust air. The warmer the exhaust air, the more weight (350 g/m2 for 200 μm) and high light- Mass of a material in relation to volume. The
humidity is extracted from the outside air in the and UV-permeability. It is employed as a multi- greater the gross density, the greater the capac-
exchanger unit. Air is cooled with the help of layered, mechanically or pneumatically pre- ity of a material for thermal storage and for con-
evaporative humidifiers. High-performance col- stressed structure. ductivity.
lectors can be used to generate the required
process heat. Evacuated tube collectors (∫ p. 166) Groundwater utilization
(∫ Sorption technology) Groundwater is extracted for the purpose of pro-
Flat plate collectors (∫ p. 166) ducing energy. This is a laborious process,
Dew point temperature θ (Theta) [°C] because groundwater regulations must be con-
Temperature at which the vapour content of air is Fluorescent lamp sidered and suction and sump wells require con-
saturated. When the temperature falls below the In the discharge lamp, the supplied energy stant maintenance. Utilizing groundwater
dew point, the excess vapour is expelled as con- is transformed into UV-radiation by means of becomes a viable economic option in areas with
densation. mercury vapour discharge; the UV-radiation a natural ∫ aquifer in which underground ∫
causes the materials coating the inner side of seasonal heat and cold storage units are created
Diffusion equivalent strength of air layer sd [m] the glass tube to emit light in the desired colour. by installing suction and sump wells at the rele-
Indicates the diffusion behaviour of a material The high ∫ luminous efficacy diminishes the vant location.
layer of the strength (thickness) s across the energy requirement in comparison with an incan-
required distance of static air layer in order to descent lamp by 75 per cent. g-value
achieve the vapour diffusion resistance μ of the a ∫ Total solar energy transmission
building component. sd = μ · s [m] Forced air heating
Forced air heating generally operates with circu- Heat Q [J] or [Ws]
Displacement ventilation (∫ Ventilation by con- lating air systems. The air is usually directly Form of energy. 1Joule [J] = 1 Watt second [Ws].
vection) heated with an oil or gas boiler. A system of 3.6 · 106 Ws = 1 Kilowatt hour [kWh]
ducts distributes the heat across all rooms that
District-heating/district-heating grid are equipped with a supply and exhaust air Heating degree-days
(∫ Solar district-heating) outlet. By comparison to warm water heating, Value for heating energy demand within a heat-
forced air heating warms up quickly, is less ing period, defined as the sum of daily differ-
Drinking water heating demand expensive and cannot freeze. On the other hand, ences between the mean room temperature
Heat required to warm the desired volume of the movement of air through the ducts generates of 20 °C and the mean outside air temperature
drinking water. noise and the circulation of large volumes of air during the days of the heating period. The mean
increases dust levels. It is difficult to regulate daily temperature on a degree-day is below
temperatures individually per room. 15 °C. Values have been defined for many
locations based on meteorological records.

162
Heating energy requirement Internal heat gains Qi [kWh/a ] Luminous flux ϕ in lumen [lm]
Energy required to heat a building taking into Heat gains from heat radiating from equipment, Luminous flux, given in lumen, quantifies the
account the heating demand and the losses lighting and building occupants. luminous output of a light source in all directions.
incurred in heat transfer, distribution and produc-
tion. Joint transmission coefficient a Luminous intensity I in candela [cd]
Unit of measure for air exchange via window The unit of measurement of the luminous
Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems sashes and frames during a given time and for a intensity I, called candela [cd], describes
(HVAC-Anlagen) specific air pressure difference (∫ Blower-door- the luminous flux emitted by a light source
The systems are classified according to the test). Uncontrolled air exchange is a key factor in in a given direction and solid angle.
number of air-treatment functions they fulfil, that the heat losses of a building.
is, none, one, two, three or four functions (cool- Massive storage
ing, heating, humidifying and dehumidifying). Air Kilowatt hour [kWh] Massive components of a building, or compo-
circulation is carefully controlled with the help of Unit of measurement for energy: output of 1000 nents with good storage capacity, for example,
fans (controlled air condition, flow direction and Watt [W] over one hour [h]. 1kWh =3600 kJ exposed concrete ceilings and walls.
velocity, etc.) to adapt to user needs.
Kilowatt peak [kWp] Microcrystalline/micromorphous cells
Heat output requirement Qn [kWh/a ] Normal output of solar modules under standard- (∫ p. 164)
Amount of heat, which must be supplied by the ized test conditions.
heating system to maintain the nominal tempera- Minimum illuminance
ture in heated rooms. The heat output require- Latent heat storage The minimum illuminance is defined in DIN 5035
ment is determined by drawing up a balance Latent heat storage utilizes melting heat and is for a wide variety of room uses, (e.g., 500 lx at an
sheet of heat losses and heat gains. Indicator of tied to a fixed temperature – the melting temper- office workstation).
the heating efficiency of a building. ature. When heat is stored, the material begins (∫ Illuminance)
to melt and does not increase in temperature
Heat protection glass until it is fully melted. Since there is no notable Monocrystalline cells/silicon (∫ p. 164)
Insulating glazing with a very low ∫ U-value and rise in temperature despite the addition to heat,
at least one coated surface facing the interstitial the heat stored during this phase transition is MPP (Maximum Power Point)
space between panes to reduce heat dissipa- also called “hidden” or latent heat. Latent heat Power point on the variable current-voltage curve
tion. The cavity is frequently gas-filled (e.g., storage systems possess tremendous storage at which the PV-cell generates maximum output
argon, krypton or xenon). capacity. (silicon cell roughly 0.45 V).

Heat requirement Q [kWh] Light-directing glass Nominal energy demand

The heat requirement is the product of heat Light-directing glass is used to bring daylight Energy, which the heating system must emit
losses and heat gains. Precise data on the into interiors. In cast glass, the surfaces are under standardized conditions to cover the heat-
amount, temperature level and temporal distribu- deformed to such a degree that the radiation ing requirements and the drinking water heating
tion of the required heat are established as pre- that is incident on the first glass surface is requirement.
requisites to designing a solar installation. directed onto the next surface, then on to the
bright ceiling of the room and from there into Nominal illuminance
Heat transmission the room itself. In insulating glass, curved Expression used to describe the desired illumi-
Transmission of heat energy through a building plastic elements are installed in the interstitial nance for a specific room use independent of the
component in the direction of the course of tem- space between panes to direct light into the age of the light sources.
perature. room from above.
Off-grid operation/off-grid system (insular sys-
Holograms Light-directing louvered blind tems)
Transmission holograms are integrated into glaz- Daylight is directed into the depth of the room via Self-sufficient photovoltaic system for the genera-
ing to direct light at a defined incidence angle. the concave upper surfaces of reflecting louvers. tion of electrical energy without connection to a
The transmission produces spectral colour sepa- supply grid, usually operated with batteries as
ration as in a prism. White light holograms are Light direction energy storage.
used to remix the rainbow colours into white light. Light direction is used to direct daylight or
artificial light into the further recesses of a room On-grid system
Hot-spot effect and to utilize it at some distance from the light Photovoltaic system linked to public power grid,
Overheating of an individual cell in a solar source. Daylight direction is dependent on used to compensate for supply deficiency in
module. Occurs in case of partial shading. numerous structural and local parameters. case of diminished solar radiation and to feed
excess energy into the grid.
Hybrid cells LON-control (∫ Bus system)
To optimize efficiency, hybrid cells consist of a Partial conditioning system
monocrystalline ∫ wafer surrounded by two Low-energy house Systems that do not feature all the functions of a
layers of amorphous silicon. In Germany, a building meets the low-energy standard conditioning system, among others air
standard if it consumes 30 per cent less energy heater and air humidifier. They are used to con-
Hybrid solar systems than set forth in the Energy Conservation Regula- trol relative humidity in winter, but do not provide
Photovoltaic- and thermal solar systems are tion. cooling in summer. Air heaters and air coolers
employed in the form of “solar power-heat cou- can cool the supply air in summer, they cannot
pling” to increase the efficiency in the utilization Luminance control relative humidity in winter.
of solar energy since photovoltaic systems can Unit of measurement for the brightness emitted
only transform 15 per cent of radiation into elec- by a light source or illuminated surface. Passive house
trical energy. The rest is transformed into heat. The passive house is a progression of the
Luminance distribution German low-energy house standard. It con-
Illuminance E in lux [lx ] Indicates the brightness values in a room. sumes 75–85 per cent less heating energy than
Ratio of incident luminous flux to the size of the According to DIN 5035 the maximum difference stipulated in the Energy Conservation Regulation.
illuminated area. There are set illuminance quo- in brightness between the brightest and darkest The annual heating requirement is less than
tients according to room use. surface near the working plane should not 15 kWh/m2a.
exceed 3:1; between the working plane and the
Incidence angle surroundings at some distance from it, the maxi- Phase displacement [h]
Angle at which a ray of light falls onto a surface. mum difference in luminance should lie below Temporal displacement of the internal tempera-
10:1. ture curve in relation to the external temperature
Infrared transmission curve. Gradual thermal transmission (optimum
Ability of a material to permit the transmission of Luminous efficacy η [lm/W] 12 h) shifts the external temperature peaks to the
heat radiation at wavelengths of 780 nm–2800 Ratio of the luminous flux emitted and the evening in the interior.
nm. required output.
Photovoltaics

