Keywords in Second Language Learning (SLL) and Language

Teaching (LT)

accent versus dialect: an accent is a way of pronouncing a language that is typical of a particular
group, whether regional or social; a dialect is the whole system characteristic of a particular
group including grammar and vocabulary etc as well as pronunciation
acculturation: the ways in which L2 users adapt to life with two languages
active learning: a process whereby learners are actively engaged in the learning process, rather than
"passively" absorbing lectures. Active learning involves reading, writing, discussion, and
engagement in solving problems, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Active learning often
involves cooperative learning
additional support needs: in Scotland, children who require some additional support to remove
barriers to learning in any respect are deemed to have Additional Support Needs. This
definition abolished the previously used term Special Educational Needs and was set out in
the 2004 Additional Support for Learning Act
additive bilingualism: L2 learning that adds to the learner’s capabilities
adjacency pair: a pair of conversational turns e.g. question and answer
adult education: the practice of teaching and educating adults. This is often done in the workplace,
or through 'extension' or 'continuing education' courses at secondary schools, or at a College
or University. The practice is also often referred to as 'Training and Development'. It has also
been referred to as andragogy (to distinguish it from pedagogy). Educating adults differs
from educating children in several ways. One of the most important differences is that adults
have accumulated knowledge and experience which can either add value to a learning
experience or hinder it
agreement:: the grammatical system in which two elements in the sentence show they go together
by having appropriate word inflections etc, for example singular verb and singular subject in
the English present tense
aims and objectives: an aim expresses the purpose of the educational unit or course whereas an
objective is a statement of a goal which successful participants are expected demonstrably to
achieve before the course or unit completes
allophones: different forms of / (with a puff of air)πthe phoneme in particular contexts, e.g. the
aspirate / / (without a puff of air) in ‘lip’πin ‘pill’ versus the unaspirated /
analysis: the action of taking something apart in order to study it
analytic learners: these rely on grammatical sensitivity rather than memory
animacy: whether a noun is animate or animate. Not particularly important in English but vital to
Japanese, Italian, etc
approach: group of theories and beliefs about the nature of language and its acquisition, that is
language learning
aptitude: this usually means the ability to learn the second language in an academic classroom
argument structure: the aspect of a word that dictates the structures in which it may be used, for
example the verb 'give' requires an animate subject, a direct object and an indirect object:
'Peter gave a stone to the wolf'
articles: specifiers of nouns divided in English into definite ‘the man in the photo’, indefinite ‘a man
came in’ and zero (i.e. none) ‘Man is mortal’
assessment: an assessment is a valuation made by authorized persons according to their knowledge
and experience. The process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills,
attitudes and beliefs
assimilationist teaching: teaching that expects people to give up their native languages and to
become speakers of the majority language of the country
asynchronous learning: a teaching method using the asynchronous delivery of training materials or
content using computer network technology. It is an approach to providing technology-based
training that incorporates learner-centric models of instruction. The asynchronous format has
been in existence for quite some time; however, new research and strategies suggest that this
approach can enable learners to increase knowledge and skills through self-paced and self-
directed modules completed when the learner is prepared and motivated to learn
audiolingual method: this combined a learning theory based on ideas of habit-formation, and
practice with a view of language as patterns and structures; it chiefly made students repeat
sentences recorded on tape and practice structures in repetitive drills. Originating in the USA
in the 1940s, its peak of popularity was probably the 1960s, though it was not much used in
British-influenced EFL. (Note it is not usually abbreviated to ALM since the initials belong
to a particular trade-marked method).
audiovisual method: this used visual images to show meaning of spoken dialogues and believed in
treating language as a whole rather than divided up into different aspects. Teaching relied on
film-strips and taped dialogues for repetition. It emerged chiefly in France in the 1960s and
1970s.
authentic speech: an authentic text is a text that was created to fulfil some social purpose in the
language community in which it was produced’ (Little et al., 1988)
autodidacticism/autodidactism: self-education or self-directed learning. An autodidact, also known
as an automath, is a mostly self-taught person - typically someone who has an enthusiasm for
self-education and a high degree of self-motivation
autonomous learning: in this the choice of what and how to learn is essentially handed over to the
students, whether immediately or over time
baby talk, motherese, foreigner talk: forms of language specially designed for listeners without full
competence in a language
Behaviourism: an approach to psychology and linguistics that emphasizes observable measurable
behaviour
bilingual education: has multiple definitions: education where two distinct languages are used for
general teaching; education designed to help children become bilingual (sometimes called
"two-way bilingual education"; e.g., Spanish speakers and English speakers in a classroom
are all taught to speak both languages; education in a child's native language for (a) the first
year or (b) however long it takes; followed by mainstreaming in English-only classes (in the
US); education in a child's native language for as long as his parents wish (with minimal
instruction in another language)
Bilingual Method: a teaching method that uses the student's first language to establish the meanings
of the second language.
bilingual/monolingual modes: in bilingual mode, the L2 user uses two languages; in monolingual
mode, a single language, whether their first or second
blended learning: learning in a combination of modes. Often used more specifically to refer to
courses which use a combination of traditional face-to-face teaching and distance learning
techniques on-line
boarding school: a school where some or all students not only study but also live, amongst their
peers but away from their home and family. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of a
'boarding house', lodgings which provide both bed and board, that is meals as well as a room.
