Advanced Semiconductor Power Circuits

Advanced Semiconductor Power Circuits
ADVANCED SEMICONDUCTOR
POWER CIRCUITS
REAGAN NNABIO ROBINSON
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CHAPTER 1
RECTIFICATION
WHAT IS RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the process of linking an AC power supply to a connected DC load by means of
solid-state semiconductor devices. Rectification converts an oscillating sinusoidal AC voltage
source into a constant current DC voltage supply by means of diodes, thyristors, transistors, or
converters. This rectifying process can take on many forms with half-wave, full-wave,
uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifiers transforming a single-phase or three-phase supply into
a constant DC level. In this tutorial we will look at single-phase rectification and all its forms.
Rectifiers are one of the basic building blocks of AC power conversion with half-wave or full-
wave rectification generally performed by semiconductor diodes. Diodes allow alternating currents
to flow through them in the forward direction while blocking current flow in the reverse direction
creating a fixed DC voltage level making them ideal for rectification.
However, direct current which has been rectified by diodes is not as pure as that obtained from
say, a battery source, but has voltage changes in the form of ripples superimposed on it as a result
of the alternating supply. But for single phase rectification to take place, we need an AC sinusoidal
waveform of a fixed voltage and frequency as shown below.
Figure: AC Sinusoidal Waveform
AC waveforms generally have two numbers associated with them. The first number expresses the
degree of rotation of the waveform along the x-axis by which the alternator has rotated from 0-to-
360o. This value is known as the period (T) which is defined as the interval taken to complete one
full cycle of the waveform. Periods are measured in units of degrees, time, or radians. The
relationship between a sine waves periods and frequency is defined as: T = 1/ƒ. The second
number indicates the amplitude of the value, either current or voltage, along the y-axis. This
number gives the instantaneous value from zero to some peak or maximum value (AMAX, VMAX or
IMAX) indicating the sine waves greatest amplitude before returning back to zero again. For a
sinusoidal waveform there are two maximum or peak values, one for the positive and one for the
negative half-cycles. But as well as these two values, there are two more which are of interest to
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us for rectification purposes. One is the sinusoidal waveforms Average Value and the other is
its RMS Value. The average value of a waveform is obtained by adding the instantaneous values
of voltage (or current) over one half-cycle and is found as: 0.6365*VP.
Note that the average value over one complete cycle of a symmetrical sine wave will be zero as
the average positive half-wave is cancelled by the opposite average negative half-wave. That is +1
+ (-1) = 0. The RMS, root mean squared or effective value of a sinusoid (a sinusoid is another
name for a sine wave) delivers the same amount of energy to a resistance as does a DC supply of
the same value. The root mean square (rms) value of a sinusoidal voltage (or current) is defined
as: 0.7071*VP.
Rectifier Circuit Phases

Modern electrical engineering convention further describes the function of a rectifier circuit by
using a three-field notation of phases, ways, and number of pulses. A single-phase, half-wave
rectifier circuit is given the somewhat cryptic designation of 1Ph1W1P (1 phase, 1 way, 1 pulse),
meaning that the AC supply voltage is single-phase, that current on each phase of the AC supply
lines moves in only one direction (way), and that there is a single pulse of DC produced for every
360o of electrical rotation. A single-phase, full-wave, center-tap rectifier circuit would be
designated as 1Ph1W2P in this notational system: 1 phase, 1 way or direction of current in each
winding half, and 2 pulses or output voltage per cycle. A single-phase, full-wave, bridge rectifier
would be designated as 1Ph2W2P: the same as for the center-tap design, except current, can
go both ways through the AC lines instead of just one way. The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit
shown earlier would be called a 3Ph2W6P rectifier.
Rectifier Transformer
Rectifier transformers are used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) in various
applications, such as industrial power supplies, traction systems, and electrochemical processes.
The process of rectification involves changing the direction of current flow in the circuit, and
transformers are used to step down or step up the voltage level of the AC power supply. One of
the challenges of rectifier transformers is the generation of harmonics in the output voltage
waveform. Harmonics are the multiples of the fundamental frequency and can cause unwanted
effects such as increased losses, electromagnetic interference, and distortion of the waveform. To
reduce the harmonic content in the output voltage, a technique called pulse rectification can be
used.
In pulse rectification, the input AC voltage is split into multiple phases, and each phase is rectified
separately using a diode bridge. By using multiple phases, the waveform of the output DC voltage
can be made smoother, with less harmonic content. The number of phases used in the rectification
process is called the pulse number, and it is determined by the number of diode bridges used in the
circuit. The most common pulse numbers used in rectifier transformers are 6-pulse, 12-pulse, and
24-pulse. The 12-pulse and 24-pulse configurations are achieved by using two and four sets of
diode bridges, respectively, and they offer improved waveform quality compared to the 6-pulse
configuration. In a 12-pulse rectifier, the input voltage is split into two phases, each of which is
rectified by a diode bridge. The two phases are out of phase by 30 degrees, and this helps to reduce
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the harmonic content in the output voltage. In a 24-pulse rectifier, the input voltage is split into
four phases, with each phase rectified by a separate diode bridge. The phases are arranged such
that the current from each phase is shifted by 15 degrees from the adjacent phase, resulting in even
lower harmonic content in the output voltage. In summary, rectifier transformers are essential
components in many power systems, and the use of pulse rectification can help to improve the
quality of the output voltage waveform. The choice of pulse number depends on the specific
application and the level of harmonic content that is acceptable. The 12-pulse and 24-pulse
configurations are commonly used for their improved waveform quality compared to the 6-pulse
configuration, and they are particularly useful in applications where low harmonic distortion is
important.
1-PULSE, 2-PULSE, AND 6-PULSE UNITS

In electronics, the pulse is a rectangular direct current voltage signal produced by a
pulse generator.
Figure: Pulse waveforms
Its form could be described as an on-off voltage, where the 'on' voltage has a duration of t1 and is
repeated after an interval of t2, during which the voltage drops to the 'off' level. Pulses can be used
to control a switch.
Figure: Pulse period
Pulses are commonly produced from AC (alternating current) by a half-wave rectifier or a full-
wave rectifier. Its waveform contains both positive and negative sections. The ratio of the 'on' to
'off' times of the waveform is called the duty cycle. The pulse wave may be distinguished from
the square wave in that the latter has a duty cycle of 1:1. Sometimes, the method of rectification is
referred to by counting the number of DC “pulses” output for every 360o of electrical “rotation.”
A single-phase, half-wave rectifier circuit, then, would be called a 1-pulserectifier, because it
produces a single pulse during the time of one complete cycle (360o) of the AC waveform. A
single-phase, full-wave rectifier (regardless of design, center-tap or bridge) would be called a 2-
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pulse rectifier because it outputs two pulses of DC during one AC cycle’s worth of time. A three-
phase full-wave rectifier would be called a 6-pulse unit.
WHAT IS RIPPLE FACTOR

The output of rectifier consists of D.C component and A.C component also. A.C component in
rectified output is called ripple. This A.C component in output is undesirable and accounts for the
pulsations in the rectifier output. AC component in rectifier output voltage is called ripple voltage
and AC component in output current called ripple current.
Ripple Factor definition: The ratio of RMS value of AC. component to the DC component in
the rectifier output is known as the ripple factor.
Ripple Factor = RMS value of AC Component / RMS value of DC component
SO, the R.F = I(ac) / I(dc).
Ripple Factor is very important in deciding the effectiveness of rectifier output. The smaller ripple
factor describes the more effectiveness of that rectifier. The more ripple factor means more
fluctuating ac components are present in the rectified output. This is basically a measurement of
ripple which denotes the purity of rectified output. Thus, every effort is made to reduce the ripple
factor. Here we will not discuss the ways to reduce the ripple factor. Here we will see why ripple
happens in rectifier output.
Why Ripple is Present

When the rectification happens by rectifier circuit there is no way to get 100% pure DC output.
Some fluctuating AC components are always present in the output of the rectifier. A rectifier
circuit is including some diodes or thyristor. Ripple is depended upon the uses of these elements
in a rectifier circuit. Let see with the example of single-phase full wave rectifier. Here we use four
diodes in a circuit and we get the output as shown in the figure below.
Figure: DC output waveform
Here we expected from the rectifier for the pure DC output waveform but we get some pulsating
AC waveform which called ripple in output. By uses of some filter in the circuit, we can able to
get nearly DC waveform and can reduce ripple in output.
Ripple Factor Formula and Derivation

Ripple factor is given in terms of RMS value of ac component to RMS value of dc component.
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So now we derive the formula of ripple factor. Derivation of ripple factor can be easily derived by
the definition of ripple factor. As per definition we know, ripple factor is the ratio of rms of ac
component to rms of dc components in rectified output. By Irms and Idc we can find the ripple
factor of the rectifier.
Here now we find ripple factor for half wave and full wave rectifier.
Ripple Factor for Half Wave Rectifier

For half wave rectification,
Irms = Im/2
Idc = Im/π
Ripple factor of half wave rectifier is about 1.21 by the derivation. As per you can see output
voltage has much more AC component in DC output voltage so the half-wave rectifier is
ineffective in the conversion of A.C to D.C.
Ripple Factor for Full Wave Rectifier