163
Photovoltaics Solar cell material Cell efficiency Cell efficiency Module efficiency
(laboratory) (production) (mass production)

monocrystalline silicon 24.7 % 18.0% 14.0%

polycrystalline silicon 19.8 % 15.0 % 13.0 %

amorphous silicon 13.0 % 10.5 % 7.5 %

CIS 18.8 % 14.0 % 10.0 %

CdT 16.4 % 10.0 % 9.0 %

micromorphous silicon 12.0 % 10.7 % 9.1 %

hybrid cell 20.1 % 17.3 % 15.2 %

colour cell 12.0 % 7.0 % 5.0 %

Source: Fraunhofer ISE, 26th IEEE PVSC, NREL, spec sheets from various manufacturers

Photovoltaics is the direct transformation of light intensity increases proportionate to the radiation Antireflex coating
into electrical energy by means of the photo- intensity, while the voltage is hardly affected by
electric effect in semiconductors. Solar cells are the incidence of light. Higher cell temperatures n-semiconductor layer
usually constructed with silicon. We differentiate cause a drop in electrical output (current x volt-
Grid fingers
three different cell types: monocrystalline, poly- age) and diminish efficiency. Solar cells are most
crystalline and amorphous, according to surface efficient when radiation and cell temperature are
structure, colouring and efficiency. stable. To achieve a desired voltage or output,
The semiconductor material is doped to create a the individual cells are connected in series
solar cell. Chemical elements are introduced to (higher current) or in parallel (higher voltage).
create a positive charge surplus (p-junction sem- Photovoltaic modules achieve a nominal output
iconductor layer) or a negative charge surplus of 10 Wp–100 Wp. The generated power can be
(n-junction semiconductor layer). When two dis- fed into a self-sufficient system with battery stor-
tinct and differently doped regions adjoin, the age or into a network integrated with the public p-n junction
resulting boundary is known as an n-p junction. power grid.
At this transition, two thin layers of positively and Consumer Metal contact p-semiconductor layer
negatively charged region form and create an
electrically charged field. The electrical current,
approximately 0.5 V for silicon, can be tapped off
via contacts printed onto the surface. The current A Diagram of a crystalline solar cell

PV-module with monocrystalline cells PV-module with polycrystalline cells PV-module with thin-film cells with copper-
In the production of monocrystalline cells, a sili- Polycrystalline cells are manufactured by pouring indium-diselenide (CIS)
con rod (diameter 10–20 cm) with a completely melted silicon into a mould. As the silicon cools, For the manufacture of amorphous thin-film cells,
regular crystalline structure is formed from many small crystals are formed, whereby the gaseous silicon is bonded to a carrier medium
melted silicon. The monocrystalline rod is cut into position of each individual crystal to the other is (e.g. glass) resulting in a thin layer (strength <1
thin disks (wafers). Structural etching ensures random. Within each crystal, however, the atoms μm) of non-directional silicon. A solar module is
improved light absorption. In the next step, sev- are arranged in a regular formation. The cooled then produced in one piece; a laser divides the
eral silicon atoms in each wafer are replaced by block is cut into rectangular wafers. The separa- coated surface in narrow strips and, as a result,
foreign atoms through gaseous diffusion to tion of the individual crystals in the cells compro- individual areas are connected in series. The
enable the photoelectric effect. Contacts are mises the photovoltaic effect and is responsible production costs for this manufacturing process
then printed onto the front and bottom sides. An for the diminished efficiency of this type of cell. are less than those for crystalline cells since only
antireflex coating is added to minimize light The production method, on the other hand, is 1 to 2 per cent of the amount of silicon is
losses by reflection; the coating changes the both energy- and cost-efficient. required. The low efficiency of these modules
appearance of the cells from the original silver- translates into a larger area requirement.
grey to a darker hue ranging from dark-blue to
black.

Monocrystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon Thin-film cell

164
The terms used to describe the direct transfor- Semiconductor Specific transmission heat loss coefficient HT
mation of light into electrical energy. (∫ p. 164) Basic material for the manufacture of solar cells [W/m2K]
whose electrical conductivity is intermediate Heat flux through external building components
Photovoltaic generator between that of a conductor and an isolator. It is per 1 degree Kelvin temperature difference.
Totality of connected photovoltaic modules in a strongly temperature-dependent: in contrast to
solar power plant. metals, the resistance of the semiconductor Stacked cells
decreases with increasing temperature or inci- Photovoltaic cells with two or three layers
Photovoltaic module dent light, and its conductivity increases. stacked one above the other (tandem- or triple-
Unit of connected ∫ solar cells. cells). To improve the efficiency, each layer is
(∫ p. 164) Silicon designed for a different spectral range (short-,
Silicon is the second most common element in medium- and long-wave radiation).
Photovoltaic system (self-sufficient, hybrid, on- the earth’s crust and is used as a semiconductor
grid) material in the production of solar cells. Standard test conditions
(∫ p. 164) Test conditions employed to determine the nomi-
Solar cells nal output of solar modules. Insolation:
Plate heat exchanger Semiconductor building component, in which 1000 W/m2; cell temperature: 25 °C; spectrum
Plate heat exchangers usually consist of thin solar radiation is transformed into electrical volt- AM1.5
plastic or aluminium plates, which are arranged age through relevant structure of layers.
in closely-spaced layers. Media (e.g. air) flow Switchable glass
past each other in the interstitial space between Solar collector (∫ p. 166) To control solar gains, types of glass with con-
plates without mixing. The difference in tempera- trollable (switchable) transmission characteristics
tures causes heat to be transferred from one Solar district heat have been developed. The prototypes now avail-
medium to the other. Semi-central, solar thermal supply for closed able have not yet gone into mass production.
housing developments with warm water and The types of glass modify their radiation trans-
Plus-energy houses space heating. The heating energy gained in col- mission coefficient either in response to a
Buildings that generate more energy in a year lector installations is centrally stored to compen- change in temperature or an applied voltage. We
than they consume. sate for diurnal and seasonal differences in solar differentiate thermotropic and thermochromic,
radiation. The heating demand is generally also electrochromic and gasochromic systems as well
Polycrystalline cells/silicon (∫ p. 164) covered with the support of other, auxiliary as those operating with liquid crystals.
energy carriers. However, complete coverage of
Power point the demand with solar energy is also possible, Surface heat flux, heat flux density q [W/m2]
Point at which a PV-module or –generator pro- albeit only with the provision of very large stor- Indicates heat volume [J], which flows through
duces power defined by the electric potential age volumes (up to 20 000 m3). 1m2 of a material cross-section in 1 second.
and the strength or intensity of current. The
power point at which the highest performance is Solar factor fa Surface temperature θ (theta) [°C]
achieved is called the (∫ MPP). Percentage of energy requirement to be covered The θ symbol is used for surface temperatures to
by solar energy: a solar installation for domestic differentiate them from air temperatures.
Receptors water heating, for example, can achieve an
In the human eye, light stimuli are transformed annual solar coverage rate of roughly 55 per System components
into neuronal impulses by two receptor systems. cent. In summer, the coverage may be as high Components of the PV network aside from the
The evenly distributed and light-sensitive rod as 90 per cent, falling to below 30 per cent in generator, such as installation structure,
receptors enable wide-angle vision at low illumi- winter. switches, controls, meters and storage.
nance and the cone receptors provide focus and
colour vision. Solar generator System requirement coefficient eP
Photovoltaic installation comprising solar mod- Describes the energy efficiency of a total installa-
Reflected glare ules that are switched in series or parallel. tion system as an expression of the ratio of the
Glare can be caused directly by a light source or total primary energy absorbed by the system
as reflected glare from the reflection of a light Solar heat gains QS [kWh/a] technology to the released thermal energy. The
source. Heat gains from diffuse sky and direct solar radi- small the requirement coefficient, the greater the
ation on the building components of a building. efficiency of the system.
Relative humidity
Ratio of absolute water vapour W contained in Solar roof Tandem-/triple cells (∫ Stacked cells)
the air to the water vapour saturation volume WS. Large, segmented collector installation, which
The capacity of air to absorb water vapour simultaneously serves as roof covering. Thermal bridges
increases with rising temperatures. Relative Area of the building skin with increased heat
humidity diminishes when the moisture content is Solar thermal cooling processes loss. There is a risk of falling below the dew point
constant and the air temperature increases. (∫ Adsorption chillers, ∫ Sorption technology) temperature and resulting moisture damage.