Most famous UK public schools are boarding schools for ages 13 to 18, either single-sex or
coeducational. There are any number of different types of boarding schools, for pupils of all
school ages from boarding nursery or Kindergarten schools, to senior schools. Boarding prep
schools for the age group 9 to 12 are becoming less usual in the UK, but many adolescents
like to get away from home
brainstorming: an organized approach for producing ideas by letting the mind think without
interruption. The term was coined by Alex Osborn. Brainstorming can be done either
individually or in a group; in group brainstorming sessions, the participants are encouraged,
and often expected, to share their ideas with one another as soon as they are generated. The
 key to brainstorming is not to interrupt the thought process. As ideas come to the mind, they
are captured and stimulate the development of better ideas. Brainstorming is used for
enhancing creativity in order to generate a broad selection of ideas in leading to a unique and
improved concept
case: a major grammatical system in many languages in which words show their grammatical
function (Subject, Object etc) by different forms. In English surface case only affects
pronouns (I, me, my etc) but Case is still invisibly important
classroom management: a term used by many teachers to describe the process of ensuring lessons
run smoothly without disruptive behaviour by students. It is possibly the most difficult aspect
of teaching for many teachers and indeed experiencing problems in this area causes many
people to leave teaching altogether. It is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and
respect
coaching: a coach is a person who teaches and directs another person via encouragement and advice.
This use of the term "coaching" appears to have origins in English traditional university
"cramming" in the mid-19th century. (The name allegedly recalls the multitasking skills
associated with controlling the team of a horse-drawn stagecoach.) By the 1880s American
college sports teams had—in addition to managers -- coaches. Some time in the 20th century,
non-sporting coaches emerged: non-experts in the specific technical skills of their clients, but
who nevertheless ventured to offer generalised motivational or inspirational advice
cofigurative: a culture in which people learn from their equals
coeducation: the integrated education of men and women at the same school facilities; co-ed is a
shortened adjectival form of co-educational. Before the 1960s, many private institutions of
higher education restricted their enrollment to a single sex. Indeed, most institutions of
higher education—regardless of being public or private—restricted their enrollment to a
single sex at some point in their history. "Coed" is an informal (and increasingly archaic)
term for a female student attending such a college or university
cognitive maps: (mental maps, mind maps, cognitive models, or mental models) a type of mental
processing, or cognition, composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an
individual can acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations
and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment. Here,
'cognition' can be used to refer to the mental models, or belief systems, that people use to
perceive, contextualize, simplify, and make sense of otherwise complex problems. As they
have been studied in various fields of science, these mental models are often referred to,
variously, as cognitive maps, scripts, schemata, and frames of reference
cognitive strategies: these involve specific conscious ways of tackling learning
cognitive style: a person’s typical ways of thinking, seen as a continuum between field-dependent
(FD) cognitive style, in which thinking relates to context, and field-independent (FI) style, in
which it is independent of context
collaborative learning: an umbrella term for a variety of approaches in education that involve joint
intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Groups of students work together in
searching for understanding, meaning or solutions or in creating a product. The approach is
closely related to cooperative learning, but is considered to be more radical because of its
reliance on youth voice. Collaborative learning activities can include collaborative writing,
group projects, and other activities
communication strategies: can be mutual attempts to solve L2 communication problems by
participants (Tarone 1980), individual solutions to psychological problems of L2 processing
(Faerch and Kasper 1984), ways of filling vocabulary gaps in the first or second language
(Poulisse 1990)
communicative style: basing teaching on communication, both as the target that the students need to
achieve, and as the means of acquiring it in the classroom
communicative teaching method: this based language teaching on the functions that the second
language had for the student and on the meanings they wanted to express, leading to teaching
exercises that made the students communicate with each other in various ways. From the
mid-1970s onwards this became the most influential way of teaching around the globe, not
just for English.
community of practice: (often abbreviated as CoP) refers to the process of social learning that
occurs when people who have a common interest in some subject or problem collaborate
over an extended period to share ideas, find solutions, and build innovations
community language learning (CLL): a teaching method in which students create conversations in
the second language from the beginning, using the teacher as translation resource
Competition Model: languages have to choose which aspect of language to emphasise in the
processing of speech, whether intonation, vocabulary, word order, or inflections
components of meaning: general aspects of meaning which are shared by many words; 'boy' has the
components 'male', 'human', 'young' etc.
compound and coordinate bilinguals: compound bilinguals are those who link the two languages in
their minds, coordinate bilinguals those who keep them apart.