For full wave rectifier,
Irms = Im/ √2
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Idc = 2Im/ π
This shows that in the output of a full-wave rectifier, the DC component is more than the AC
component. Consequently, the pulsations in the output will be less than in half-wave rectifier. For
this reason, full-wave rectification is invariably used for conversion of AC into DC.
HARMONIC
Harmonics are the result of nonlinear loads that convert AC line voltage to DC. Harmonics flow
into the electrical system because of nonlinear electronic switching devices, such as variable
frequency drives (VFDs), computer power supplies and energy-efficient lighting. One of the main
reasons is the high impedance of generators, that will transfer easily current harmonic distortion
into voltage harmonic distortion (i.e., affecting other loads supplied from that source). For the case
of motors, we refer to them as loads of the electrical installation, more than voltage sources. In
physics and telecommunication, a harmonic is a sinusoidal wave with a frequency that is a positive
integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of a periodic signal. The fundamental frequency is
also called the 1st harmonic; the other harmonics are known as higher harmonics.
A harmonic is a wave or signal whose frequency is an integral (whole number) multiple of the frequency
of the same reference signal or wave. As part of the harmonic series, the term can also refer to the ratio of
the frequency of such a signal or wave to the frequency of the reference signal or wave. Harmonics
are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. For example, if the fundamental frequency is
50 Hz (also known as the first harmonic) then the second harmonic will be 100 Hz (50 * 2 = 100
Hz), the third harmonic will be 150 Hz (50 * 3 = 150 Hz), and so on. The fundamental frequency is
another name for the first harmonic. It is the frequency's lowest possible value. In layman's terms,
the first harmonic is a wave with only two nodes and an antinode. It simply implied that, if a
fundamental pitch vibrates at 10 Hz, the second harmonic would vibrate at 20 Hz, and the third harmonic
would vibrate at 30 Hz. The second harmonic would vibrate twice as fast as the first, and the third harmonic
would vibrate with three times the frequency of the fundamental tone. Harmonics are usually classified
by two different criteria: the type of signal (voltage or current), and the order of the harmonic
(even, odd, triplen, or non-triplen odd); in a three-phase system, they can be further classified
according to their phase sequence (positive, negative, zero).
Harmonic Sequence
The harmonic sequence in mathematics can be defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic sequence
with numbers other than 0. The sum of harmonic sequences is known as harmonic series. It is an
infinite series that never converges to a limit. For example, let’s take an arithmetic sequence as 5,
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10, 15, 20, 25,... with the common difference of 5.Then its harmonic sequence is: 1/5, 1/10,
1/15,1/20,1/25….This implies that, harmonic sequence, is a sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3,…
such that their reciprocals 1/a1, 1/a2, 1/a3,… form an arithmetic sequence (numbers separated by a
common difference). The best-known harmonic sequence, and the one typically meant when the
harmonic sequence is mentioned, is 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,…, whose corresponding arithmetic sequence
is simply the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,….
The study of harmonic sequences dates to at least the 6th century BCE, when the Greek
philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras and his followers sought to explain through numbers
the nature of the universe. One of the areas in which numbers were applied by
the Pythagoreans was the study of music. In particular, Archytas of Tarentum, in the 4th
century BCE, used the idea of regular numerical intervals to devise a theory of
musical harmony (from the Greek harmonia, for agreement of sounds) and
the enharmonic method of tuning musical instruments. The sum of a sequence is known as a series,
and the harmonic series is an example of an infinite series that does not converge to any limit. That
is, the partial sums obtained by adding the successive terms grow without limit, or, put another
way, the sum tends to infinity.
Harmonic Mean
The Harmonic Mean (HM) is defined as the reciprocal of the average of the reciprocals of the data
values. It is based on all the observations, and it is rigidly defined. Harmonic mean gives less
weightage to the large values and large weightage to the small values to balance the values
correctly. In general, the harmonic mean is used when there is a necessity to give greater weight
to the smaller items. It is applied in the case of times and average rates.
If a, b, c, d, … are the given data values, then the steps to find the harmonic mean are as follows:
Step 1: Calculate the reciprocal of each value (1/a, 1/b, 1/c, 1/d, …)
Step 2: Find the average of reciprocals obtained from step 1.
Step 3: Finally, take the reciprocal of the average obtained in step 2.
The harmonic mean of two numbers is in fact the reciprocal of arithmetic mean of the reciprocal
of the numbers. This simply means that if H is the harmonic mean between two numbers say a and
b then 1/a, 1/H and 1/b are in Arithmeti Progression. Hence, the harmonic mean of a and b will
give;
Hence; the harmonic mean (H.M.) of the numbers 2, 3, 4 is 32(3)^{1/3} display style frac
{36}{13} display style frac {13}{36}
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Example
What is the harmonic mean of 4 8 16?

Solution
6.85
H. M. of 4,8,16=314+18+116=487=6.85.
Example:
Find the harmonic mean for data 2, 5, 7, and 9.
Solution:
Given data: 2, 5, 7, 9
Step 1: Finding the reciprocal of the values:
½ = 0.5
⅕ = 0.2
1/7 = 0.14
1/9 = 0.11
Step 2: Calculate the average of the reciprocal values obtained from step 1.
Here, the total number of data values is 4.
Average = (0.5 + 0.2 + 0.143 + 0.11)/4
Average = 0.953/4
Step 3: Finally, take the reciprocal of the average value obtained from step 2.
Harmonic Mean = 1/ Average
Harmonic Mean = 4/0.953
Harmonic Mean = 4.19
Hence, the harmonic mean for the data 2, 5, 7, 9 is 4.19.
Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic distortion is the presence of unwanted frequency components in a power system. These
unwanted components are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz)
and can significantly impact the performance and reliability of the power system. Harmonic
distortions are usually caused by the use of nonlinear loads by the end users of electricity.
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Nonlinear loads, a vast majority of which are loads with power electronic devices, draw current in
a non-sinusoidal manner. In an electric power system, a harmonic of a voltage or current waveform
is a sinusoidal wave whose frequency is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
Harmonic frequencies are produced by the action of non-linear loads such as rectifiers, discharge
lighting, or saturated electric machines. If harmonics are high, the distortion can cause older
transformers to overheat and there are two problems with this. First, the heat being generated
wastes energy and second, it is likely to damage the transformer, sometimes catastrophically. The
figure below shows a good and distorted sinewave.
Figure: Harmonic distortion waveform
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is the cumulative degree of distortion within an electrical current
compared to the ideal. Most household electrical systems draw linear loads. On a linear current
sine curve, the peaks and troughs are smooth, even, and sinusoidal. The figure below shows total
harmonic distortion in simple terms. Total harmonic distortion (THD) can be distinguished
as THDF (for "fundamental"), and THDR (for "root mean square"). THDR cannot exceed 100%.
This non-linear current draw can distort the supplied AC power, causing problems for motors and
other electronic equipment. The amount of distortion depends on the capacity of the supply circuit.
If the rectifier represents a large percentage of the available capacity of the supply, then distortion
can be substantial. Distortion can be modelled as additional voltage waveforms in multiples of the
fundamental (i.e. 60 Hz) voltage. These additional waveforms start at a multiple of 5, but (for 3-
phase systems) skip all multiples of 3. This is known as harmonic distortion, and for typical 60 Hz
systems, the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics are most prevalent. The measurement of harmonic
distortion is referred to as total harmonic distortion (THD):
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Where:
Ih = magnitude of the voltage harmonic component or the current harmonic component
I1 = magnitude of the fundamental voltage or the fundamental current
In 6-pulse rectifier, the 5th and 7th order harmonics are sometimes significant, and filtering is
often needed. One way to reduce THD in an AC drive is to use a 12-, 18-, or even 24-pulse
rectifier. In general, there are five types of harmonic distortion that can be observed when
looking at a waveform:
• Amplitude distortion.
• Frequency distortion.
• Phase distortion.
• Intermodulation distortion.
• Cross over distortion.
Preventing Harmonic Distortion

1. Identify the sources. The first step to prevent harmonic distortion is to identify the
sources of harmonics in your distribution system.
2. Apply filters.
3. Use phase shifting.
4. Adjust the load.
5. Maintain the system.
6. Here's what else to consider.
We know that a standard six pulse rectifier caused a predictable harmonic spectrum consisting of
the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th, 23th…harmonics. For three phase power system rectifiers, the
harmonics, which will normally be present in the input current harmonic spectrum, can be
identified by the following equation: h = NP±1 Where, N is an integer (1, 2,3,4,5…) and P is the
number of rectifier pulses on the DC bus waveform for one cycle of an input voltage. An increasing
number of pulses reduce the harmonic contents in a line current. However, this technique is
profound, has high cost, complex construction, and needs to be large in size. By connecting
capacitors in series or parallel with the source or the load, you can create circuits that filter out
harmonics and allow only the fundamental frequency to pass. This way, you can reduce the
harmonic distortion in your system and improve the power quality.
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POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS

Power electronic converters deals with the controlling process of conversion of one form of electric
energy into another form. This conversion of energy provides voltage and current in such a form
that suits various user requirements. The power electronic devices are a combination of converter
and controller where the converter functions according to the control signal generated by the
controller. A power electronic converter is composed of power semiconductor devices controlled
by integrated circuits. An important aspect of converters is signal conditioning. Signal
conditioning offers signals of the pure form i.e., free from harmonics. In a general way, it is said
that getting an absolutely clear signal is impossible. But we can reduce harmonics to some extent
using a simple low pass LC filter.
Types of Power Converters

Basically, there are four types of power electronic circuits namely;
1. Rectifiers – converts fixed AC to variable DC