Resistance to thermal transmittance Rt [m2K/W] Sorption-assisted cooling (SAC) Thermal flux Φ (Phi)[W]
The sum of the resistance to thermal transmis- (∫ Sorption technology) Heat volume per unit of time.
sion R and the resistance factors Rsi and Rse to
surface heat transfer serves as an intermediate Sorption technology Thermal or heat absorption factor a
value in determining the thermal transmission Alternative to conventional, power-driven chillers [Ws0.5/m2K]
coefficient U. with a process to generate cooling energy on the Factor of thermal absorption capacity of a mate-
basis of desiccation with subsequent evaporative rial. The higher the factor, the faster a building
Roof-integrated installation cooling. Water replaces CFC- or FC-containing component will absorb heat.
Collectors or solar models are structurally inte- refrigerants in other chillers. The advantage of ∫
grated into the roof skin. DEC installations with sorption technology in Thermal transmittance, U-value [W/m2K]
comparison with conventional chiller systems is The constant expresses the transmission heat
Seasonal energy storage the diminished connect load because the need lost in Watt per m2 of heat transmitting area at a
Long-term storage in large tanks (≥ 10,000 m3 for a chiller is obviated; other advantages are the temperature difference of 1 K.
water) to compensate for the seasonal differ- resulting reduction in power consumption and
ences in solar radiation. the low annual water consumption; moreover, Thermal transmission coefficient Λλ [W/m2K]
(∫ Groundwater utilization) there is no need to recool the chillers. Thermal flux, which flows through the material
layer of a strength s at a constant temperature
Self-regulating facades Specific heat or calorific capacity c difference of 1 K between the surfaces.
Facades, which automatically change their per- [kWh/kgK] or [kJ/kgK]
meability by means of ∫ switchable glass Heat, which generates a temperature increase Thermal solar energy
according to daylight and solar radiation. by 1 K per mass or volume unit of a material. The transformation of the radiation energy of the
sun into usable heat.

165
Solar Collectors Collector type Conversion factor Thermal loss Temperature range
Factor [W/m2] [°C]

Absorber 0.82 – 0.97 10 – 30 up to 40

(no cover)

Flat plate collector 0.66 – 0.83 2.9 – 5.3 20 – 80

Evacuated 0.81 – 0.83 2.6 – 4.3 20 – 120

flat plate collector

Evacuated 0.62 – 0.84 0.7 – 2.0 50 – 120

tube collector

Storage collector approx. 0.55 approx. 2.4 20 – 70

Air collector 0.75 – 0,90 8 – 30 20 – 50

Air collectors Flat plate collectors Evacuated plate collectors

Air collectors harness solar radiation for the Flat plate collectors consist of dark absorber sur- The absorbers are installed inside an evacuated,
direct heating of air. The absorber is placed in an faces with integrated tubes, usually in serpentine compression-proof glass tube, which is mounted
insulated housing under glass. Air flows through arrangement. The heat collected by the absorber to rotate for optimized utilization of the solar radi-
or circulates around the absorber inside the passes through the tube wall to the heat carrier ation. The heat carrier medium flows directly
housing. Air collectors can be operated as fresh medium. A transparent cover of solar toughened through the absorber. The collector comprises
air or circulated air systems. In fresh air systems, glass with a high transmission ratio in the short- several tubes, connected in series and linked to
the outside air is warmed and utilized without fur- wave spectral range prevents heat emission from a collecting tube. When temperatures are low,
ther processing. In circulated air systems, air, as the absorber (greenhouse effect) and heat the heat carrier evaporates inside the tube. The
the carrier medium, is circulated in a closed losses by convection. The cover is closely vapour rises, transfers the heat to the medium in
cycle. The heat collected in this cycle is then attached to the housing; it protects the absorber the collecting tube via a heat exchanger, con-
available for use via heat exchangers. The circu- against the elements and diminishes the heat denses and flows back again. For this process to
lated system provides protection against dirt losses of the collector by conduction. In evacu- occur, the collector must be installed on a mini-
accumulation and is easier to maintain. The fresh ated flat plate collectors, the air is evacuated mal incline. It operates very efficiently with high
air system, on the other hand, obviates the need from the interior of the collector housing to further absorber temperatures and moderate to low radi-
for heat exchangers and the heat losses associ- minimize heat losses. Flat plate collectors are a ation and is a suitable option for the generation
ated with them. Air collectors are suitable for cost-efficient technology for space and drinking of process heat. The high efficiency in winter and
applications that utilize the warmed air in a direct water heating. in the transitional seasons results in an increase
manner (forced air heating, industrial dryers). of 30 to 50 per cent of the average energy gains.

glass cover warm air glass cover outlet inlet outlet

fin
absorber absorber absorber

glass tube

Fresh air insulation inlet medium insulation medium vacuum

A B C

Usable thermal energy Pool heating

Warm water heating
100 100
Auxiliary heating
Optical losses Process heat
80 generation
80
Evacuated tube collector
Thermal losses
60 60
Efficiency in %

Efficiency in %

40 40 Flat plate collector

Absorber
20 20 1 Conversion- and thermal loss factors for differ-
ent types of collectors
0 0 (Source: solarserver.de)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 2 Efficiency curve of a solar collector depending
on solar radiation
Difference between collector and surrounding Difference between collector and surrounding
3 Efficiency curves and operative ranges of dif-
temperature in °C temperature in °C
ferent collector types when exposed to solar
2 3 radiation of 1000 W/m2

166
Thermal storage Ventilation heat loss QL [kWh/a]
A material stores thermal energy in accordance Heat loss resulting from the air exchange with
with its mass. cold outside air through ventilation and leaks in
the joints (∫ Joint transmission coefficient).
Thermal storage factor S [Wh/m3K]
Volume-specific thermal storage capacity of a Ventilation system with supply and exhaust air
building component. system
The identical transportation capacity (identical
Thermal transmission resistance R [m2K/W] sizing of supply and exhaust air fans) prevents
Inverse value of thermal transmission coefficient; pressure changes from occurring in the room. In
indicates the insulating effect of a material layer order to avoid unwelcome odour in adjacent
in the form of resistance. A high resistance value rooms, the exhaust air flow, e.g. in kitchens, is
represents a good insulating effect. sized to be greater than the supply air flow (slight
negative pressure).
Thermo-active ceiling (∫ Building component
cooling) Ventilation systems with supply air fans
Supply air injected into the room with the help of
a fan. A positive pressure is created, which
Thin-film technology results in excess air escaping, usually in an
Production of thin photovoltaic cells by deposit- uncontrolled fashion, through windows, doors,
ing gaseous silicon on glass, metal or plastics. etc.
This technology is used in the production of cells
with amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium-telluride Wafer
(CdTe), copper-indium-diselenide (CIS) and gal- Thin silicon disks with diameters of up to 300 nm,
lium-arsenide (GaAs). which are used as carrier material in the manu-
(∫ p. 164) facture of computer chips and photocells.