Computer Based Learning: (sometimes abbreviated CBL) refers to the use of computers as a key
component of the educational environment. While this can refer to the use of computers in a
classroom, the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are
used for teaching purposes. The concept is generally seen as being distinct from the use of
 computers in ways where learning is at least a peripheral element of the experience (e.g.
computer games and web browsing)
connectionism: all mental processing depends on developing and using the connections in the mind
consciousness-raising: helping the learners by drawing attention to features of the second language
Constructivism: a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist
learning theories and teaching methods. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate,
teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student
contents: the subject matter of a written work, such as a book
content words: such as 'table' or 'truth' have meanings that can be found in dictionaries and consist
of nouns, verbs, adjectives and (possibly) prepositions.
Contrastive Analysis: this compared the descriptions of two languages in grammar or pronunciation
to discover the differences between them; these were then seen as difficulties for the students
that needed to be taught
Conversation Analysis: the discipline that studies conversational interaction by close analysis of
transcripts. (note: this is often abbreviated to CA; in the older SLA literature, however, CA
stands for Contrastive Analysis)
cooperative learning: proposed in response to traditional curriculum-driven education. In
cooperative learning environments, students interact in purposely structured heterogeneous
group to support the learning of one self and others in the same group
corpus: a collection of writings or recorded remarks used for linguistic analysis
correspondence rules: the rules in sound-based writing systems for connecting sounds to letters, i.e.
the English phoneme /ei/ to the letter <a> and vice versa <a> to /ei/, /Q/ etc.
creativity: a human mental phenomenon based around the deployment of mental skills and/or
conceptual tools, which, in turn, originate and develop innovation, inspiration, or insight
creativity techniques: heuristic methods to facilitate creativity in a person or a group of people.
Generally, most creativity techniques use associations between the goal (or the problem), the
current state (which may be an imperfect solution to the problem), and some stimulus
(possibly selected randomly). There is an analogy between many creativity techniques and
methods of evolutionary computation
critical period hypothesis: the claim that human beings are only capable of learning language
between the age of 2 years and the early teens
curriculum: (plural curricula) the set of courses and their contents offered by an institution such as a
school or university. In some cases, a curriculum may be partially or entirely determined by
an external body (such as the National Curriculum for England in English schools). In the
U.S., the basic curriculum is established by each state with the individual school districts
 adjusting it to their desires; in Australia each state's Education Department sets the various
curricula
declarative/procedural memory: the memory for individual items of information (declarative
memory) is different from the memory processes for handling that information (procedural
memory)
decoding versus codebreaking: processing language to get the ‘message’ versus processing
language to get the ‘rules’
dialogue: usually a short constructed piece of conversation used as a model of language and to
introduce new words or structures
Direct method: essentially any method that relies on the second language throughout
distance education: (or distance learning) a field of education that focuses on the
pedagogy/andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that is effectively
incorporated in delivering education to students who are not physically "on site" to receive
their education. Instead, teachers and students may communicate asynchronously (at times of
their own choosing) by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that
allows them to communicate in real time (synchronously). Distance education courses that
require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is
considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program
distinctive feature: the minimal difference that may distinguish phonemes, such as voice and
aspiration in ‘din’ and ‘tin’
drill: a form of mechanical practice in which words or phrases are substituted within a frame and
practiced till it becomes automatic
education: a social science that encompasses teaching and learning specific knowledge, beliefs, and
skills. Licensed and practicing teachers in the field use a variety of methods and materials in
order to impart a curriculum
education policy: is the collection of rules, both stated and implicit, or the regularities in practice
that govern the behavior of persons in schools. Education policy analysis is the scholarly
study of education policy
education reform: a plan, program, or movement which attempts to bring about a systematic change
in educational theory or practice across a community or society
educational counseling: conducted by counselors in schools and universities. It is intended to help
children suffering from education-related traumas such as beatings and other forms of
corporal punishment used in many countries. A more common application is with children
who have been abused or bullied. The counselor works with the child to help him or her get
over the trauma he or she has suffered
educational evaluation: the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect of the
education enterprise
educational games: games, including video games of this genre, designed to teach people, typically
children, about a certain subject or help them learn a skill as they play. Some people call
these types of games edutainment because they combine education and entertainment
educational leadership: leadership in formal educational settings. It draws upon interdisciplinary
literature, generally, but ideally distinguishes itself through its focus on pedagogy,
epistemology and human development. In contemporary practice it borrows from political
science and business. Debate within the field relates to this tension
educational organization: organization within the scope of education. It is a common misconception
that this means it is organizing educational system; rather, it deals with the theory of
organization as it applies to education of the human mind
educational psychology: the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of
educational treatments, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as
organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are
often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational
psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as
school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational
attainment among the general population and sub-populations such as gifted children and
those subject to specific disabilities
educational research: research conducted to investigate behavioral patterns in pupils, students,
teachers and other participants in schools and other educational institutions. Such research is
often conducted by examining work products such as documents and standardized test
results. The methods of educational research are derived chiefly from the social sciences, and
in particular from psychology
educational software: computer software whose primary purpose is teaching or self-learning
educational technology: the use of technology to improve education. It is a systematic, iterative
process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Educational
technology is sometimes also known as instructional technology or learning technology
e-learning: an approach to facilitate and enhance learning through, and based on, both computer and
communications technology. Such devices can include personal computers, CDROMs,
Digital Television, P.D.A.s and Mobile Phones. Communications technology enables the use