• Diode Rectifier
• Phase Controlled Rectifier
2. Inverters – converts DC to AC having variable amplitude and variable frequency
3. Choppers – converts fixed DC to variable DC
4. AC to AC converters -
• AC Voltage Controllers – converts fixed AC to variable AC at same input
frequency
• Cycloconverters – converts fixed AC to AC with variable frequency
Below is a chart representing the different types of power electronic converters.
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There is a common misconception about the term converter. Converter is basically any circuit that
converts electrical power from one form to another. Hence all the above five are types of
converters. The main challenge of power electronics is efficiency, for two reasons: you want to get
as much usable energy out of your input as possible, and you want to limit heat. The more efficient
your device, the less energy you’ll waste and the less heat-sinking you’ll need, which in turn allows
you to make smaller devices.
Applications of power electronics range in size from a switched mode power supply in an AC
adapter, battery chargers, audio amplifiers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, through variable frequency
drives and DC motor drives used to operate pumps, fans, and manufacturing machinery, up to
gigawatt-scale high voltage direct current power transmission systems used to interconnect
electrical grids. Power electronic systems are found in virtually every electronic device.
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CHAPTER 2
SINGLE PHASE RECTIFICATION
All single-phase rectifiers use solid state devices as their primary AC-to-DC converting device.
Single phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifiers are the simplest and possibly the most widely used
rectification circuit for small power levels as their output is heavily affected by the reactance of
the connected load. For uncontrolled rectifier circuits, semiconductor diodes are the most
commonly used device and are so arranged to create either a half-wave or a full-wave rectifier
circuit. The advantage of using diodes as the rectification device is that by design, they are
unidirectional devices having an inbuilt one-way pn-junction.
This PN-junction converts the bi-directional alternating supply into a one-way unidirectional
current by eliminating one-half of the supply. Depending upon the connection of the diode, it could
for example pass the positive half of the AC waveform when forward-biased, while eliminating
the negative half-cycle when the diode becomes reverse-biased. The reverse is also true by
eliminate the positive half or the waveform and passing the negative half. Either way, the output
from a single diode rectifier consists of only one half of the 360o waveform as shown.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The single-phase half-wave rectifier configuration above passes the positive half of the AC supply
waveform with the negative half being eliminated. By reversing the direction of the diode, we can
pass negative halves and eliminate the positive halves of the AC waveform. Therefore, the output
will be a series of positive or negative pulses.
Figure: Halfwave rectification
Thus, there is no voltage or current applied to the connected load, RL for half of each cycle. In
other words, the voltage across the load resistance, RL consists of only half waveforms, either
positive or negative, as it operates during only one-half of the input cycle, hence the name of half-
wave rectifier. Hopefully we can see that the diode allows current to flow in one direction only
producing an output which consists of half-cycles. This pulsating output waveform not only varies
ON and OFF every cycle, but is only present 50% of the time and with a purely resistive load, this
high voltage and current ripple content is at its maximum.
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This pulsating DC means that the equivalent DC value dropped across the load resistor, RL is
therefore only one half of the sinusoidal waveforms value. Since the maximum value of the
waveforms sine function is 1 [sin(90o)], the Average or Mean DC value taken over one-half of a
sinusoid is defined as: 0.637 x maximum amplitude value. So, during the positive half-cycle,
AAVE equals 0.637*AMAX. However, as the negative half-cycles are removed due to rectification
by the reverse biased diode, the average value of the waveform during this negative half-cycle will
be zero as shown below.
Figure: Sinusoidal average value
So, for a half-wave rectifier, 50% of the time there is an average value of 0.637*AMAX and 50% of
the time there is zero. If the maximum amplitude is 1, the average or DC value equivalent seen
across the load resistance, RL will be:
Thus, the corresponding expressions for the average value of voltage or current for a half-wave
rectifier with pulsating DC is given as:
VAVE = 0.318*VMAX
IAVE = 0.318*IMAX
Note that the maximum value, AMAX is that of the input waveform, but we could also use its RMS,
or “root mean squared” value to find the equivalent DC output value of a single-phase half-wave
rectifier. To determine the average voltage for a half-wave rectifier, we multiply the RMS value
by 0.9 (form factor) and divide the product by 2, that is multiplying it by 0.45 giving:
VAVE = 0.45*VRMS
IAVE = 0.45*IRMS
Then we can see that a half-wave rectifier circuit converts either the positive or negative halves of
an AC waveform, depending on the diodes’ direction, into a pulsed DC output which has an
equivalent DC value of 0.318*AMAX or 0.45*ARMS as shown below.
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Half-wave Rectifier Average Voltage
Figure: Halfwave rectifier average voltage
Example:
A single-phase half-wave rectifier is connected to a 50V RMS 50Hz AC supply. If the rectifier is
used to supply a resistive load of 150 Ohms. Calculate the equivalent DC voltage developed across
the load, the load current and power dissipated by the load. Assume ideal diode characteristics.
Solution:
First, we need to convert the 50 volts RMS to its peak or maximum voltage equivalent (its not
necessary but it helps).
a) Maximum Voltage Amplitude, VM

VM = 1.414*VRMS = 1.414*50 = 70.7 volts
b) Equivalent DC Voltage, VDC

VDC = 0.318*VM = 0.318*70.7 = 22.5 volts
c) Load Current, IL
IL = VDC ÷ RL = 22.5/150 = 0.15A or 150mA
d) Power Dissipated by the Load, PL

PL = V*I or I2*RL = 22.5*0.15 = 3.375W ≅ 3.4W
In practice, VDC would be slightly less due to the forward biased 0.7 volt voltage drop across the
rectifying diode. One of the main disadvantages of a single-phase half-wave rectifier is that there
is no output during half of the available input sinusoidal waveform resulting in a low average value
as we have seen. One way to overcome this is to use more diodes to produce a full-wave rectifier.
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Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
• Ripple production is more

• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of the transformer is very low
• The efficiency of rectification is low
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:
• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Unlike the previous half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier utilises both halves of the input
sinusoidal waveform to provide a unidirectional output. This is because the full-wave rectifier
basically consists of two half-wave rectifiers connected together to feed the load. The single phase
full-wave rectifier does this by using four diodes arranged in a bridge arrangement passing the
positive half of the waveform as before but inverting the negative half of the sine wave to create a
pulsating DC output. Even though the voltage and current output from the rectifier is pulsating, it
does not reverse direction using the full 100% of the input waveform and thus providing full-wave
rectification.
Full-Wave Rectifiers
If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-cycles of the sine wave, a different
rectifier circuit configuration must be used. Such a circuit is called a full-wave rectifier. One kind
of full-wave rectifier, called the center-tap design, uses a transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding and two diodes, as in Figure below.
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Figure: Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.
This circuit’s operation is easily understood one half-cycle at a time. Consider the first half-cycle,
when the source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time,
only the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking current, and the load “sees” the first
half of the sine wave, positive on top and negative on bottom. Only the top half of the transformer’s
secondary winding carries current during this half-cycle as in Figure below.
Figure: Full-wave center-tap rectifier:
Top half of secondary winding conducts during positive half-cycle of input, delivering positive
half-cycle to load. During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other diode and
the other half of the transformer’s secondary winding carry current while the portions of the circuit
formerly carrying current during the last half-cycle sit idle. The load still “sees” half of a sine
wave, of the same polarity as before: positive on top and negative on bottom. (Figure below)
Figure: Full-wave center-tap rectifier
During negative input half-cycle, bottom half of secondary winding conducts, delivering a positive
half-cycle to the load. One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the necessity of a
transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. If the circuit in question is one of high power,
the size and expense of a suitable transformer is significant. Consequently, the center-tap rectifier
design is only seen in low-power applications. The full-wave center-tapped rectifier polarity at the
load may be reversed by changing the direction of the diodes. Furthermore, the reversed diodes
can be paralleled with an existing positive-output rectifier. The result is dual-polarity full-wave
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center-tapped rectifier in Figure below. Note that the connectivity of the diodes themselves is the
same configuration as a bridge.
Figure: Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers
Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is built around a four-diode bridge
configuration. For obvious reasons, this design is called a full-wave bridge. (Figure below)
Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier.
Current directions for the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit are as shown in Figure below for
positive half-cycle and Figure below for negative half-cycles of the AC source waveform. Note
that regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows in the same direction through the load.
That is, the negative half-cycle of source is a positive half-cycle at the load. The current flow is
through two diodes in series for both polarities. Thus, two diode drops of the source voltage are
lost (0.7·2=1.4 V for Si) in the diodes. This is a disadvantage compared with a full-wave center-
tap design. This disadvantage is only a problem in very low voltage power supplies.
Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles.
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Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles.
Remembering the proper layout of diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit can often be
frustrating to the new student of electronics. I’ve found that an alternative representation of this
circuit is easier both to remember and to comprehend. It’s the exact same circuit, except all diodes
are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all “pointing” the same direction. (Figure below)
Figure: Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.
Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Output Waveform
Although this pulsating output waveform uses 100% of the input waveform, its average DC voltage
(or current) is not at the same value. We remember from above that the average or mean DC value
taken over one-half of a sinusoid is defined as: 0.637 x maximum amplitude value. However,
unlike half-wave rectification above, full-wave rectifiers have two positive half-cycles per input
waveform giving us a different average value as shown.
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Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Average Value
Here we can see that for a full-wave rectifier, for each positive peak there is an average value of
0.637*AMAX and as there are two peaks per input waveform, this means there are two lots of
average value summed together. Thus, the DC output voltage of a full-wave rectifier is twice that
of the previous half-wave rectifier. If the maximum amplitude is 1, the average or DC value
equivalent seen across the load resistance, RL will be:
Thus, the corresponding expressions for the average value of voltage or current for a full-wave
rectifier is given as:
VAVE = 0.637*VMAX
IAVE = 0.637*IMAX
As before, the maximum value, AMAX is that of the input waveform, but we could also use its RMS,
or root mean squared value to find the equivalent DC output value of a single phase full-wave
rectifier. To determine the average voltage for a full-wave rectifier, we multiply the RMS value
by 0.9 giving:
VAVE = 0.9*VRMS
IAVE = 0.9*IRMS
Then we can see that a full-wave rectifier circuit converts BOTH the positive or negative halves
of an AC waveform into a pulsed DC output that has a value of 0.637*AMAX or 0.9*ARMS as shown.
Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Average Voltage
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Example:
Four diodes are used to construct a single phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit which is required
to supply a purely resistive load of 1kΩ at 220 volts DC. Calculate the RMS value of the input
voltage required, the total load current drawn from the supply, the load current passed by each
diode and the total power dissipated by the load. Assume ideal diode characteristics.
Solution:
a) Rectifier Supply Voltage, VRMS

VDC = 0.9*VRMS therefore: VRMS = VDC ÷ 0.9 = 220/0.9 = 244.4 VRMS
b) Load Current, IL
IL = VDC ÷ RL = 220/1000 = 0.22A or 220mA
c) Load Current Passed by Each Diode, ID

The load current is supplied by two diodes per cycle, thus:
ID = IL ÷ 2 = 0.22/2 = 0.11A or 110mA
d) Power Dissipated by the Load, PL