Total energy requirement Warm water collector (∫ p. 166)

Energy required to cover the annual heating
demand QP and the domestic water heating Wood-chip heating
demand QW of the building under observation. Wood waste and scraps machine-cut into small
chips (size roughly 3 cm) is used as fuel for
Total solar energy transmission g modern, automated wood-chip combustion. The
Energy quotient of incident solar radiation, which calorific value of the chipped material is roughly
is transmitted through the glazing into the inte- 2–5 kWh/kg, its combustion is CO2-neutral. (∫
rior. This value should be maximized in order to Biomass)
achieve solar gains in the overall energy balance
of a building. Wood pellet heating
Pellets stoves (up to 11 kW) and central pellet
Transmission heating systems (up to 35 kW) utilize wood waste
Ability of a material to allow light to pass through. as an energy source for CO2-neutral combustion.
Wood shavings and sawdust are pressed into
Transparent Cells small pellets without binding agent (length
“Transparent” polycrystalline cells and their fasci- 20–50 mm, Ø 6–8 mm, calorific value roughly
nating optical effects are a new technology in 5 kWh/kg (= 0.5 l heating oil). Pellets are fed into
photocell design. A special process is used to the combustion boiler either manually or auto-
cut the front and underside of the ∫ wafer in par- matically (worm conveyor or suction system)
allel grooves. The (micro-)holes that result at the depending on the system. The pellets are auto-
intersecting points somewhat diminish the area matically combusted in the combustion chamber.
output, but create the impression of a transpar- A digital control system optimizes combustion
ent cell. air, fuel volume and operating temperature to
achieve low waste gas values and an efficiency
Transparent Insulating Material (TIM) of up to 95 per cent. Pellet heating is generally
External building insulating material, which used as an auxiliary system for thermal solar
allows light to penetrate into the interior without installations when solar radiation is insufficient.
being transparent. In addition to insulation, the
material’s ability to direct daylight glare-free into
large room depths is another advantage. In com-
bination with storage masses, wall structures with
TIM can also be used for heat storage.

Usable area
Area in buildings not used for living purposes.
The usable area is divided into principal and
ancillary usable areas.

Utilizing geothermal energy

(∫ Energy piles, earth collectors, geothermal
heat exchanger, bore holes, groundwater utiliza-
tion)

Ventilation by convection
Cool air flows into the area to be ventilated and
forms a “sea of air” at floor level. Thermal con-
vection causes the air to rise along warm bodies,
draws fresh, unmixed air into the space and pro-
vides complete air flow through the room. Sound-
less and draught-free, it absorbs heat and is
extracted at the ceiling.

167
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Konzepte, Techniken, Realisierte Beispiele. Wärmedämmstoffen. Optimale Dämmstandards.
Basel, 2002
Munich 2000 Vienna 2000
Crowe, Norman; Economakis, Richard; Lykoudis,
Guzowski, Mary: Daylighting for Sustainable Oswald, Philipp: Wohltemperierte Architektur.
Michael (ed.): Building Cities, Towards a Civil
Design. New York 1999 Neue Techniken des energiesparenden Bauens.
Society and Sustainable Environment.
Heidelberg 1994
London 1999
Hagan, Susannah: Taking Shape. A New Con-
tract between Architecture and Nature. Porteous, Colin: The New Eco-Architecture.
Daniels, Klaus: Advanced Building Systems. A
New York 2001 Alternatives from the Modern Movement.
Technical Guide for Architects and Engineers
London 2002
Basel 2003
Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte Photo-
voltaik. Architektonische Integration der Photo- Reiners, Holger: Energie effektiv nutzen. Die
Daniels, Klaus: Technologie des ökologischen
voltaik in die Gebäudehülle. Cologne 2002 besten Einfamilienhäuser. Munich 2002
Bauens. Grundlagen und Maßnahmen, Beispiele
und Ideen. Basel 1995
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Solarenergie in Architek- Reyer, Eckhard, et. al.: Kompendium der
tur und Stadtplanung. Munich 1996 Dämmstoffe. Stuttgart 2002
Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Friedrich H.; Hajek,
Kristina: Die klima-aktive Fassade.
Huber; Müller; Oberländer: Das Niedrigenergie- Roaf, Sue; Fuentes, Manuel; Thomas, Stephanie:
Leinfelden-Echterdingen 1999
haus. Stuttgart, Berlin, Cologne 1996 Ecohouse: A Design Guide. Oxford 2002
Deecke, Günther Olesen: Die Betonkern-
Hullmann, Heinz: Photovoltaik in Gebäuden. Schittich, Christian (ed.), Building Skins. Con-
aktivierung. Norderstedt 2003
Stuttgart 2000 cepts, Layers, Materials. Munich, Basel 2001
Detail. Zeitschrift für Architektur + Baudetail,
Humm, Othmar (ed.): NiedrigEnergie- und Passiv Schittich, Christian; Staib, Gerald; Balkow, Dieter;
Solares Bauen, 1993/6,1997/3,1999/3,2002/6
Häuser. Staufen 1998 Schuler, Matthias; Sobek, Werner: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich, Basel 1998
Deutsches Architekturmuseum; Volz, Michael:
Die ökologische Herausforderung in der Humm, Othmar; Toggweiler, Peter: Photovoltaik
und Architektur. Basel 1993 Schneider, Astrid (ed.): Solararchitektur für
Architektur. Nachhaltigkeit, Bilanzierung,
Europa. Basel 1996
Normung, Recycling.Tübingen 1999
Kaiser, Yvonne; Hastings, S.R.: Niedrigenergie-
Solarhäuser. Systeme, Projekte, Technologien. Schüle, R., et. al.: Thermische Solaranlagen.
Deutsches Kupferinstitut (ed.): Architektur &
Basel 1998 (Market survey. A guide to buying solar and
Solarthermie. Darmstadt 2002
domestic water systems.) Staufen 1997
Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Detail Praxis, Trans-
luzente Materialien. Glas, Kunststoff, Metall.
Munich 2003

168
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Seltmann, Thomas: Fotovoltaik: Strom ohne Bauhaus – University of Weimar Cost-efficient passive houses as European
Ende. Berlin 2000 www.uni-weimar.de/architektur/ standard
oekologisches_bauen www.cepheus.de
SIA Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architekten
Verein: Kriterien für nachhaltige Bauten. Federal Ministry of Building and Development Network for solar and ecological building
Zurich 2000 www.urban21.de www.agsn.de

Slessor, Catherine: Eco-Tech. Umweltverträgli- Federal Ministry of the Environment Öko-Insitut e.V., Institute of Applied Ecology
che Architektur und Hochtechnologie. www.bmu.de www.oeko.de
Ostfildern 1997
Databases, projects, grants, subsidies, manufac- Passivhaus Institut
Sliwinski, Sigismund; Stach, Edgar: Sustainability turer information, products www.passiv.de
in Architecture. University of Tennessee 2002 www.solarinfo.de
Praxis-Informationen und Hilfen zur Anwendung
Smith, Peter F.: Architecture in a Climate of German Society for Solar Energy der Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV)
Change. A Guide to Sustainable Design. Up-to-date information on renewable energy www.enev-online.de
New York 2001 resources and the rational use of energy
www.dgs-solar.org Solarcity
Suttor, Wolfgang; Müller, Armin: Das Mini-Block- www.solarcity.org
heizkraftwerk. Eine Heizung die kostenlos Strom Energieinstitut Voralberg
erzeugt. Heidelberg 2000 www.energieinstitut.at Solarenergie Informations-und Demonstrations-
zentrum
Thierfelder, Anja (ed.): Transsolar – Climate Engi- Eurosolar www.solid.de
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Sources Sunrise 2002: “Die europäischen Märkte für
Thomas, Randall (ed.); Fordham, Max: Photo- www.eurosolar.org Solarthermie und Photovoltaik,” (Market survey)
voltaics and Architecture. www.deutsche-energie-agentur.de
London, New York 2001 Glossary with extensive explanations on solar
energy technologies Comprehensive information on all topics relating
Treberspurg, Martin: Neues Bauen mit der www.regio3.ch/solarregion/inhalt.htm to solar energy
Sonne. Ansätze zu einer klimagerechten www.solarserver.de
Architektur, 2nd edition. Vienna 1998 International research forum for regenerative
energy sources VDB Berufsverband Deutscher Baubiologen e.V.
UIA Berlin 2002 e.V. (ed.): Resource Architecture www.iwr.de/solar www.baubiologie.net
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Weik, Helmut: Expert-Praxislexikon, Sonnenener-
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Weik, Helmut: Sonnenenergie für eine umwelt-

schonende Baupraxis. Renningen 1995

Wigginton, Michael; Harris, Jude: Intelligent

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Zimmermann, Mark: Handbuch der passiven