of the Internet, email, discussion forums, collaborative software and team learning systems
(see also online deliberation)
electronic portfolio: in the context of education and learning, an electronic portfolio, normally
known as an ePortfolio or a digital portfolio, is a portfolio based on electronic media and
services. It consists of a personal digital record containing information such as a collection of
artifacts or evidence demonstrating what one knows and can do
élite bilingualism: either the choice by parents of bringing up children through two languages, or
societies in which members of a ruling group speak a second language
empirical knowledge: (or a posteriori knowledge) propositional knowledge obtained by experience
or sensorial information. It is contrasted with a priori knowledge, or knowledge that is gained
through the apprehension of innate ideas, "intuition," "pure reason," or other non-experiential
sources. The natural and social sciences are usually considered a posteriori, literally "after the
fact," disciplines. Mathematics and logic are usually considered a priori, "before the fact,"
disciplines
English as Lingua Franca: (ELF, sometimes LFE); the name for the kind of English that is used
globally by non-native speakers for many kinds of international purposes
epenthesis: padding out the syllable by adding extra vowels or consonants, e.g. ‘Espain’ for ‘Spain’
Error Analysis (EA): this studied the language produced by L2 learners to establish its peculiarities,
which it tried to explain in terms of the first language and other sources
even learners: these rely on both grammatical sensitivity and memory
experience: comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained
through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event. The history of the word experience
aligns it closely with the concept of experiment. The concept of experience generally refers
to know-how or procedural knowledge, rather than propositional knowledge. Philosophers
dub knowledge based on experience "empirical knowledge" or "a posteriori knowledge". A
person with considerable experience in a certain field can gain a reputation as an expert
experiential education: (or "learning by doing") the process of actively engaging students in an
authentic experience that will have benefits and consequences. Students make discoveries
and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the
experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills,
new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking. Experiential education is related to the
constructivist learning theory
extracurricular activities: activities performed by students that fall outside the realm of the normal
curriculum of school or university education. Extracurricular activities exist at all levels of
education, from high school and college to university education. Such activities are generally
voluntary as opposed to mandatory, non-paying, tend to be social or philanthropic as opposed
to scholastic, and involve others of the same age. Students often organize and direct these
activities under faculty sponsorship
extrovert and introvert: people’s personalities vary between those who relate to objects outside
themselves (extroverts) and those who relate to the contents of their own minds (introverts)
false friends: words that are more or less the same in two languages but have different meanings
feedback: teacher evaluation of the student response
first language: chronologically the first language that a child learns
focus on form (FonF): discussion of grammar and vocabulary arising from meaningful language in
the classroom
focus on forms: deliberate discussion of grammar without reference to meaning
four skills: language teaching can be divided into the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and
writing; in the audio-lingual style, additionally, listening and reading are considered ‘passive’
skills, speaking and writing ‘active’ ones
functions of language: the reasons for which people use language such as persuading and arguing
good language learner strategies: the strategies employed by people known to be good at L2
learning
grammar: the system of relationships between elements of the sentence that links the ‘sounds’ to the
‘meanings’, using word order and word forms
grammar-translation method: the traditional academic style of teaching which placed heavy
emphasis on grammar explanation and translation as a teaching technique
grammatical (linguistic) competence: the knowledge of language stored in a person’s mind
grammatical morphemes: are morphemes such as ‘-ing’ and ‘the’ that play a greater part in
structure than content words such as ‘horse’ (lexical morphemes)
hidden curriculum: draws to the idea that schools do more than simply transmit knowledge, as laid
down in the official curricula. It is often used to criticize the social implications, political
underpinnings, and cultural outcomes of modern educative activities. While early
examinations were concerned with identifying the anti-democratic nature of schooling, later
studies have taken various tones, including those concerned with socialism, capitalism, and
anarchism in education
higher education: education provided by universities and other institutions that award academic
degrees, such as community colleges, and liberal arts colleges. Higher education includes
both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching,
it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the
graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education or graduate
school). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as
vocational education. However, most professional education is included within higher
education, and many postgraduate qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally
oriented, for example in disciplines such as law and medicine
hypercentral languages: a language that is used globally for international purposes as opposed to
languages that are used more locally
immersion teaching: teaching the whole curriculum through the second language, best known from
experiments in Canada
independent language assumption: the language of the L2 learner can be considered a language in
its own right rather than a defective version of the target language (sometimes called
interlanguage)
information gap: the idea of giving different students different pieces of information which they can
exchange
initiation: the opening move by the teacher
instrumental motivation: learning the language for a career goal or other practical reason
integrative learning: a learning theory describing a movement toward integrated lessons helping
students make connections across curricula. This higher education concept is distinct from
the elementary and high school "integrated curriculum" movement
integrative motivation: learning the language in order to take part in the culture of its people
integrativeness: how the learner relates to the target culture in various ways
interaction hypothesis: successful second language acquisition depends crucially on conversational
interaction with others
internalisation: in Vygotsky’s theory the process through which the child turns the external social
use of language into the internal mental use
intonation: the systematic rise and fall in the pitch of the voice during speech
kinesthetic learning: a teaching and learning style in which learning takes place by the student
actually carrying out a physical activity, rather than listening to a lecture or merely watching
a demonstration. Building dioramas, physical models or participating in role-playing or
historical reenactment are some examples. Other examples include the kindergarten practice
of having children perform various motions from left to right in preparation for reading
education
knowledge: information of which someone is aware. Knowledge is also used to mean the confident
understanding of a subject, potentially with the ability to use it for a specific purpose. The
unreliability of memory limits the certainty of knowledge about the past, while
unpredictability of events yet to occur limits the certainty of knowledge about the future.