PL = V*I or I2*RL = 220*0.22 = 48.4W
Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Full-wave rectification has many advantages over the simpler half-wave rectifier, such as the
output voltage is more consistent, has a higher average output voltage, the input frequency is
doubled by the process of rectification, and requires a smaller capacitance value smoothing
capacitor if one is required. But we can improve on the design of the bridge rectifier by using
thyristors instead of diodes in its design. By replacing the diodes within a single-phase bridge
rectifier with thyristors, we can create a phase-controlled AC-to-DC rectifier for converting the
constant AC supply voltage into a controlled DC output voltage. Phase controlled rectifiers either
half-controlled or fully controlled, have many applications in variable voltage power supplies and
motor control.
The single-phase bridge rectifier is what is termed an “uncontrolled rectifier” in that the applied
input voltage is passed directly to the output terminals providing a fixed average DC equivalent
value. To convert an uncontrolled bridge rectifier into a single phase half-controlled rectifier
circuit we just need to replace two of the diodes with thyristors (SCR’s) as shown below.
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Figure: Half-controlled bridge rectifier
In the half-controlled rectifier configuration, the average DC load voltage is controlled using two
thyristors and two diodes. As we learnt in our tutorial about Thyristors, a thyristor will only
conduct (“ON” state) when its Anode, (A) is more positive than its Cathode, (K) and a firing pulse
is applied to its Gate, (G) terminal. Otherwise, it remains inactive. We also learnt that once “ON”,
a thyristor is only turned “OFF” again when its gate signal is removed and the anode current has
fallen below the thyristors holding current, IH as the AC supply voltage reverse biases it. So, by
delaying the firing pulse applied to the thyristors gate terminal for a controlled period of time, or
angle (α), after the AC supply voltage has passed the zero-voltage crossing of the anode-to-cathode
voltage, we can control when the thyristor starts to conduct current and hence control the average
output voltage.
Figure: Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier
During the positive half cycle of the input waveform, current flows along the path of: SCR1 and
D2, and back to the supply. During the negative half cycle of VIN, conduction is
through SCR2 and D1 and back to the supply. It is clear then that one thyristor from the top group
(SCR1 or SCR2) and its corresponding diode from the bottom group (D2 or D1) must conduct
together for any load current to flow. Thus, the average output voltage, VAVE is dependant on the
firing angle α for the two thyristors included in the half-controlled rectifier as the two diodes are
uncontrolled and pass current whenever forward biased. So, for any gate firing angle, α, the
average output voltage is given by:
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Half-controlled Rectifier Average Output Voltage
Note that the maximum average output voltage occurs when α = 1 but is still only 0.637*VMAX the
same as for the single-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier. We can take this idea of controlling the
average output voltage of the bridge one step further by replacing all four diodes with thyristors
giving us a Fully-controlled Bridge Rectifier circuit.
Fully-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Single phase fully-controlled bridge rectifiers are known more commonly as AC-to-DC
converters. Fully-controlled bridge converters are widely used in the speed control of DC machines
and is easily obtained by replacing all four diodes of a bridge rectifier with thyristors as shown.
Figure: Fully-controlled Bridge Rectifier
In the fully-controlled rectifier configuration, the average DC load voltage is controlled using two
thyristors per half-cycle. Thyristors SCR1 and SCR4 are fired together as a pair during the positive
half-cycle, while thyristors SCR3 and SCR4 are also fired together as a pair during the negative
half-cycle. That is 180o after SCR1 and SCR4. Then during continuous conduction mode of
operation, the four thyristors are constantly being switched as alternate pairs to maintain the
average or equivalent DC output voltage. As with the half-controlled rectifier, the output voltage
can be fully controlled by varying the thyristors firing delay angle (α). Thus, the expression for the
average DC voltage from a single phase fully-controlled rectifier in its continuous conduction
mode is given as:
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Fully-controlled Rectifier Average Output Voltage
With the average output voltage varying from VMAX/π to -VMAX/π by varying the firing
angle, α from π to 0 respectively. So, when α < 90o the average DC voltage is positive and
when α > 90o the average DC voltage is negative. That is power flows from the DC load to the AC
supply. Then we have seen here in this tutorial about single phase rectification that single phase
rectifiers can take on many forms to convert AC voltage to DC voltage from uncontrolled single
diode half-wave rectifiers to fully-controlled full-wave bridge rectifiers using four thyristors.
The advantages of the half-wave rectifier are its simplicity and low cost as it requires only one
diode. However, it is not very efficient as only half of the input signal is used producing a low
average output voltage. The full-wave rectifier is more efficient than the half-wave rectifier as it
uses both half-cycles of the input sine wave producing a higher average or equivalent DC output
voltage. A disadvantage of the full-wave bridge circuit is that is that it requires four diodes.
Phase controlled rectification uses combinations of diodes and thyristors (SCR’s) to convert the
AC input voltage into a controlled DC output voltage. Fully-controlled rectifiers use four thyristors
in their configuration, whereas half-controlled rectifiers use a combination of both thyristors and
diodes. Then no matter how we do it, the conversion of a sinusoidal AC waveform to a steady state
DC supply is called Rectification.
Advantages of Full-Wave Rectifier
The advantages of full-wave rectifiers are:
o Their rectification efficiency is double that of half-wave rectifiers.

o The ripple factor being less, a simpler filter can be used.
o The output power and voltage obtained are significantly higher.
Disadvantages of Full-Wave Rectifier
The disadvantages of full-wave rectifiers are:
o Due to the greater number of diodes and the modified transformers, the full-wave rectifiers
are expensive and require more space.
Applications of Full-Wave Rectifier
Full-wave rectifiers have a lot of applications in real-world electronic devices, which are:
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o Chargers of mobile phones, laptops, etc.

o In UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) circuits
o LCD, LED TVs
o Radios
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CHAPTER 3
THREE PHASE RECTIFICATION
Figure: 3-phase 6-pulse rectifier
3-phase rectification is the process of converting a balanced 3-phase power supply into a fixed DC
supply using solid state diodes or thyristors. We saw in the previous chapter that the process of
converting an AC input supply into a fixed DC supply is called Rectification with the most popular
circuits used to perform this rectification process is one that is based on solid-state semiconductor
diodes. In fact, rectification of alternating voltages is one of the most popular applications of
diodes, as diodes are inexpensive, small and robust allowing us to create numerous types of
rectifier circuits using either individually connected diodes or with just a single integrated bridge
rectifier module. Single phase supplies such as those in houses and offices are generally 120 Vrms
or 240 Vrms phase-to-neutral, also called line-to-neutral (L-N), and nominally of a fixed voltage
and frequency producing an alternating voltage or current in the form of a sinusoidal waveform
being given the abbreviation of “AC”.
Three-phase rectification, also known as poly-phase rectification circuits are similar to the
previous single-phase rectifiers, the difference this time is that we are using three, single-phase
supplies connected together that have been produced by one single three-phase generator. The
advantage here is that 3-phase rectification circuits can be used to power many industrial
applications such as motor control or battery charging which require higher power requirements
than a single-phase rectifier circuit is able to supply. 3-phase supplies take this idea one step further
by combining together three AC voltages of identical frequency and amplitude with each AC
voltage being called a “phase”. These three phases are 120 electrical degrees out-of-phase from
each other producing a phase sequence, or phase rotation of: 360o ÷ 3 = 120o as shown.
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Figure: Three-phase Waveform
The advantage here is that a three-phase alternating current (AC) supply can be used
to provide electrical power directly to balanced loads and rectifiers. Since a 3-phase
supply has a fixed voltage and frequency it can be used by a rectification circuit to
produce a fixed voltage DC power which can then be filtered resulting in an output
DC voltage with less ripple compared to a single-phase rectifying circuit.
Half-Wave Three-Phase Rectification

Having seen that a 3-phase supply is just simply three single-phases combined together, we can
use this multi-phase property to create 3-phase rectifier circuits. As with single-phase rectification,
three-phase rectification uses diodes, thyristors, transistors, or converters to create half-wave, full-
wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifier circuits transforming a given three-phase supply
into a constant DC output level. In most applications a three-phase rectifier is supplied directly
from the mains utility power grid or from a three-phase transformer if different DC output level is
required by the connected load. As with the previous single-phase rectifier, the most basic three-
phase rectifier circuit is that of an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit which uses three
semiconductor diodes, one diode per phase as shown below.
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Figure: Half-wave Three-phase Rectification
So, how does this three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit work. The anode of each diode is
connected to one phase of the voltage supply with the cathodes of all three diodes connected
together to the same positive point, effectively creating a diode “OR” type arrangement. This
common point becomes the positive (+) terminal for the load while the negative (-) terminal of the
load is connected to the neutral (N) of the supply. Assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue
(VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA) starts at 0o. The first diode to conduct will be diode 1 (D1)
as it will have a more positive voltage at its anode than diodes D2 or D3. Thus, diode D1 conducts
for the positive half-cycle of VA while D2 and D3 are in their reverse-biased state. The neutral wire
provides a return path for the load current back to the supply.
120 electrical degrees later, diode 2 (D2) starts to conduct for the positive half-cycle of VB (yellow
phase). Now its anode becomes more positive than diodes D1 and D3 which are both “OFF”
because they are reversed-biased. Similarly, 120o later VC (blue phase) starts to increase turning
“ON” diode 3 (D3) as its anode becomes more positive, thus turning “OFF” diodes D1 and D2.
Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, whichever diode has a more positive voltage at
its anode compared to the other two diodes it will automatically start to conduct, thereby giving a
conduction pattern of: D1 D2 D3 as shown.
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Figure: Half-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform
From the above waveforms for a resistive load, we can see that for a half-wave rectifier each diode
passes current for one third of each cycle, with the output waveform being three times the input
frequency of the AC supply. Therefore, there are three voltage peaks in a given cycle, so by
increasing the number of phases from a single-phase to a three-phase supply, the rectification of
the supply is improved, that is the output DC voltage is smoother. For a three-phase half-wave
rectifier, the supply voltages VA VB and VC are balanced but with a phase difference of
120o giving:
VA = VP*sin(ωt – 0o)
VB = VP*sin(ωt – 120o)
VC = VP*sin(ωt – 240o)
Thus, the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase half-wave rectifier is
given as:
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As the voltage supplies peak voltage, VP is equal to VRMS*1.414, it therefore follows that VRMS is
equal to VP/1.414, or 0.707*VP as 1/1.414 = 0.707. Then the average DC output voltage of the
rectifier can be expressed in terms of its root-mean-squared (RMS) phase voltage as follows:
Example:
A half-wave 3-phase rectifier is constructed using three individual diodes and a 120VAC 3-phase
star connected transformer. If it is required to power a connected load with an impedance of 50Ω,
Calculate, a) the average DC voltage output to the load. b) the load current, c) the average current
per diode. Assume ideal diodes.
Solution:
a). The average DC load voltage:
VDC = 1.17*Vrms = 1.17*120 = 140.4 volts
Note that if we were given the peak voltage (Vp) value, then:
VDC would equal 0.827*Vp or 0.827*169.68 = 140.4V.
b). The DC load current:
IL = VDC/RL = 140.4/50 = 2.81 amperes
c). The average current per diode:
ID = IL/3 = 2.81/3 = 0.94 amperes
One of the disadvantages of half-wave 3-phase rectification is that it requires a 4-wire supply, that
is three phases plus a neutral (N) connection. Also, the average DC output voltage is low at a value
represented by 0.827*VP as we have seen. This is because the output ripple content is three times
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the input frequency. But we can improve on these disadvantages by adding three more diodes to
the basic rectifier circuit creating a three-phase full-wave uncontrolled bridge rectifier.
Full-wave Three-phase Rectification