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169
Passive row house Housing ensemble
in Dornbirn, Austria in Kolding, Denmark

Architects: Architects: Tel: 07351 1587-0 Client:

Johannes Kaufmann Architektur 3XNielsen, ¹rhus Fax: 07351 9501331 Neue Heimat Tirol, Gemeinnützige
JKA, Dornbirn Team members: Häufele & Sohn GmbH &Co. KG, Wohnungsbau- und
www.jkarch.at Christian Platz, Palle Holsting, Ulm Siedlungsgesellschaft mbH,
Jørgen Søndermark, Lars Poulsen, Tel.: +49 731 40194-0 Innsbruck
Johannes Kaufmann Malene Knudsen, Carsten Olsen Fax: +49 731 40194-40 Building systems:
Born 1967 in Bezau; www.3xn.dk Carpentry/wood construction: GMI Gasser & Messner, Dornbirn
since 1993 independent archi- Lehner GmbH, Klimatherm, Rum
tecture studio; Lars Frank Nielsen Bonndorf-Wellingen HVS/Solar technology:
1996–2000 office partnership with Born 1951 in Esbjerg; Tel.: +49 7703 919347 Ortner GmbH, Innsbruck
Oskar Leo Kaufmann. since 1986 independent office with Fax: +49 7703 919367 Tel.: +43 512 224910
Kim Herforth Nielsen. Windows: Fax: +43 512 2825302
Client: Pazen GmbH, Ventilation:
Errichtergemeinschaft Falkenweg Kim Herforth Nielsen Zelting-Rachtig Hermes electronics (Genvex),
Energy concept: Born 1954 in Sønderberg; Tel.: +49 6571 90450 Essen
Planungsteam E-PLUS since 1986 independent office with Fax: +49 65713602 Tel.: +49 201 89911-0
Kaltheier &Partner OEG, Egg Lars Frank Nielsen. Heating and ventilation: Fax: +49 201 89911-20
Tel.: +43 5512 26068 Prestle, Biberach Structural engineer:
Fax: +43 5512 26068-17 Client: Tel.: +49 7351 5000-13 Marc Wallnöfer, Innsbruck
Physics: Lothar Künz, Hard AAB Kolding Fax: +49 7351 5000-55 IFS Ziviltechniker GmbH, Innsbruck
Tel.: +43 5574 778510 Building systems/structural and Insulating sandwich board: Gerhard Neuner, Rum
Fax: +43 5574 61689 energy engineering: Wilhelm Frank, Ulm Electrical engineer:
Structural engineer: COWI, Vejle Tel.: +49 731 37636 Obwieser GmbH, Absam
Merz Kaufmann Bauingenieure General contractor: Fax: +49 731 36782 Landscaping:
(timber structure), Dornbirn Højgaard & Schulz Vest, Roof insulation/sealing: Kienast +Vogt, Zurich
Tel.: +43 5572 36031-0 Kolding Deutsche Asphalt GmbH, Ulm Completion: 2000
Fax: +43 5572 36031-40 Tel.: +45 7551 7088 Tel.: +49 731 93611-0
Mader & Flatz Ziviltechniker GmbH Fax: +45 7551 7075 Fax: +49 731 93611-99 Folding shutters, facade:
(concrete structure), Bregenz Completion: 1998 Sarnafil GmbH, Meyer GmbH und Co. KG,
Tel.: +43 5574 44129-0 Feldkirchen Nüziders
Fax: +43 5574 44129-33 Tel.: +49 89 90480859 Tel.: +43 5552 63548-0
Completion: 2002 Fax: +49 89 99145100 Fax: +43 5552 63548-22
Masonry: limestone Glazing contractor:
Timber construction: Kontor Südwest GmbH, Foidl Bau- und Kunstglas,
Kaufmann Zimmerei, Reuthe Karlsruhe St. Margarethen
Tel.: +43 5514 2209 Tel.: +49 721 981640 Tel.: +43 5244 626668
Fax: +43 5514 3275 Fax: +49 721 814083 Fax: +43 5244 626669
Master builder: Joiner windows/interior doors:
Strohmeier Bau GmbH, Lauterach Kienpointner GmbH,
Tel.: +43 5574 64260-0 Waidring
Fax: +43 5574 77299 Tel.: +43 5353 53485
Roofer + Sprengler: Fax: +43 5353 5950
Heinzle Sprenglerei, Gas heater:
Kohblach-Götzis Vaillant GmbH, Innsbruck
Tel.: +43 5523 62343 Tel.: +43 512 580464
Fax: +43 5523 62343-18 Fax: +43 512 580464-15
Windows: Solar collectors:
Böhler Fenser GmbH, Wolfurt Passive terraced houses Teufel & Schwarz
Tel.: +43 5512 74550 in Ulm, Germany Heizungsgroßhandel GmbH, Going
Fax: +43 5512 77390 Tel.: +43 5358 3939
Heating engineer: Architects: Fax: +43 5358 3900
Steurer Installationen Brucker Architects, Stuttgart Doma Solartechnik, Satteins
Energietechnik GmbH, Team members: Tel.: +43 5524 5353
Schwarzenberg Peter Lell, Jürgen Groß Fax: +43 5524 5353-10
Tel.: +43 5512 2958 Tel.: 49 711 611663 Heat exchanger/solar storage:
Fax: +43 5512 2958-8 Forstner Speichertechnik,
Electrician: Johannes Brucker; Detached houses in Dornbirn
Elektro Vögel,Mellau since 1986 independent office; Innsbruck, Austria Tel.: +43 5572 26274
Tel.: +43 5518 2232 lecturer at Stuttgart University. Fax: +43 5572 26274
Fax: +43 5518 22324 Architects: Air handling/fresh air pre-warming:
Client: Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau Weger Luft- und Klimatechnik,
Bauherrengemeinschaft Project management: Lienz
Sonnenfeld GbR, Ulm Gerhard Zweier, Wolfurt Tel.: +43 4852 7126-0
Building systems/electrical office@be-g.com Fax: +43 4852 7126-020
engineer/building physics: Ventilation equipment:
ebök, Tübingen Carlo Baumschlager Pichler GmbH, Klagenfurt
Structural engineer: Born 1956; since 1985 Tel.: +43 463 32769
Harry Lieb, Ulm office partnership with Dietmar Fax: +43 463 37548
Landscape design: Eberle; teaching since 1985. Rainwater barrels:
Johannes Brucker, Freudenthaler GmbH & Co. KG,
Stuttgart Dietmar Eberle Inzing
Completion: 2001 Born 1952; since 1985 Tel.: +43 52 38 5 30 45
office partnership with Carlo Fax: +43 52 38 5 30 464
Shell work: Baumschlager; teaching since Dry construction:
Härle Hoch- und Tiefbau 1983; Linder GmbH, Baden
Betonfertigteile GmbH, since 1999 professor at the Tel.: +43 5223 46700
Maselheim ETH Zurich. Fax: +43 5223 46700-70

170
 School building in Klaus,
Austria

Screed: Tel.: +43 5574 6888-0 Architects:

Kronbichler GmbH, Ebbs Fax: +43 5574 70108 Dietrich I Untertrifaller Architects
Tel.: +43 5372 43575 Mastic asphalt with smoothed Project management:
Fax: +43 5372 42932 surface: BITU–Terrazzo, Hard Peter Nußbaumer
Parquetry/natural stone: Tel.: +43 5574 65870 Team members:
Freisinger GmbH &Co. KG, Ebbs Fax: +43 5574 65874 Tobias Dieng, Thomas Spiegel
Tel.: +43 5372 42209 www.dietrich.untertrifaller.com
Fax: +43 5372 42209-2
Terrazzo: Helmut Dietrich
Maccione GmbH, Rum Born 1957 in Mellau;
Tel.: +43 512 263163 since 1986 independent architect;
Fax: +43 512 263163-4 working partnership with Much
Master builder: Untertrifaller; 1994 foundation of
Porr AG, Rum Dietrich I Untertrifaller Architects.
Tel.: +43 512 2405
Fax: +43 512 2405-59 Much Untertrifaller Congress and exhibition
Water-proof concrete: Born 1959 in Bregenz; 1982–85 building in Osnabrück,
Zementol GmbH, Dornbirn associate in the firm of Much Germany
Tel.: +43 5572 2435-0 Untertrifaller Senior; since 1986
Fax: +43 5572 2435-05 independent office with Helmut Architects:
Dietrich and Much Untertrifaller Herzog + Partner
Senior; Architekten BDA GbR
since 1994 Dietrich I Untertrifaller Team members:
Architects. Stefan Sinning, Kirsten Braun,
Gymnasium in Wängi, Patrick Bröll, Peter Gotsch,
Switzerland Client: Matthias Lettau,
Gemeinde Klaus Sybille Fries
Architects: Immobilienverwaltungs www.herzog-partner-architekten.de
Fent Solare Architektur, Wil GmbH & Co. KEG
www.fent-solar.com Construction supervision: Thomas Herzog
E.Gmeiner BaugmbH, Schwarzach Born 1941 in Munich;
Guiseppe Fent Construction coordination: independent office since 1973;
Born 1952 in Hemberg; BAM GmbH, Götzis since 1974 professor, from 1993 at
since 1995 specialized in solar HSV-engineering: the TU Munich.
architecture; IGT Consulting & Engineering
invention of Lucido-facade. GmbH, Hohenems Hans Jörg Schrade
Physics: Bernhard Weithas, Hard Born 1951 in Stuttgart;
Structural concrete engineering: since 1994 in partnership with
Client:
Mader Flatz Zivilingenieure, Thomas Herzog.
Law office in Röthis, Volksschulgemeinde und
Bregenz
Austria Politische Gemeinde Wängi
Structural timber engineering: Client:
Projekt- und Bauleitung:
Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt,
Architects: Almer + Almer AG,
Cost management: Osnabrück
Reinhard Drexel, Hohenems Wängi
JM Projektabwicklung GmbH, Projection management and
Team members: Energy calculations,
Feldkirch construction supervision:
Sabine Schneider, Eveline Drexel facade construction:
Electrical engineer: Reinders & Partner GbR
Reinhard Drexel Lucido Solar AG, Wil
Hecht Licht- und Elektroplanungs Architekten BDA, Osnabrück
Building systems:
OEG, Rankweil Ground analysis:
Born 1967; Martin Eisenbart,
Acoustics: Jagau & Partner, Syke
1994–1996 associate in the office Münchwilen
Karl Brüstle, Dornbirn Topography: surveyors
of Baumschlager-Eberle; Structural engineer:
Geotechnics: Werner Flüssmeyer,
independent office since 1997; Steiner Jucker Blumer,
Plankel-Pelzl & Partner, Lauterach Osnabrück
since 2000 teaching at the Frauenfeld
Landscape architects: Sound protection-noise emission:
HTL-Rankweil. Electrical engineer:
Rotzler, Krebs Partner, Winterthur Kötter Consulting Engineers GmbH
Bächler, Frauenfeld
Completion: 2003 Structural engineer:
Client: Hatto Frick, Sylvia Frick Landscape design:
Barthel & Maus,
Controlled building ventilation with Fent Solar Architektur Artificial lighting/photovoltaics: Munich
heat recovery: Completion: 2002 Heinzlemänner Elektroinstallationen Test engineeer:
Drexel Solarlufttechnik und GmbH, Götzis Speich, Hinkes und Partner,
Lüftungsbau GmbH, Bregenz Timber construction: Fixed glazing: Hanover
Tel.: +43 5574 71856-0 Arge Blumer-Lehmann, Isenring, Glas Marte GmbH, Bregenz Energy and systems technology:
Fax: +43 5574 71856-7 Ammann, Blumer Lehmann AG, Passive house windows: ZAE Bayern e.V., Garching
Structural engineer: Erlenhof windows: Heinrich Manahl GmbH, Bludenz Building and room acoustics,
bhm-Ingenieure, Rankweil Fensterfabrik, Albisrieden Bings Physics:
Tel.: +43 5522 46101 Heating, sanitation: Müller BBM, Planegg
Completion: 2001 Markus Stolz GmbH & Co. KG, Landscape design:
Bludenz Latz & Partner,
Carpentry: Ventilation: Kranzberg
Summer-Holzbau, Röthis Lippuner Energie und Metall- Media technology:
Tel.: +43 5522 45217 bautechnik GmbH, Weiler MedienSL GmbH, Kürten,
Fax: +43 5522 47803 Shading system: Membrane roof experiments:
Shading components: Fesal- Sonnen- u.Wetterschutz Universität GH Essen,
Manfred Köb, Bregenz Sonderegger GesmbH, Koblach Bauwesen, Essen
Tel.: +43 5574 70583 Master builder: Environmental stress analysis of
Fax: +43 5574 70584 Dobler Bau GmbH excavation material:
Wood-frame windows: Thomas Heiß, Helmut Gartler, Klaus Chemisches Laboratorium
Schertler, Lauterach Peschl, Polier, Röthis Weißling GmbH, Hanover

171
 Administration building in
Landquart, Switzerland

Completion: 2002 Client: Architects:

BVP Developments Ltd., Bearth & Deplazes Architekten AG,
Shell work and tiling work: The Arup Group, Solihull Chur
Kleine-Kuhlmann GmbH, Building system engineering: Team members:
Ankum Arup Associates, London Bettina Werner, Marlene Wallimann,
Exterior: Peter Worburton, Patrick Regan, Roger Durrer, Urs Geiger,
Heinrich Steinhake GmbH, Malcolm Wallace Andreas
Osnabrück Structural engineering: Egger
Timber load-bearing structure/ Arup Associates, London www.deplazes.arch.ethz
sealing/ Fibrated concrete: Terry Raggett, Damian Eley
Holzbau Brüggemann Lanscape design: Valentin Bearth
GmbH & Co. KG, Bernard Ede in collaboration with born 1957 in Tiefencastel;
Neuenkirchen Roger Griffiths 1984–1988 associate in the studio
Membrane roof: Associates, Rugby of Peter Zumthor, Haldenstein;
B & O Hightex GmbH, Construction supervision: since 1988 joint office with
Rimsting/Chiemsee Rob Saunders, Andrea Deplazes; since 2000
Facade/windows and The Arup Group
Administration building in visiting lecturer at the Accademia di
overhead glazing: General contractor:
Recanati, Italy architettura, Mendrisio; since 2001
LANCO, Interserve Project Sevices, Bearth + Deplazes AG, Chur.
Architect:
Göttingen Birmingham
MCA Mario Cucinella Architects, Andrea Deplazes
Daylighting/ Tel.: +44 121 3444888
Bologna; born 1960 in Chur; since 1988 joint
installation of daylighting modules: Fax: +44 121 3444677
www.mcarchitects.it office with Valentin Bearth; since
H. & J. Harms, Completion: 2001
Zwickau 1997 professor of Architecture +
Mario Cucinella, Construction, ETH Zurich;
Sonnenschutztechnik GbR, Steel construction: since 1992 independent office; since 2001 co-owner of
Shading, linear drive and Green & Sons Ltd., Spalding, Lincs since 1999 office partnership with Bearth +Deplazes AG, Chur.
eletr. controls: Tel.: +44 1406 370585 Elizabeth Francis in Bologna;
RSI-Schröder & Imhof GbR, Fax: +44 1406 370766 lecturer at the University of Ferrara. Client:
Großwallstadt Down & Francis Ltd., Birmingham
Structural steel work: ÖKK Graubünden Stiftung,
Tel.: +44 121 4333300 Client:
Heinrich Rohlfing GmbH, Landquart
Fax: +44 121 4599222 iGuzzini Illuminazione, Recanati
Stemwede Construction supervision:
Fire-protection coating for steel Tel.: +39 071 75881
Screed work: Toscano AG, Thusis
structure: Fax: +39 071 75881
Fußboden Krause GmbH, Energy- and ventilation concept:
Fire Management Ltd., Shrewsbury Building systems engineering:
Versmold Andrea Rüdi, Chur
Shropshire Domenella Engineers, Civitanova
Elevators: Waldhauser Haustechnik AG,
Tel.: +44 1939 291210 Marche,
OSMA-Aufzüge A. Schenk Münchenstein
Roof structure: Natural ventilation concept:
GmbH & Co. KG, Building systems/HVS-engineering:
Laubeuf UK Ltd., Stephen Jolly, Alistair Guthrie
Osnabrück ARGE, Landquart
Sheffield Ove Arup & Partners, London
Sanitation/heating: Hans Gadient, Trimmis
Tel.: +44 1484 667745 Energy concept:
Eckhard Senger GmbH & Co. KG, Structural engineer: Conzett
Fax: +44 114 2482894 EDAS, Energy Design Advice
Osnabrück Bronzini Gartmann AG, Chur
Roofing contractor: Sheme
Air-handling systems: Physics: Edy Toscano AG, Chur
Richard Lees Steel Decking Ltd., Brian Ford, London
Kuhr GmbH, Meppen Electical engineer:
Ashbourne, Derbyshire Daylighting concept:
Electrical engineer: Elkom Partner AG, Chur
Tel.: +44 1335 300999 MCA in collaboration with
OSMO-Anlagenbau, Interiors: Abitare Hürlimann, Chur
Sharkey and Company, Polytechnikum Lausanne
Georgsmarienhütte Completion: 2002
Birmingham Steel construction and facades:
Tel.: +44 121 3803700 Promo, Corridonia
Fax: +44 121 3803710 Tel.: +39 0733 433542
Wood floors: Fax: +39 0733 433433
Tarmac Topfloor Ltd., Control system:
Ashbourne, Derbyshire Johnson Controls SpA,
Tel.: +44 1335 360601 Sesto San Giovanni Milan
Fax: +44 1335 360014 Concrete, structural engineering:
Weather boarding: Stefano Sabbatini, Recanati
Swift Horsman, Completion: 1997
Ware Hertfordshire
Tel.: +44 1920 466795 Shell work:
Fax: +44 1920 461026 GM, Civitanova Marche
Joiners: Execution building systems:
Joinery Shoppe Ltd., General Impianti, Recanati
Aldridge, Walsall Atrium garden: Mauro Paccamiccio
Tel.: +44 1922 455 997 Vivaista, Recanati Manufacturing building in
HVS: Braunschweig, Germany
Office building in Solihull, Haden Young Ltd.,
England Birmingham Architects:
Tel.: +44 121 7061116 Banz + Riecks Architekten BDA,
Architects: Fax: +44 121 7065229 Bochum
Arup Associates, London Elevator: www.banz-riecks.de
Daniel Jang Wong Express Evans Lifts,
www.arupassociates.com Lichfield, Staffordshire Elke Banz
Rotating door: 1990 –1992 associate in the office
Ove Arup, Boon Edam, of Eckhardt Gerber, Dortmund;
1895–1988, Ashford, Kent 1992 –1993 associate in the office
since 1938 with Arne Arup Exterior: of Jörg Friedrich, Hamburg;
Arup & Arup Ltd; Kevin Pickering, since 1994 freelance work in
since 1946 Ove Arup & Partners. Wotton Fields, Northampton Bochum.