Epistemology is the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge
knowledge Management: (or KM) a term applied to techniques used for the systematic collection,
transfer, security and management of information within organisations, along with systems
designed to help make best use of that knowledge. In particular it refers to tools and
techniques designed to preserve the availability of information held by key individuals and
facilitate decision making and reducing risk
L2 user and L2 learner: an L2 user uses the second language for real-life purposes; an L2 learner is
acquiring a second language rather than using it
language awareness: helping the learners by raising awareness of language itself
language education: the teaching and learning of a language or languages, usually as foreign
languages
language maintenance and bilingual language teaching: teaching to maintain the minority
language within its group
leader and follower: in some types of conversation one person has the right to lead the conversation
while the others follow his or her lead
learning: the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience,
or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or
allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct
(conceptual knowledge such as attitudes or values). It is a process that depends on experience
and leads to long-term changes in behavior potential
learning disability: in the United States, the term learning disability is used to refer to socio-
biological conditions that affect a persons communicative capacities and potential to learn.
The term includes conditions such as perceptual disability, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, autism, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. In the United Kingdom, the term
learning disability is used more generally to refer to developmental disability
learning outcome: the term may refer to course aims (intended learning outcomes) or may be
roughly synonymous with educational objectives (observed learning outcomes). Usage varies
between organisations
learning strategy: a choice that the learner makes while learning or using the second language that
affects learning
lecture: an oral presentation intended to teach people about a particular subject, for example by a
university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history,
background, theories and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's sermon, or even a
businessman's sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will
stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content
lesson plan: a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for an individual lesson.
While there is no one way to construct a correct lesson plan, most lesson plans contain
similar elements
lifelong learning: the concept that "It's never too soon or too late for learning", a philosophy that has
taken root in a whole host of different organizations. Lifelong learning sees citizens provided
with learning opportunities at all ages and in numerous contexts: at work, at home and
through leisure activities, not just through formal channels such as school and higher
education
linguistic imperialism: the means by which a ‘Centre’ country dominates ‘Periphery’ countries by
making them use its language
meaning-based writing system: a form of writing in which the written sign (character) connects
directly to the meaning, as in Chinese characters
memory-based learners: these rely on their memory rather than grammatical sensitivity
metacognitive strategies: these involve planning and directing learning at a general level
method: way of teaching a language based on a series of principles and rules; relation between the
linguistic and learning theories and the form and function of the material which are going to
be used and the activities that are going to be developed in class (design)
methodology: strictly speaking is the study and knowledge of methods; but the term is frequently
used pretentiously to indicate a method or a set of methods. In other words, it is the study of
techniques for problem-solving and seeking answers, as opposed to the techniques
themselves
mind map: (or mind-map) a diagram used for linking words and ideas to a central key word or idea.
It is used to visualize, classify, structure, and generate ideas, as well as an aid in study,
problem solving, and decision making
Minimalist Program: Chomsky’s current working model that attempts to simplify the syntax to the
minimum necessary for the human computational system to connect sounds and meanings
mnemnotechnics: ways of remembering new information by deliberately organising it and linking it
to existing information in the mind
Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT): testing phonemic coding, grammatical sensitivity,
inductive language learning ability, rote learning
morpheme: the smallest unit of grammar, consisting either of a word (‘toast’) or part of a word (‘’s’
in ‘John’s’)
morphology and syntax: morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure of
morphemes, syntax the branch that deals with the structure of phrases above the level of the
word
motivation: the driving force behind all actions of human beings and other animals. It is an internal
state that activates behavior and gives it direction. Emotion is closely related to motivation,
and may be regarded as the subjectively experienced component of motivational states
movement: a way of describing some sentences as being based on moving various elements about
multi-competence: the knowledge of more than one language in the same mind
multilingualism: countries where more than one language is used for everyday purposes
native speaker: ‘a person who has spoken a certain language since early childhood’ (McArthur,
1992)
negotiation for meaning: solving mutual difficulties in conversation by means of various
conversational moves
nuclear tone: significant changes in pitch on one or more syllables.