The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two per phase in a
similar fashion to the single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by
using two half-wave rectifier circuits. The advantage here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple
output than the previous half-wave 3-phase rectifier as it has a frequency of six times the input AC
waveform. Also, the full-wave rectifier can be fed from a balanced 3–phase 3-wire delta connected
supply as no fourth neutral (N) wire is required. Consider the full-wave 3-phase rectifier circuit
below.
Figure: Full-wave Three-phase Rectification
As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA)
starts at 0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as shown. One diode of the conducting
pair powers the positive (+) side of load, while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.
Diodes D1 D3 D2 and D4 form a bridge rectifier network between phases A and B, similarly diodes
D3 D5 D4 and D6 between phases B and C and D5 D1 D6 and D2 between phases C and A. Diodes
D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail. The diode which has a more positive voltage at its anode
terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has
a more negative voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.
Then we can see that for three-phase uncontrolled rectification the diodes conduct in matching
pairs with each conduction path passing through two diodes in series. Thus, a total of six rectifier
diodes are required with commutation of the circuit taking place every 60o, or six times per cycle.
If we start the pattern of conduction at 30o, this gives us a conduction pattern for the load current
of: D1-4 D1-6 D3-6 D3-2 D5-2 D5-4 and return again to D1-4 and D1-6 for the next phase sequence as
shown.
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Figure: Full-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform
In 3-phase power rectifiers, conduction always occurs in the most positive diode and the
corresponding most negative diode. Thus, as the three phases rotate across the rectifier terminals,
conduction is passed from diode to diode. Then each diode conducts for 120o (one-third) in each
supply cycle but as it takes two diodes to conduct in pairs, each pair of diodes will conduct for
only 60o (one-sixth) of a cycle at any one time as shown above. Therefore, we can correctly say
that for a 3-phase rectifier being fed by “3” transformer secondaries, each phase will be separated
by 360o/3 thus requiring 2*3 diodes.
Note also that unlike the previous half-wave rectifier, there is no common connection between the
rectifiers input and output terminals. Therefore, it can be fed by a star connected or a delta
connected transformer supply. So, the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a
3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:
Where: VS is equal to (VL(PEAK) ÷ √3) and where VL(PEAK) is the maximum line-to-line voltage
(VL*1.414).
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Example:
A 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier is required to fed a 150Ω resistive load from a 3-phase 127
volt, 60Hz delta connected supply. Ignoring the voltage drops across the diodes, calculate: 1. the
DC output voltage of the rectifier and 2. the load current.
Solution:
1. the DC output voltage:
The RMS (Root Mean Squared) line voltage is 127 volts. Therefore, the line-to-line peak voltage
(VL-L(PEAK)) will be:
As the supply is 3-phase, the phase to neutral voltage (VP-N) of any phase will be:
Note that this is basically the same as saying:
Thus, the average DC output voltage from the 3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:
Again, we can reduce the maths a bit by correctly saying that for a given line-to-line RMS voltage
value, in our example 127 volts, the average DC output voltage is:
2. the rectifiers load current.

The output from the rectifier is feeding a 150Ω resistive load. Then using Ohms law the load
current will be:
Uncontrolled 3-phase rectification uses diodes to provide an average output voltage of a fixed
value relative to the value of the input AC voltages. But to vary the output voltage of the rectifier
we need to replace the uncontrolled diodes, either some or all of them, with thyristors to create
what are called half-controlled or fully-controlled bridge rectifiers. Thyristors are three terminal
semiconductor devices and when a suitable trigger pulse is applied to the thyristors gate terminal
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when its anode–to-Cathode terminal voltage is positive, the device will conduct and pass a load
current. So, by delaying the timing of the trigger pulse, (firing angle) we can delay the instant in
time at which the thyristor would naturally switch “ON” if it were a normal diode and the moment
it starts to conduct when the trigger pulse is applied.
Thus, with a controlled 3-phase rectification which uses thyristors instead of diodes, we can control
the value of the average DC output voltage by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor pairs and
so the rectified output voltage becomes a function of the firing angle, α. Therefore, the only
difference to the formula used above for the average output voltage of a 3-phase bridge rectifier is
in the cosine angle, cos(α) of the firing or triggering pulse. So, if the firing angle is zero, (cos (0)
= 1), the controlled rectifier performs similar to the previous 3-phase uncontrolled diode rectifier
with the average output voltages being the same. An example of a fully-controlled 3-phase bridge
rectifier is given below:
Figure: Fully-controlled 3-phase Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Rectification Summary

We have seen in this tutorial that three-phase rectification is the process of converting a 3-phase
AC supply into a pulsating DC voltage as rectification converts the input power supply of a
sinusoidal voltage and frequency into a fixed voltage DC power. Thus, power rectification changes
an alternating supply into a unidirectional supply.
But we have also seen that 3-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers, which use one diode per
phase, require a star connected supply as a fourth neutral (N) wire to close the circuit from load to
source. The 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier which use two diodes per phase requires just three
mains’ lines, without neutral, such as that provided by a delta connected supply.
Another advantage of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that the load current is well balanced across
the bridge improving efficiency (the ratio of output DC power to input power supplied) and
reducing the ripple content, both in amplitude and frequency, as compared to the half-wave
configuration.
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By increasing the number of phases and diodes within the bridge configuration it is possible to
obtain a higher average DC output voltage with less ripple amplitude as for example, in 6-phase
rectification each diode would conduct for only one-sixth of a cycle.
Also, multi-phase rectifiers produce a higher ripple frequency means less capacitive filtering and
a much smoother output voltage. Thus 6, 12, 15 and even 24-phase uncontrolled rectifiers can be
designed to improve the ripple factor for various applications.
CHAPTER 4
12 AND 24 PULSES RECTIFIERS
3-PHASE 12 PULSE RECTIFIER
Despite the improvement of six-pulse rectifier circuits over single-phase rectifiers and three-phase
half-wave rectifiers in harmonic distortion; six-pulse rectifier circuits still produce considerable
harmonic distortion on both the AC and DC connections. For very high-power rectifiers the
twelve-pulse bridge connection is usually used. A twelve-pulse bridge consists of two six-pulse
bridge circuits connected in series or parallel, with their AC connections fed from a supply
transformer that produces a 30° phase shift between the two bridges. This cancels many of the
characteristic harmonics the six-pulse bridges produce.
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Figure: 12-Pulse rectifier
The twelve-pulse converter is obtained by using a star-star transformer connection for one six pulse
bridge, and a star-delta transformer connection for the other six pulse bridge at 30-degree phase
shift between output voltage waves. The resultant converter output voltage is the sum of the
individual converter output voltages. The 30-degree phase shift is usually achieved by using a
transformer with two sets of secondary windings, as one in star connection and the other in delta
connection. The 12 Pulse rectifier consists of 12 diodes, but 3-phase supply. The 3-phase supply
is converted into DC supply (3-phase AC to DC).
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Figure: 12-Pulse rectifier with star and delta connections
Using 12-pulse rectifiers instead of 6-pulse rectifiers can offer several advantages over traditional
6-pulse rectifiers, including:
1. Reduced Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): 12-pulse and 24-pulse rectifiers have
multiple inputs that allow them to cancel out the harmonic currents generated by 6-
pulse rectifiers, resulting in a lower THD.
2. Improved Power Factor: By reducing THD, 12-pulse and 24-pulse rectifiers can also
improve the power factor of the system, reducing the amount of reactive power
consumed.
3. Increased System Reliability: 12-pulse and 24-pulse rectifiers are more robust and
less likely to fail, compared to 6-pulse rectifiers.
4. Improved Output Voltage Stability: By using multiple inputs, 12-pulse and 24-pulse
rectifiers can provide a more stable DC voltage output, which can be particularly
beneficial for applications with high DC voltage demands.
The resultant output voltage is a twelve A typical twelve-pulse converter connected in series of
two six Figure 1. For the sake of simplicity in analysis, source thyristors are ideal. A common
solution for harmonic reduction is passive filters which are turned to trap a particular harmonic
frequency. However, harmonics also can be eliminated using special configurations of converters
rectifier is called line commutated rectifier and can be used for high power applications. The
resultant output voltage is a twelve-pulse as each converter gives a six-pulse output. pulse
converter connected in series of two six-pulse bridges is shown in Figure above. For the sake of
simplicity in analysis, source impedance is neglected and assumed thyristors are ideal. A common
solution for harmonic reduction is passive filters which are turned to trap a particular harmonic
frequency. However, harmonics also can be eliminated using special configurations of converters
connected as shown in Figure above. This type of is called line commutated rectifier and can be
used for high power applications. pulse output. pulse bridges is shown in e impedance is neglected
and assumed thyristors are ideal. A common solution for harmonic reduction is passive filters
which are turned to trap a particular harmonic frequency. However, harmonics also can be
eliminated This type of is called line commutated rectifier and can be used for high power
applications.
12-pulse rectifiers are typically more complex and expensive than 6-pulse rectifiers. They also
require additional components, such as transformers, which can increase the size and cost of the
system. Additionally, 12-pulse and 24-pulse rectifiers may also require more maintenance
compared to 6-pulse rectifiers. However, while 12-pulse rectifiers offer several advantages over 6-
pulse rectifiers, they may not be the best choice for every application. The choice of rectifier
depends on the specific requirements of the application, including cost, size, reliability, and
performance. Twelve-pulse rectifiers are used in VFDs, UPS systems, etc. and in higher-power
applications because of economics. For the same rating, a 12-pulse system rectifier costs 40%–
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60% more than a six-pulse rectifier. It generates 11th and 13th order harmonics in a higher
magnitude.
A VFD (Variable Frequency Drive) 6-pulse drive is a type of electronic control system used to
control the speed, torque, and direction of AC induction motors. The term "6-pulse" refers to the
number of diodes used in the rectifier circuit of the VFD. In a 6-pulse VFD, the rectifier circuit is
made up of six diodes that convert the incoming AC power into DC power, which is then used to
drive the motor. 6-pulse VFDs are typically used in applications where high performance and
accuracy are not critical and where cost is a major concern. They are commonly used in simple
applications such as fans and pumps where motor speed control is sufficient. However, it's worth
noting that 6-pulse VFDs have a relatively high level of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) in the
input current, which can have negative impacts on the power system, such as increased power
losses and reduced equipment life. In some applications, a more advanced and sophisticated
rectifier configuration, such as a 12-pulse or 24-pulse rectifier, may be necessary to achieve the
desired performance.
3-PHASE 24 PULSE RECTIFIER