172
Dietmar Riecks Client: Client: Norman Foster
since 1994 freelance work in Herrmann Püttmer, Kirchberg an Land Nordrhein-Westfalen Born 1935 in Manchester;
Bochum; 1995–2000 lecturer at der Murr Energy concept: 1961 foundation of Team 4 with
University of Dortmund. Building systems and BAS: HL Technik, Stuttgart Richard Rogers; since 1967 Foster
Ingenieurgesellschaft Püttmer IGP, Photovoltaics: Associates.
Client: Ludwigsburg Pilkington Solar International,
Solvis Energiesysteme Tel: +49 7141 9915125 Cologne Building services:
GmbH &Co. KG, Fax: +49 7141 99151296 Tel.: +49 221 92597062 Kuehn Bauer Partner, Beratende
Braunschweig Structural engineer: Fax: +49 221 2581117 Ingenieure GmbH, Hallbergmoos
Energy- and daylighting concept: Ingenieurbüro für Bauwesen Wolff, Flabeg Solar Int. GmbH, Colonge www.kbp.de
Fraunhofer Institut für Solare Stuttgart Tel.: +49 221 925970-0
Energiesysteme ISE, Freiburg Tel: +49 711 712263 Fax: +49 221 2581117 Client:
Physics: Fax: +49 711 7189410 Structural engineering: Bundesbaugesellschaft Berlin im
Robert Borsch-Laaks, Electrical engineer: Schleich Bergermann und Partner, Auftrag der Bundesrepublik
Büro für Bauphysik, Aachen Ingenieurbüro Klausch & Partner, Stuttgart Deutschland
Building systems: Erfurt inverter: Energy concept/technology
Solares Bauen GmbH, Construction contractor: E.U.S.Gesellschaft für innovative engineering:
Freiburg Götz GmbH, Fellbach Energieumwandlung und Kaiser Bautechnik, Duisburg
Blower-Door testing: Shading: -speicherung mbH, Fischer Haustechnik, Wehrheim
Ingenieurgesellschaft WAREM, Marktheidenfeld/Main Gelsenkirchen Amstein und Walthert, Zurich
Bauen + Energie + Umwelt, System wall, system ceiling: Tel.: +49 209 162210 Planungsgruppe Karnasch-
Springe/Eldagsen Webler + Geissler, Architects BDA, Fax: +49 209 1672201 Hackstein
Structural engineer: Stuttgart Glass skin: Structural engineering:
Burkhard Walter, Ingenieurbüro Ingenieurgesellschaft Püttmer, Schneider, Stimpfach Ove Arup Partnership, London
für Bauwesen, Aachen Ludwigsburg Tel.: +43 5574 804140 Schleich Bergermann und Partner,
Factory coordination and produc- Götz GmbH, Würzburg Fax: +43 5574 804100 Stuttgart
tion logistics: Energy/cooling systems/CHP: Construction and foundation work: Leonhard und Andrä, Stuttgart
Vollmer und Scheffczyk GmbH, Gesellschaft für Bodenanalytik, Echterhoff-Holland Acoustics/sound protections:
Hannover Mannheim Hoch- und Tiefbau GmbH, Müller BBM GmbH, Planegg
Test engineers: Gesellschaft für Energietechnik, Bochum Georg Plenge, Egling-Thanning
Ingenieurbüro kgs, Hildesheim Bremen Tel.: +49 234 92211-0 Lighting engineer:
Soil analysis: Solar collectors: Ingenieurges- Fax: +49 234 287345 Claude Engle
Suckow & Zarske GbR, ellschaft Püttmer, Züblin AG, Duisburg Facade engineer:
Braunschweig Ludwigsburg Tel.: +49 203 2820-0 Emmer und Pfenniger,
Fire protection: Götz GmbH, Würzburg Fax: +49 203 27283 Münchenstein
Neumann Kex & Partner, Steel construction: steel structure Gutehoffnungshütte Physics:
Schmallenberg hall, hall facade: Baugesellschaft mbH, Bobran Ingenieure,
Completion: 2002 Götz GmbH, Würzburg Oberhausen Stuttgart
Glazing: SANCO,Nördlingen Tel.: +49 208 6788-0 Heritage conservation consultants:
Completion: 1995 Fax: +49 208 6788-299 Acantus, Bristol
Ground recovery/recycling: Fire protection:
BSR GmbH, Bochum Wolfram Klingsch,
Tel.: +49 234 68789-0 Wuppertal
Fax: +49 234 9129633 Built in: 1894
Timber construction: Conversion: 1999
Kaufmann Holz AG, Reuthe
Tel.: +43 5574 804-0 ARGE Reichtag dome
Fax: +43 5574 804-201 Waagner-Biro AG,
Building climate: Vienna/Munich
GfA-Gesellschaft für Tel.: +43 1 28844544
Aerophysik mbH, Munich Fax: +43 1 288447842
Tel.: +49 89 7233081 Götz GmbH, Dillingen
Fax: +49 89 7233082 Tel.: +49 9071 70 00
Completion: 1994 Fax: +49 9071 6343
Administration building in
Würzburg, Germany
Architects:
Webler + Geissler, Academy in Herne,
Architekten BDA, Germany
Stuttgart;
www.webler-geisler.de Architects:
Jourda Architectes, Paris
Garnet Geissler
Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel;
Born 1958 in Würzburg;
Team members:
1985–1989 associate at Norman
Andreas Wiege, Gerhard Greiner
Foster, London; since 1990 joint
www.hhs-architekten.de
office with Martin Webler;
1992–1993 lecturer at Stuttgart
University. Françoise-Hélène Jourda
Born 1955; 1979–1983 lecturer;
Martin Webler professor at TU Vienna.
Born 1957 in Hanover;
1984–1987 associate at Manfred Hegger, Bundstag in Berlin, Germany
Norman Foster, London; since 1980 partnership
since 1990 joint office with HHS Planer + Architekten; Architects:
Garnet Geissler; since 1973 lecturer at various Foster and Partners,
1988–1989 lecturer at Stuttgart universities; since 2001 professor London
University. at the TU Darmstadt. www.fosterandpartners.com

173
Authors

Christian Schittich (editor)

Born 1956
Studied architecture at the Technical University, Munich, followed by seven years
of practical experience in the field; publicist; since 1991 member of the editorial
team at DETAIL, since 1992 co-editor; since 1998 editor in chief;
author and editor of numerous books and journal articles.