number: this is a way of signalling how many entities are involved, for example through the forms
of nouns, pronouns and verbs. English has two numbers, singular (he) and plural (they).
objective: an educational objective is a statement of a goal which successful participants are
expected demonstrably to achieve before the course or unit completes.
official language: language(s) recognized by a country for official purposes
order of difficulty: the scale of difficulty for particular aspects of grammar for L2 learners
orthographic regularities: rules that govern how letters behave in English, such as <ck> / occurring
at the ends ofκcorresponding to / syllables ‘back’, <c> at the beginning ‘cab’
overlearning: a pedagogical concept according to which newly acquired skills should be practiced
well beyond the point of initial mastery, leading to automaticity
parameters of language: systematic ways in which human languages vary, usually expressed as a
choice between two options
parameters: aspects that vary from one language to another within tightly set limits, whether or not
subjects are required in the sentence – the pro-drop parameter
parsing: the process through which the mind works out the grammatical structure and meaning of
the sentence
passive and active: passive sentences express similar meanings to active sentences by shifting focus
from the agent doing the object to the object enduring the action ‘I broke the mirror’/‘The
mirror was broken’
pattern: a model considered worthy of imitation
pedagogy: the art or science of teaching. The word comes from the ancient Greek paidagogos, the
slave who took little boys to and from school as part of paideia. The word "paidia" (παιδιά)
refers to children, which is why some like to make the distinction between pedagogy
(teaching children) and andragogy (teaching adults). The Latin word for pedagogy,
education, is much more widely used, and often the two are used interchangeably
phonemes: the sounds of a language that are systematically distinguished from each other, e.g. /t/
from /d/ in ‘din/din’
phonetic alphabet: a way of writing down the sounds of speech through a carefully designed set of
symbols as in the IPA (International Phonetics Alphabet)
phonology and phonetics: phonology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the sound systems
of language, phonetics the branch that deals with the sheer sounds themselves
phrase structure: this is a way of linking all the parts of a sentence together in a structure like that of
a family tree by splitting the sentence into smaller and smaller bits.
postfigurative: a culture in which people learn from older wiser guardians of knowledge
prefigurative: a culture in which people learn from their juniors
preposition: prepositions are words like to, by and with which come before nouns to make
Preposition Phrases. When they come after a noun as in Japanese, they are called
‘postpositions’ Nippon ni (Japan in)
prescriptive grammar: grammar that ‘prescribes’ what people should say
principles of language: abstract principles that permit or prohibit certain structures from occurring
in all human languages
problem finding: problem discovery. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem
shaping and problem solving. Problem finding requires intellectual vision and insight into
what is missing. This involves the application of creativity
problem solving: forms part of thinking. It occurs if an organism or an artificial intelligence system
does not know how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state. It is part of the
larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping
problem-based learning: (PBL) a didactic concept of "active learning" in tertiary education, but is
currently being adapted for use in K–12 education. The defining characteristics of PBL are:
learning is driven by messy, open-ended problems; students work in small collaborative
groups; and "teachers" are not required, the process uses "facilitators" of learning.
Accordingly, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organise and
direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it
can be used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication,
problem-solving, and self-directed learning skill
procedural knowledge: (or know-how) the knowledge of how to perform some task. Know-how is
different from other kinds of knowledge such as propositional knowledge in that it can be
directly applied to a task. Procedural knowledge about solving problems differs from
propositional knowledge about problem solving. For example, in some legal systems, this
knowledge or know-how has been considered the intellectual property of a company, and can
be transferred when that company is purchased
processability: sequences of acquisition may reflect the ease with which certain structures can be
processed by th:e mind
pro-drop parameter: whether or not subjects are required in the sentence
programmed instruction: a field first studied extensively by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner. It consists
of teaching through small lessons, where each lesson must be mastered in order to go on to
the next. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed.