24-pulse rectifier topology is obtained by cascading/paralleling two 12-pulse rectifier systems
which translate to cascading of four 6-pulse rectifiers fed from four 3-phase systems displaced by
15º. The block diagram is shown in figure below. From the figure, three phase supply is directly
given to the primary of the phase shifting transformer and hence the output of the secondary is
uncontrolled four sets of 3 phase line voltages which are phase shifted by 15 degrees with respect
to each other.
Figure: Block diagram of 12 pulse rectifier.
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The above implies that, a 24-pulse rectifier is a circuit that splits the input voltage into four phases,
with each phase rectified by a separate diode bridge. The phases are arranged such that the current
from each phase is shifted by 15 degrees from the adjacent phase, resulting in even lower harmonic
content in the output voltage. A 24-pulse rectifier consists of two 12-pulse rectifiers in parallel and
two 3-winding transformers, which provide a voltage waveform offset of 15 degrees, cancelling
most low-frequency harmonics. The 24 Pulse rectifier consists of 24 diodes, 3 phase supply. The
3-phase supply is converted into DC supply. The supply is given two delta to star and delta
transformer connected to two 3 phase bridges converting 3 phase AC to DC.
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Figure: 24-pulse rectifier is a circuit
How it Works
A twenty-four-pulse rectifier circuit is an advanced configuration used to convert alternating

current (AC) into direct current (DC) with significantly reduced harmonic content. Let’s break
down how it works:
1. Rectification Basics:
o Rectification is the process of converting AC to DC. It involves allowing current
to flow in only one direction. Diodes are commonly used for this purpose.
o The simplest rectifier is the half-wave rectifier, which allows only one half of the
AC waveform to pass through. However, it has limitations due to high harmonic
content and inefficient use of AC power.
2. Full-Wave Rectifiers:
o For most power applications, full-wave rectification is preferred. It provides
smoother DC output and utilizes the entire AC waveform.
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o A single-phase, full-wave rectifier (whether center-tap or bridge design) is

called a 2-pulse rectifier because it outputs two pulses of DC during one AC
cycle.
o Similarly, a three-phase full-wave rectifier is called a 6-pulse unit because it
produces six pulses of DC per AC cycle.
3. 24-Pulse Rectifier:
o A 24-pulse rectifier is an improvement over the 6-pulse design.
o In a 24-pulse rectifier:
▪ The input voltage is split into four phases.
▪ Each phase is rectified by a separate diode bridge.
▪ The phases are arranged so that the current from each phase is shifted
by 15 degrees from the adjacent phase.
▪ This arrangement results in even lower harmonic content in the output
voltage.
▪ The goal is to minimize harmonics and improve power quality.
4. Harmonics Reduction:
o The 24-pulse rectifier effectively cancels out low-frequency harmonics.
o It achieves this by using two 12-pulse rectifiers in parallel and two 3-winding
transformers.
o The transformers provide a voltage waveform offset of 15 degrees, which helps
cancel most low-frequency harmonics.
In summary, a 24-pulse rectifier is a sophisticated solution that significantly reduces harmonic

distortion, making it suitable for applications where high-quality DC power is essential, such as
variable-speed drives, industrial processes, and power electronics systems.
24-Pulse Rectifier Improvement on Power Quality

A 24-pulse rectifier enhances power quality through several key mechanisms:
1. Reduced Harmonics:
o The primary advantage of a 24-pulse rectifier is its ability to significantly reduce
harmonic distortion in the output voltage.
o By using multiple phases and phase shifts, it cancels out low-frequency
harmonics.
o Harmonics are undesirable because they cause voltage and current waveform
distortions, leading to inefficiencies and potential equipment damage.
2. Phase Shifting:
o In a 24-pulse rectifier:
▪ The input voltage is split into four phases.
▪ Each phase is rectified by a separate diode bridge.
▪ The phases are arranged so that the current from each phase is shifted
by 15 degrees from the adjacent phase.
o This phase shifting results in destructive interference of harmonics, effectively
reducing their impact.
3. Transformer Arrangement:
o The 24-pulse rectifier employs two 12-pulse rectifiers in parallel.
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o It also uses two 3-winding transformers.

o These transformers provide a voltage waveform offset of 15 degrees, which
further helps cancel most low-frequency harmonics.
o The arrangement ensures that the harmonics from one rectifier partially cancel out
those from the other.
4. Improved Power Factor:
o The reduced harmonic content leads to a higher power factor.
o A better power factor means that the system draws less reactive power, resulting
in improved overall efficiency.
5. Applications:
o 24-pulse rectifiers are commonly used in applications where high-quality DC
power is crucial:
▪ Variable-speed drives: For precise motor control.
▪ Industrial processes: Where stable DC voltage is essential.
▪ Power electronics systems: Such as uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
and battery charging.
In summary, a 24-pulse rectifier minimizes harmonics, improves power factor, and ensures cleaner
DC output, making it an excellent choice for critical power applications.
24-Pulse Rectifier Compare to Other Designs

Certainly! Let’s compare a 24-pulse rectifier to other common designs:
o The 6-pulse rectifier is the most basic configuration.
o It uses a three-phase input and produces six pulses of DC per AC cycle.
o Pros:
▪ Simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
▪ Widely used in many applications.
o Cons:
▪ Higher harmonic content: The output waveform contains significant
harmonics (especially the 5th and 7th harmonics).
▪ Lower power factor: Draws more reactive power from the grid.
o The 12-pulse rectifier improves upon the 6-pulse design.
o It uses two 6-pulse rectifiers connected in parallel.
o Pros:
▪ Reduced harmonic content: The 12-pulse design cancels out some
harmonics.
▪ Better power factor compared to the 6-pulse rectifier.
o Cons:
▪ Still not ideal for applications requiring very low harmonic distortion.
o The 24-pulse rectifier takes harmonic reduction further.
o It uses four 6-pulse rectifiers connected in parallel.
o Pros:
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▪ Significantly reduced harmonics: The phase shifts cancel out more

harmonics.
▪ Improved power factor: Draws less reactive power.
▪ Suitable for critical applications.
o Cons:
▪Complexity and cost: Requires additional transformers and control
circuitry.
4. Comparison Summary:
o Harmonics: 24-pulse rectifiers have the lowest harmonic content, followed by
12-pulse and then 6-pulse designs.
o Power Factor: 24-pulse rectifiers offer the best power factor.
o Applications: Choose based on the specific application requirements and budget
constraints.
In summary, while 6-pulse rectifiers are common, 24-pulse rectifiers excel in power quality and
are ideal for precision applications where harmonic reduction is critical.
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CHAPTER 5
AC CONTROLLERS
A voltage controller, also called an AC voltage controller or AC regulator is an electronic
module based on either thyristors, triodes for alternating current, silicon-controlled
rectifiers or insulated-gate bipolar transistors, which converts a fixed voltage, fixed
frequency alternating current (AC) electrical input supply to obtain variable voltage in output
delivered to a resistive load. This varied voltage output is used for dimming street lights, varying
heating temperatures in homes or industry, speed control of fans and winding machines and many
other applications, in a similar fashion to an autotransformer. Voltage controller modules come
under the purview of power electronics. Because they are low-maintenance and very efficient,
voltage controllers have largely replaced such modules as magnetic amplifiers and saturable
reactors in industrial use.
Figure: Block diagram of AC voltage controller
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Electronic voltage controllers work in two different ways; either through "on-and-off control" or
through "phase control". These are the two-ac output voltage control techniques. In Phase Control
method, the phase relationship between the start of load current and the input supply voltage is
controlled by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor. In on-and-off control, the AC input
supply is switched ON for some integral cycles and turned OFF for further number of integral
cycles.
On-and-Off Control
In an on-and-off controller (also called Extinction angle control, Integral circle control or Burst
firing control), thyristors are used to switch on the circuits for a few cycles of voltage and off for
certain cycles, thus altering the total RMS voltage value of the output and acting as a high speed
AC switch. The rapid switching results in high frequency distortion artifacts which can cause a
rise in temperature, and may lead to interference in nearby electronics. Such designs are not
practical except in low power applications. It implies that, in On-Off control technique Thyristors are
used as switches to connect the load circuit to the ac supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply
and then to disconnect it for few input cycles. The Thyristors thus act as a high-speed contactor (or high-
speed ac switch).
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Phase Angle Control

In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to the input ac
supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the ac supply voltage is chopped using Thyristors
during a part of each input cycle. The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle,
so that input supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the remaining part
of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the load. By controlling the phase angle or the
trigger across the load can be controlled. The trigger delay angle ‘α’ is defined as the p turns on
and the load current begins to flow.
Thyristor AC Voltage Controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase commutation. Thyristors

in AC Voltage Controllers are line commutated (phase commutated) since the input supply is
ac. When the input ac voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half cycle the
current flowing through the conducting thyristor decreases and falls to zero. Thus, the ON thyristor
naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero. Phase control Thyristors which are
relatively inexpensive, converter grade Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter
grade Thyristors are normally used. For applications up to 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet
the voltage and current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used. Due to
ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra commutation circuitry or
components and the circuits for AC Voltage Controllers are very simple. Due to the nature of
the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of expressions for performance parameters are not
simple, especially for the phase controlled AC Voltage Controllers with RL load. But however
most of the practical loads are of the RL type and hence RL load should be considered in the
analysis and design of AC Voltage Controllers circuits.
TYPES OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac supply
applied to the circuit. They are:
1. Single-Phase AC Controllers
2. Three-Phase AC Controllers
Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers

A thyristor controller, otherwise known as a single-phase AC voltage controller, is an electric
component utilized in the adjustment of the supply voltage of a load. The voltage controller is also
known as the phase angle controller. This controller controls the conduction angle of the thyristor
and is widely used in motor control, heating, power regulations, and lighting.
Operating Principle of Single-Phase AC Controllers

The operating principle of a single-phase AC controller is based on the control of the angular
conduction of the thyristor, which is a single-controlled rectifier (SCR) switch that permits the
flow of current in only one direction. In a switching circuit, the thyristor can be arranged in parallel
to make the flow of current through the load possible in either direction.
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Figure: Parallel thyristor connection in the electronic switching.
The thyristor turns on when a positive voltage is applied, allowing the flow of current through the
gate’s terminals. The thyristor stays on even after removing the input voltage until a certain current
threshold is reached. The single-phase AC voltage controller works in a similar operating principle
to a half-wave rectifier circuit. In the first positive half-wave signal of the voltage source V s, S1
conducts until the zero point is reached. During the negative half cycle of Vs, S2 switches on
having a period later than S1. This switching of S1 allows for the flow of a negative load current.
In the Figure above, both S1 and S2 cannot be on at the same time; therefore, the source voltage
Vs flowing through either switch is the same as the one flowing through the load. Due to the
unidirectional nature of the SCR, the average current flowing through is not zero. The phase angle
at which the thyristor is triggered is the conduction angle. By adjusting the pulse gate's time, the
thyristor's conduction angle can be controlled.
Voltage Across the Resistive Load