Manfred Hegger

Born 1946
Studied architecture at the University of Stuttgart, the Hochschule
für Gestaltung in Ulm, the Technical University of Berlin and the London School of
Economics and Political Science;
1969–1970 Partnership Arbeitsgruppe Nutzungsforschung,
1979–1982 OECD consultant, Paris;
since 1980 partnership HHS Planer + Architekten GbR, Kassel;
1973–1990 Lecturer at the Institute for School Architecture at Stuttgart University,
1977–1979 Visiting professor for architecture at Kassel University;
since 1979 at the Institute for Design and Architecture at Hanover University
(lecturer, assoc. professor); since 2001 professor at the Faculty of Design and
Energy-efficient Building at the Technical University of Darmstadt, Faculty of
Architecture.

Roland Krippner

Born 1960
Trained machinist;
Studies in architecture at the Polytechnic Kassel;
1993–1995 independent practice;
since 1995 staff member/assistant in the faculty of building systems,
Prof. Thomas Herzog, Technical University, Munich;
Publications since 1994.

174
Michael Kuehn

Born 1941
Since 1960 studies in electronics at the Technical University Hanover; since 1970
director of energy technology, Kraftanlagen Heidelberg AG;
1980 foundation of engineering firm Kuehn Bauer Partner,
concepts, studies, research and development, integrated planning,
implementation of urban plans and high-rise projects.

Dirk Mattner

Born 1965
Studies in machine engineering at the Technical University in Braunschweig and
at the Technical University in Stuttgart, focus energy systems; since 1994 partner
at Kuehn Bauer Partner, Munich, project manager TGA,
studies, research, concept development, planning and implementation.

Helmut F.O.Müller

Born 1943
Studies in architecture at the University of Hanover, Stuttgart University and the
London University College, certificate in 1972;
1972–1982 Planning and research in construction at various engineering firms
and Stuttgart University, PhD. in 1979;
1982–1993 Professor of architecture at the Polytechnic of Cologne;
1991–1997 Founder and director of the Institute for Lighting and Building Engi-
neering at the Polytechnic Cologne (ILB);
since 1993 professor at the Faculty for climate-conscious architecture at the
University of Dortmund;
since 1997 managing partner of the GLB, Gesellschaft für Licht und Bautechnik
mbH, Dortmund;
publications since 1979.

Heide Schuster

Born 1969
Studies in architecture at the Polytechnic Darmstadt, certificate 1997;
1997–1998 Postgraduate scholarship,
Master of Arts at the Architectural Association, London 1998;
freelance architect since 1997; since 2000 associate at the Faculty for climate-
conscious architecture at the University of Dortmund;
publications since 1999.

175
Illustration credits

The authors and editor wish to • Müller, Helmut F.O., Dortmund: Articles and introductory b/w
extend their sincere thanks to all 5.26 photos:
those who helped to realize this • Müller-Naumann, Stefan,
book by making illustrations avail- München: pp. 56, 132 p. 8; The Sun, Source of Solar
able. All drawings contained in • Nikolic, Monika/artur, Köln: p. 143 Energy
this volume have been specially • Ott, Thomas, Mühltal: 5.23 p. 12; Parish Centre in Schwind-
prepared in-house. Photos without • Richters, Christian, Münster: pp. kirchen; arc Architekten, Munich
credits are form the architects’ own 136–138, 139 right and left, p. 26; Museum of Archaeology,
archives or the archives of “DETAIL, 140–141, 146–147 Herne; von Busse Klapp Brüning,
Review of Architecture”. Despite • Rosenberg, Simone, Berlin: 4.3 Essen
intense efforts, it was not possible • Roth, Lukas, Köln: p. 26 p. 38; Swiss Re Headquarters,
to identify the copyright owners • Schittich, Christian, München: 1.1, London; Foster and Partners,
of certain photos and illustrations. 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.6, 4.23, 5.5, pp. 8, London
Their rights remain unaffected, how- 104, 149, 152, 157 p. 56; Munich Airport, Terminal 2;
ever, and we request them to con- • Schodder, Martin, Stuttgart: 5.9 Koch + Partner, Munich
tact us. • Schuster, Heide, Dortmund: 5.2,
5.8
• Soratroi, Ernst, Innsbruck: p. 90
• Spiluttini, Margherita, Wien: 2.12, Dust-jacket photo:
• All Air Charter, Berlin: p. 150 3.12
• BASF Schweiz, Zürich: 2.11 • Südwestdeutsches Archiv für Steel Dome of the Reichstag, Berlin
• Bonfig, Peter, München: 2.15, p. Architektur und Ingenieurbau Architects: Foster and Partners
12 Karlsruhe, Photo: Horstheinz Neu- Photo: Christian Schittich
• Bryant, Richard/Arcaid, Kingston- endorf, Baden-Baden: 4.19, 4.21
upon-Thames: pp. 153, 159 • Tollerian, Dietmar, Linz: 3.7
• Cook, Peter/View, London: • Walti, Ruedi, Basel: 5.24
pp.112–113, 115, 117 • Weber, Jens, München: 4.2
• de Calan, Jean, Paris: pp. • Young, Nigel, London: pp. 154,
118–123 164 left and middle
• Feiner, Ralph, Malans: pp. • Zentrum für Sonnenenergie- und
125–127, 129 Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-
• Fischer, Hans-Dieter, Herne: p. Württemberg: p. 164 right
142 • Zwickert, Gerhard, Berlin: 3.9
• Fraunhofer Institut Solare Energie-
systeme, Freiburg: 2.10
• Gesellschaft für Licht und Bau- from books and journals:
technik mbH, Dortmund: 5.16,
5.25 • Bode, Peter, M. et al., Entschei-
• Gilbert, Dennis, London: 1.2 dung zur Form, Wien-München,
• Halbe, Roland/artur, Köln: 5.14, 1973: 4.14, 4.15, 4.17
pp. 130–131, 132 top, 134–135 • Daniels, Klaus; Technologie des
• Hand&Errico, Tricase: pp. 98–101 ökologischen Bauens. Grundla-
• Hegger, Manfred, Darmstadt: 2.2 gen und Maßnahmen, Beispiele
• Heinrich, Michael, München: 4.25 und Ideen, Basel, 1995: 2.8, 2.9
• Helbling, Bruno, Zürich: 3.8 • Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Frie-
• Hempel, Jörg, Aachen: 1.3 drich H.; Hajek, Kristina, Die
• Holzherr, Florian, München: pp. klima-aktive Fassade, Leinfelden-
94–97 Echterdingen, 1999: 5.10
• Hueber, Eduard, New York: pp. • DBZ Deutsche Bauzeitschrift,
88–89 8/2001: 3.10
• Huthmacher, Werner, Berlin: 5.12 • DIN 5034: 5.11
• Kaltenbach, Frank, München: pp. • Koppelkamm, Stefan, Künstliche
38, 91, 92, 144 Paradiese, Berlin, 1988: 2.3
• Kämpfen, Beat, Zürich: 2.4 • Lange, Horst, Handbuch für
• Keller, Andreas/artur, Köln: 5.13 Beleuchtung, Landsberg am
• Klomfar & Partner, Wien: pp. 103, Lech, 1992: 5.4
105, 107 • Produktinformation Firma Sie-
• Kober, Bertram/Punctum, Leipzig: mens: 5.7
pp. 108–111 • Schirmer, Wulf (Ed.), Egon Eier-
• Krase, Waltraud, Frankfurt: 4.11 mann 1904–1970 Bauten und Pro-
• Lehrstuhl für klimagerechte jekte, Stuttgart, 2002: 4.18, 4.22
Architektur, Universität Dortmund:
5.17, 5.21, p. 145
• Martínez, Ignacio, Lustenau: pp.
72–73, 76–77,
• Mjell, Ivar, Århus: pp. 79, 81

176