After each step, they are presented with a question to test their comprehension, then are
immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information
project: an extensive task undertaken by a student or group of students to apply, illustrate, or
supplement classroom lessons
propositional knowledge: (or declarative knowledge) knowledge that some proposition is either true
or false. This distinguishes propositional knowledge from know-how or procedural
knowledge, which is the knowledge of how to perform some task. This article discusses
propositional knowledge from a variety of perspectives, including philosophy, science, and
history. What is the difference between knowledge and beliefs? A belief is an internal
thought or memory which exists in one's mind. Most people accept that for a belief to be
knowledge it must be, at least, true and justified. The Gettier problem in philosophy is the
question of whether there are any other requirements before a belief can be accepted as
knowledge
prototype theory: words have whole meanings divided into basic level ('car'), subordinate level
('Ford') and superordinate level ('vehicle')
public education: schooling provided for the general public by the government, whether national or
local, and paid for by taxes, which leads to it often being called state education. Schools
provided under such a system are called public schools in many countries, but in England the
term "public school" refers to an elite of privately funded independent schools which had
their origins in medieval schools funded by charity to provide education for the poor. Public
education often involves the following: public funding; compulsory student attendance; state
certification of teachers and curricula; and testing and national standards
public school: the term has different (and in some cases contradictory) meanings due to regional
differences
quiz: a form of game or puzzle in which the players (as individuals or in teams), attempt to answer
questions correctly. A quiz usually is a form of student assessment, but often has fewer
questions of lesser difficulty and requires less time for completion than a test
reading (process): the process of retrieving and comprehending some form of stored information or
ideas. These ideas are usually some sort of representation of language, as symbols to be
examined by sight, or by touch (for example Braille). Other types of reading may not be
language-based, such as music notation or pictograms. By analogy, in computer science,
reading is acquiring of data from some sort of computer storage
reading disability: a condition in which a sufferer displays difficulty reading resulting primarily
from neurological factors
recasts: rephrasing incorrect student utterances
reciprocal language teaching: a teaching method in which pairs of students alternately teach each
other their languages
reference: something that refers or points to something else, or acts as a connection or a link
between two things. The objects it links may be concrete, such as books or locations, or
abstract, such as data, thoughts, or memories. The object which is named by a reference, or to
which the reference points, is the referent
reinforcement: in operant conditioning, reinforcement is any change in an organism's surroundings
that: occurs regularly when the organism behaves in a given way (that is, is contingent on a
specific response); and is associated with an increase in the probability that the response will
be made or in another measure of its strength
repair: the way that the speaker or listener gets the interaction back on course when something goes
wrong
response: the student’s response to the teacher’s opening move
RP (received pronunciation): the usual accent of British English given in books about English,
spoken by a small minority
research: often described as an active, diligent, and systematic process of inquiry aimed at
discovering, interpreting and revising facts. This intellectual investigation produces a greater
understanding of events, behaviors, or theories, and makes practical applications through
laws and theories. The term research is also used to describe a collection of information
about a particular subject, and is usually associated with science and the scientific method
scaffolding: the process that assists the learner in getting to the next point in development, in socio-
cultural theory consisting of social assistance by other people rather than of physical
resources such as dictionaries
schema (pl. schemas or schemata): the background knowledge on which the interpretation of a text
depends
school counselor: a practitioner who meets the needs of students in three basic educational domains:
academic development, career development, and personal/social development. This is
accomplished through the implementation of a comprehensive school counseling program
that promotes and enhances student achievement through a guidance curriculum, individual
planning strategies, responsive services and comprehensive school counseling program
support/advocacy
school discipline: a form of discipline found in schools. The term refers to students complying with
a code of behaviour often known as the school rules. Among other things these rules may set
out the expected standards of clothing, timekeeping, social behaviour and work ethic. The
term may also be applied to the punishment that is the consequence of transgression of the
code of behaviour. For this reason the usage of school discipline sometimes means
punishment for breaking school rules rather than behaving within the school rules
script: ‘a predetermined stereotyped sequence of actions that defines a well-known situation’
(Schank and Abelson, 1977)
second and foreign language: a second language is for immediate uses within the same country, a
foreign language is for long-term future use in other countries
second language: ‘A language acquired by a person in addition to his mother tongue’ (UNESCO)
required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect
(in essence, competence), self-efficacy is the belief (however accurate) that one has the
power to produce that effect. It is important here to understand the distinction between self
esteem and self efficacy. Self esteem relates to a person’s sense of self-worth, whereas self
efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal. For example, say a
person is a terrible rock climber. They would likely have a poor efficacy in regard to rock
climbing, but this wouldn’t need to affect their self-esteem; most people don’t invest much of
their self esteem in this activity
self-esteem: (or self-worth) includes a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as
intrinsically positive or negative to some degree
self-efficacy: the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions
sensitization: helping the learners by alerting them to features of the first language
sequence of acquisition: the order in which L2 learners acquire the grammar, pronunciation etc of
the language
sequence of development: the inevitable progression of learners through definite stages of
acquisition
silent letter: a letter that does not correspond directly to a speech sound but often has indirect effects,
e.g. <e> ‘fat’ versus ‘fate’, and <u> ‘guess’ versus ‘gesture’
situation: some teaching uses 'situation' to mean physical demonstration in the classroom, other
teaching uses it to mean situations where the student will use the language in the world
outside the classroom
social strategies: these involve interacting with other people
sound-based writing system: a form of writing in which the written sign connects to the spoken
form, whether through syllables (Japanese, Korean) or consonant phonemes alone (Arabic,
Hebrew) or both vowels and consonants (alphabetic languages like Greek, Urdu, or English)
spelling: the regularities in the way the letters are arranged in words
student-centred learning: an approach to education focusing on the needs of the students, rather
than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators.