The waveforms of voltage for a single-phase AC voltage controller with a resistive load in phase
angle control are shown in Figure 2. The AC voltage waveform can be seen in an incandescent
light dimmer circuit. The waveform of the AC voltage source is represented by VS while the
voltage across the switch is VSW. The firing angle of the thyristor is given by.
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Figure: Waveforms of voltage for a single-phase AC voltage controller with a resistive load
To determine the output voltage Vo that flows through the resistive load (RL), a couple of
calculations need to be considered. The voltage in the RL can be expressed as follows:
Where the equation is an evaluation of the sinusoidal AC voltage waveform in which there is a
variation of voltage to time. In the equation, Vm is the peak amplitude of the instantaneous voltage
VS and ωt is the time, where is the angular frequency of the wave in radians per second, and t
represents time in seconds.
Root Mean Square Load Voltage
The evaluation of the waveform’s half period can be done by determining the root mean square
(RMS) of the load voltage. We can therefore express the RMS load voltage as follows:
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Where VS is the voltage source and is the firing angle of the thyristor
Example:
An AC voltage waveform has a peak voltage of 100 V, a firing degree of 60 degrees, and an
average voltage of 50 V. Calculate the RMS voltage across the load.
Solution:
Substitute the peak voltage of the voltage source Vs in the formula.
The RMS across the load is therefore approximately 35.4 V. It is important to note that there are
assumptions that are taken into consideration during the RMS calculations. The assumption is that
the load current is in phase with the voltage across the load, and there is zero voltage drop across
the thyristor.
Protection Circuitry in Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers
AC voltage controller should be able to provide precise control while working in an optimal state.
To make it practical, a protection circuit is used to prevent failure and faults that might damage
the controller and the load.
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Types of Protection Circuitry
Below are some variants of protection circuitry for an AC voltage controller.
Overvoltage Protection: This method restricts voltage flow through the RL to a safer level.
Without overvoltage protection, the rise of voltage above the rating of the RL may cause damage
to it. This form of protection can be done using a Zener diode or a variable resistor connected in
parallel with the load.
Thermal protection: This ensures the controller is shielded from excess heat. Overheating can
result in excessive current flow that can damage the controller. This form of protection uses
thermal switches to interrupt the current flow if the rated value is exceeded.
Snubber Circuit: This circuit is used in the suppression of high-frequency voltage transients that
occurs during the switching process of the thyristor controller. The circuit is made up of a resistor
and a capacitor that are connected in parallel with the thyristor, where the capacitor is utilized in
the suppression of the voltage transient, and the resistor is used to control the rate at which the
voltage across the resistor rises.
Overcurrent Protection: This type of protection limits the current flowing in the controller.
Overcurrent is an issue that can result from an overload condition of the load or a short circuit. To
protect the controller from overcurrent, a circuit breaker or a fuse with the controller's rating is
used to interrupt the flow if the rating is exceeded.
Applications of Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers

A single-phase voltage controller can be used to dim light systems by regulating the voltage
flowing in the system. The intensity of the lamp reduces with the reduction in voltage in the system,
making it suitable for use in areas such as auditoriums and theatres.
Heating applications such as ironing often require regulating their heating temperature. This is
where the voltage controller comes in to adjust the voltage flowing in the heating element to control
the temperature and allow for optimal and efficient operations of the heating system.
In motors, the voltage controller can be used to control how fast the motor rotates by controlling
the voltage flowing through its windings. This makes varying motor speeds easy. The controller
can also be applied to various home appliances, including refrigerators and air conditioners.
Advantages of Single-Phase AC Voltage Controllers

The single-phase voltage controller is vital in allowing for flexibility in voltage control in systems
that require regulation with vast application in electrical systems. In the design of these controllers,
the load characteristics and rating are considered to provide an efficient and stable operation that
works at its optimal state. The controller design should endure voltage fluctuations to provide an
output that has consistency and smoothness.
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The significance of single-phase AC voltage controllers in modern electrical systems cannot be

overstated. With the increasing demand for energy efficiency and renewable energy sources, the
ability to control and regulate voltage levels is becoming increasingly important. Single-phase AC
voltage controllers are also an essential component in smart grid systems, which rely on advanced
control technologies to manage the flow of electricity and improve the stability and reliability of
the power supply.
Takeaways of AC Voltage Controllers
• A thyristor regulator, also known as a single-phase AC voltage regulator, controls the force
voltage of a load and is extensively used in motor control, heating, power regulation, and
lighting.
• The operating principle of a single-phase AC regulator is grounded on the control of the angular
conduction of the thyristor
• The RMS load voltage can be calculated using the formula:
• The voltage across the resistive load in a single-phase AC controller can be evaluated using the
formula.
• Protection circuitry for an AC voltage regulator is used to help prevent failure and faults that
might damage the regulator and the load.
• Types of protection circuitry include overvoltage protection, thermal protection, and current
protection.
Three Phase AC Voltage Controller

To control the current and voltage of three phase loads, Three Phase AC Voltage Controller are
required. The single-phase controller described previously can be introduced singly in each phase
or line, to form a three-phase controller. There exist a variety of connections for Three Phase AC
Voltage Controller.
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Figure: 3-phase 4 -wire voltage controller
A three phase four wire controller is shown in Fig. 3.118. The load neutral and supply neutral are
connected together. Each of the three controllers can be independently controlled to feed the load
impedance. Each phase has the same relations as a single-phase controller. The analysis is simple
and straightforward since the system can be studied as if the loads here are supplied individually
by single phase controllers. The neutral and line currents contain triplet harmonics along with other
odd harmonics.
Figure: Delta-connected voltage controller
A similar connection, which can function as three groups of single-phase controllers, is shown in
Figure above. In this connection, three single phase converters supplying their loads are connected
in delta. Each controller supplies its own load. Unlike the previous four wire star-connection, the
triplen harmonics are absent here. The other odd harmonics are present.
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Figure: Symmetrical 3-phase. 3-wire voltage controller
There are certain types of connections which are difficult to analyse. One such circuit is a three
phase, three wire star-connected controller, which is normally used when the source neutral cannot
be loaded or is absent. The load neutral is isolated. The circuit is depicted in Fig. 3.120. The system
is complicated and has to be studied and analysed as a three-phase circuit.
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Figure: Some practical symmetric connections of 3-phase controller
Several other possible connections of Three Phase AC Voltage Controller are depicted in the
Figure above. All of them have to be studied as three phase circuits. The operation of a Three
Phase AC Voltage Controller is affected by both the load and the type of connections of the single-
phase controllers used to form the three phase unit. The analysis also differs for each configuration.
It is difficult to summarise the features of each circuit.
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Figure: Typical asymmetrically controlled 3-phase controller
A Three Phase AC Voltage Controller has symmetrical control if both the back-to-back connected
thyristors have the same firing angle. It has asymmetrical control if the firing angles differ or if
one of the thyristors is replaced by a diode, or if the controllers are placed in only two of the three
lines. We now discuss the features of a symmetrically controlled three phases, three wire, star-
connected controller for both ohmic and inductive loads. The voltage and current waveforms and
control characteristics are derived.
Figure: 3-phase controller feeding a resistive load
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The schematic of a three phase, three wire voltage controller feeding a three phase, star-connected
balanced resistance is shown in the Figure above. Phase control of the thyristors is employed. The
phase and line voltages of the three-phase system are shown in Figure above. For a controller, the
control pulse is of a long duration, equal to the conduction period of the thyristor. This is to make
sure that the firing pulse is available at the gate whenever the thyristor is forward biased, so that
the thyristor can go into conduction. It also ensures the firing of the thyristor whenever a forward
current is expected. If, because of some circuit condition, the current goes to zero the thyristor
turns off. A lengthy pulse can bring it into conduction. Further, slow building up of current in the
load circuit when the thyristor is fired (to give maximum load voltage) may cause the thyristor to
go to an off state if it is not fully turned on.
Figure: Voltage and current waveforms
In cases of inductive loads, the current zero occurs after the voltage zero and hence a trigger
pulse must be present continuously, so that the thyristor turns on at the desired instant when the
forward voltage occurs. However, when long gate pulses or a train of pulses are applied to the
thyristor to ensure the conduction whenever the voltage is positive to the leakage currents
during reverse bias of the thyristor must be acceptable. Further, the operation may be upset by the
voltage sharing of the series-connected thyristors. The angle is reckoned from the zero of the
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voltage. The conduction period for the thyristor for ohmic load is 180° and the firing pulse occurs
for 180°. The voltage across the load impedance can be determined as follows:
1. When a controller is in the non-conducting state the corresponding phase voltage of the load is
zero assuming a star connected load.
2. If two controllers conduct the voltage of the conducting phases is half the line voltage between
which the conducting controllers are placed.
3. If all the three controllers are conducting the load is effectively a three phase load supplied from
a three phase balanced source. So, the load voltages can be determined using three phase circuit
analysis. For balanced load the load phase voltage is same as source phase voltage.
4. Only one converter receives firing pulse with no other converter being in the conducting state,
no conduction takes place. All the phase voltages are zero.
Applications of AC Voltage Controller

Some of the main applications of AC Voltage Controller are as followings:
• Domestic and industrial heating
• Transformer tap changing
• Lighting control
• Speed Control of single phase and three phase AC drives
• Starting of Induction Motors
Earlier the devices were used for the above applications were auto-transformer, tap-changing
transformers, magnetic amplifiers, saturable reactors etc. But these devices are now replaced by
thyristor and TRIAC based AC Voltage Controller because of their high efficiency, flexibility in
control, compact size and less maintenance requirement. AC voltage controllers are also adaptable
for closed-loop control system. The main disadvantage of AC voltage controller is the introduction
of objectionable harmonics in the supply current and load voltage waveform, particularly at
reduced output voltage level.
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CHAPTER 6
DC TO DC CONVERTERS
A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that converts a source
of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a type of electric power converter.
Power levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission).
DC-DC converters can be found in almost any modern electronics. The applications of DC-DC
converters range from smartphones and laptops to industrial and military systems. From this
article, you can learn about their common types, their advantages and drawbacks, how they work,
where and why they are used, and what issues one can face when designing electronics with DC-
DC power converters.
DC TO DC CONVERTERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