This approach has many implications for the design of curriculum, course content, and
interactivity of courses
strategy: a plan of action resulting from strategy or intended to accomplish a specific goal
structural grammar: grammar concerned with how words go into phrases, phrases into sentences
Structuralism: a method of analysing phenomena, as in anthropology, linguistics, psychology, or
literature, chiefly characterized by contrasting the elemental structures of the phenomena in a
system of binary opposition
structure (function) words: such as articles 'the' and 'a' exist to form part of phrases and structures
and so have meanings that are difficult to capture in the dictionary
subject pronoun: some languages show the role of nouns in the sentences with different case forms;
in English this only applies to the pronouns – ‘she’ is the subject form, ‘her’ is the object
form and so on
submersion teaching: extreme sink-or-swim form of assimilationist teaching in which minority
language children are put in majority language classes
substitution table: a language teaching technique where students create sentences by choosing words
from successive columns of a table
subtractive bilingualism: L2 learning that takes away from the learner’s capabilities
Suggestopedia: a teaching method aimed at avoiding the students' block about language learning
through means such as listening to music
syllable structure: the way in which consonants (C) and vowels (V) may be combined into syllables
in a particular language, for example English has CVC syllables while Japanese has CV
syllable: a unit of phonology consisting of a structure of phonemes
syllabus: (plural syllabi or syllabuses) a document with an outline and summary of topics to be
covered in a course. It is often either set out by an exam board, or prepared by the professor
who teaches the course, and is usually given to each student during the first class session
task: ‘A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to
attain a goal’ (Bygate, Skehan and Swain, 2001)
Task-based learning (TBL): this approach sees learning as arising from particular tasks the students
do in the classroom and has been increasingly seen as a logical development from
communicative language teaching.
taxonomy of educational objectives: an educational taxonomy that classifies educational objectives
into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
teacher: in education, one who teaches students or pupils, often a course of study, lesson plan, or a
practical skill, including learning and thinking skills. There are many different ways to teach
and help students learn. This is often referred to as the teacher's pedagogy. When deciding
what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider students' background
knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as standardized curriculum as
determined by their school district
teacher-talk: the speech supplied by the teacher rather than the students
technique: Classroom activities, performance in the classroom (procedure)
tense: the relationship between the sentence and time is indicated by tense, in English having present
and past tenses but no future tense. In English the two tense are shown by inflections ‘s’ and
‘ed’, having several regular and irregular forms
textbook: a manual of instruction or a standard book in any branch of study. They are classified by
both the target audience and the subject. Textbooks are usually published by specialty
printers to serve every request for an understanding of every subject that can be taught. It is a
big business that requires mass volume sales to make the publications profitable. Although
most textbooks are only published in printed format with hard covers, some can now be
viewed online
tone language: a language in which words are separated by intonation, for instance Chinese
top-down and bottom-up: starting from the sentence as a whole and working down to its smallest
parts, versus starting from the smallest parts and working up
traditional grammar: ‘school’ grammar concerned with labelling sentences with parts of speech, etc
training: refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes as a result of the teaching of
vocational or practical skills and knowledge and relates to specific useful skills. It forms the
core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at technical colleges or
polytechnics. Today it is often referred to as professional development
truth: when someone sincerely agrees with an assertion, he or she is claiming that it is the truth.
Philosophy seeks answers for certain questions about truth and the word truth
tuition: instruction, teaching or a fee charged for educational instruction especially at a formal
institution of learning. Tuition is charged by educational institutions to assist with funding of
staff and faculty, course offerings, lab equipment, computer systems, libraries, facility
upkeeping, and to provide a comfortable learning experience for its students
understanding: a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as, person,
situation and message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal
adequately with that object
transfer: carrying over elements of one language one knows to another, whether L1 to L2 or L2 to
L1 (reverse transfer
transitional L2 teaching: teaching that allows people to function in a majority language, without
necessarily losing or devaluing the first language
Universal Grammar (UG): ‘the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or
properties of all human languages ... the essence of human language’ (Chomsky, 1976, p.29).
The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters
virtual learning environment: (VLE) a software system designed to facilitate teachers in the
management of educational courses for their students, especially by helping teachers and
learners with course administration. The system can often track the learners' progress, which
can be monitored by both teachers and learners. While often thought of as primarily tools for
distance education, they are most often used to supplement the face-to-face classroom
visual learning: a proven teaching method in which graphic organizers, such as webs, concept maps
idea maps, and slide shows are used to help students of all ages think and learn more
effectively
voice onset time (VOT): the moment when voicing starts during the production of a consonant
wh- questions: many languages have a difference between questions that demand a yes or no
answer; ‘Can you drive a lorry?’ and questions are open-ended ‘What can you drive?’ The
 latter are called wh- questions in English because they involve question-words mostly
starting with ‘wh’ such as ‘when’ and ‘who’
word frequency: simply measured by counting how often a word or word form occurs in a large
sample of spoken or written language such as the British National Corpus (BNC)
word order: a major element in conveying grammatical meaning in some languages is word order,
but not in all languages. A particular variation between languages is the order of Subject
Verb and Object; SVO (English), VSO (Arabic), SOV (Japanese) etc.
zone of proximal development (ZPD): to Vygotsky the gap between the child’s low point of
development as measured individually and high point as measured on social tasks; in SLA
research often used to refer to the gap between the learner’s current stage and the next point
on some developmental scale the learner is capable of reaching