DC-to-DC converters are electromechanical devices or electronic circuits that convert one direct
current voltage or current level to another. In most cases, devices use only one power source.
However, if different sub-circuits require different voltages to work properly, one needs to convert
the input voltage to a lower or higher level. That can be done with DC-DC converters.
Additionally, they stabilize voltages, not letting them drop or rise too much. For example, one of
the purposes of car DC-DC converters is to regulate the voltage fluctuations in automotive
alternators.
Figure: Block diagramme of DC-to-DC converters
These circuits help distribute and manage power properly to provide each power consumer with
appropriate voltage or current level. It also protects highly-sensitive sub-circuits. On top of that,
in portable devices, they can raise voltage when the batteries are partially lowered, making power
consumption more efficient. Such converters are used in many electronic devices. According
to EMR’s Global DC-DC Converter Market report, more than half of them are used in
smartphones, but they have other applications as well: from consumer electronics and
telecommunication equipment to industrial and medical equipment, factory automation,
transportation, robotics, power electronics, etc. As an electronics developer, we also make full use
of various DC-to-DC converters when designing power electronics, hardware, and robotics.
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TYPES OF DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS
Linear & Switching DC-DC Converters
Linear converters reduce output voltage with a resistive load. In a typical circuit of this type, the
input and output are connected with a transistor (RVT1 in the picture below). The input voltage is
reduced by the voltage across the transistor, which causes the output voltage to drop.
Figure: Linear DC-DC converters.
Such circuits are quite simple and cheap but have a number of serious drawbacks. They can only
be used to decrease voltage. Moreover, their efficiency drops as the difference between the input
and output voltage rises. As long as the device isn’t powered by batteries, this drop is irrelevant.
On the other hand, this unused power dissipates as heat, and such models overheat easily if the
input and output voltages differ greatly. Nevertheless, they are used in low-power devices and
nodes that require high-quality output voltage and low output voltage ripple, or in devices that are
sensitive to electromagnetic interference. They are simple in design, use few components, and can
save a lot of space (unless there’s a need to use a heat sink). Linear converters are typically used
in audio and video electronics, communication equipment, medical and measurement devices.
Switching converters use a switching element that charges a storage capacitor with electrical
pulses. This voltage is then smoothed with the capacitor and transferred to the load. The output
voltage level is defined by the duty cycle of the switching element.
Figure: Switching DC to DC converters
Their efficiency is much higher, compared to linear converters, and can reach 85-90%. That is why
engineers prefer using them in battery-powered devices. Since they’re more efficient, they do not
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generate as much heat and can be used to decrease and increase the output voltage. Therefore, they
are used whenever linear types are not an option. On the other hand, they generate more
electromagnetic noise and require more components, which makes them more expensive. In one
of our projects, we needed to power several sub-circuits in a device with a number of radio
transmitters. The sub-circuits required 5V, while the input voltage was 12V. The maximum electric
current was expected to reach 2A. In this case, using a linear converter would be impractical
because more than half of the energy would be dissipated as heat (up to 14W at full power).
Mounting a cooling radiator wasn’t an option either, since the case was too small (10x10x1 cm).
Instead, it was decided to use a TPS54335 switching converter.
Figure: Switching converters input voltage and the output voltage
As you can see, both these converter types have their own pros and cons, so it can be a tough call.
When deciding which converter to use, one has to take into account a range of factors, including
potential issues related to electromagnetic compatibility, efficiency, overheating, etc. That’s why
you need a team of experienced professionals to do the job. Don’t hesitate to contact us to discuss
your project or ideas.
Non-Isolated & Isolated DC-DC Converters
Non-isolated DC-DC converter design features a direct connection between the input and output
circuits (i.e. have a single circuit). They are used in low-power devices to benefit from their
relatively low cost, smaller size, and higher efficiency compared to isolated models, as there is no
transformer where energy would be lost. Such types are used in communications, computer,
automotive, and other industries. In isolated converters, the input and output are separated
from each other (typically with a transformer). It prevents direct current flow between the
two circuits. Often, the primary and secondary circuits are separated for safety, which is
why this design is widely used in high-voltage DC-DC converters. Also, this design allows
you to break up ground loops to protect sensitive circuits from noise.
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Figure: Isolated VS Non-isolated DC to DC converters
They are used in programmable logic controllers, industrial automation, as power supplies for
IGBT drivers, etc. Particularly, non-isolated DC-DC converters may not be allowed in devices due
to safety concerns. For example, one of the systems Integra Sources helped develop was supposed
to work in a humid environment. So, using an isolated converter was a must. In this particular case,
we used an LM25017 fly-buck regulator:
Figure: The LM25017 fly-buck regulator
Step-Down DC-DC Converters
Also called buck converters and choppers, they produce lower output voltage, compared to input.
In a simple buck converter, the switching element (K) rapidly turns the power on and off. The
output voltage looks like a series of square waves. While the switch is on, the coil (L) and the
capacitor (C) accumulate the energy. The capacitor also smoothes these waves into a DC voltage.
When the voltage reaches the required level, the witching element is turned off and the diode (D)
is turned on. The self-induced emf makes the current flow through the diode. The energy
accumulated in the coil charges the load.
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Figure: Simple schematic step-down DC-DC converters.
Step-down DC-to-DC converters are used in many spheres, including battery chargers,
multimedia players, game consoles, monitors, and television sets.
Step-Up DC-DC Converters
Also called DC-DC boost converters, they can produce voltage higher than the input voltage. In a
typical boost converter, the induction coil receives almost all the current, while the closed diode
doesn’t let the current charge the capacitor and the load. Due to a higher electric current, the coil
accumulates much more magnetic field energy compared to a step-down schematic. When the
voltage drops to a certain point, the power key is turned off, while the diode is turned on. The input
voltage adds to the energy stored in the coil, which makes the output voltage of boost DC-DC
converters higher than the input voltage.
Figure: Step-up DC to DC converters
As you can see, a step-up DC-DC converter uses the same components as a step-down converter
(a switching element, conductor coil, diode, and capacitor), but their arrangement is different.
Boost converters are used whenever you can’t provide a high enough input voltage with batteries
or there’s simply not enough room for more batteries. They are typically used in hybrid vehicles,
lighting systems that use energy-saving lamps, portable lighting devices, etc.
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Universal DC-to-DC Converters
They can increase and reduce the input voltage to produce a higher or lower output level.
They are also called buck-boost converters. This type is often used when you deal with a
wide input voltage range. For example, it’s typical for car batteries.
Figure: Buck-boost DC-DC converters
In this case, the converter uses two conductors and two capacitors to raise and lower voltages, but
the number and arrangement of components can be different. Such circuits are often used in
devices powered by Li-ion batteries. A universal converter lowers the voltage to the required level.
But as the battery’s voltage drops with time, it starts raising it. They can also be found in measuring
equipment, photo and video cameras, MP3 players, GPS systems, wireless devices (keyboards,
mice, transmitters), LED lighting, etc.
Inverting DC-to-DC Converters
Their primary function is to invert the polarity of the output voltage. The output level can be higher
or lower than the input level. Such models are very useful when the device requires a dual supply
(for example, operational amplifiers).
Figure: Schematic of inverting converters
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Essential Characteristics of DC-to-DC Converters

When choosing DC-to-DC converters for a device, engineers pay attention to different
characteristics and parameters, with the most important ones being the following:
• Input voltage
This parameter is defined by the power source used. Different power sources (for instance, AC-
to-DC adapters or batteries) provide different input voltages. When designing electronics, a
hardware development company must make sure the DC-DC converter can withstand these
voltages.
• Output voltage
DC-DC converters can produce either fixed or adjustable output voltage. The latter can vary from
a minimum to a maximum value. In both cases, the choice of models is defined by the voltage
range required by the load.
• Output current
Output current (along with the output voltage) defines the electrical power that a converter can
provide.
• Efficiency
Efficiency is the percentage of the input power delivered to the output. It can be calculated with
the following formula:
As mentioned above, the efficiency of DC-DC converters can vary a lot. In some cases, this
parameter is considered crucial. For example, if the device is powered by batteries, the efficiency
defines how long the device can work before you have to replace them. In some cases, efficiency
itself is not as important. However, the energy lost during conversion dissipates as heat. This in
turn can lead to undesirable consequences.
• Temperature
Since extra energy goes into heat, overheating can become a serious issue. This problem can be
partially solved with proper casing. But in certain cases, one may have to use additional thermal
protection.
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• Size and mounting types
DC-DC converters are available in many package types. If it needs to be mounted into a PCB,
designers can choose from a variety of mounting styles, including surface or through-hole
mounting, single in-line or dual in-line pin. The size also matters when engineers develop small
devices.
• Stable supply
And finally, when picking converters for a device, it’s also important to make sure the
manufacturer will not stop supporting the model in the near future. That’s why our team always
gives priority to the latest models.
Common Issues Related to DC-DC Converters
Another common problem for any electronics design company is meeting various regulatory and
certification requirements. Using DC-DC converters can affect the device’s characteristics and
features from the safety and electromagnetic compatibility perspectives. Furthermore, different
applications can impose additional requirements. For example, replacing a switching converter
with a cheaper linear one may require a cooling system. But such a system may turn out to be even
more expensive. Solving such problems is Integra Source’s job, so if you have a product idea and
need a consultation, feel free to contact us directly and ask any questions.
EMC Issues
Electromagnetic compatibility is one of the most obvious issues one may face when using DC-DC
converters. Due to higher efficiency, switching types are very popular. However, as mentioned
above, they generate electromagnetic noise.
Therefore, such devices must be tested for electromagnetic compatibility to make sure they don’t
cause electromagnetic interference effects on other devices. You can read more about EMC testing
in the article on common consumer electronics certifications.
These issues are generally solved with proper PCB layer stackup, additional
capacitors, and filter circuits. For example, designers must avoid mounting converters (and
especially the conductor coil) near sensitive components and sub-circuits. On the schematic below,
you can see a ferrite bead (L2), as well as four ceramic capacitors (C5-8) and one electrochemical
capacitor (C4). They are all mounted there to protect an analogue sub-circuit from EM interference.
The ceramic capacitors suppress the high-frequency noise from the converter, while the
electrochemical capacitor smoothes low-frequency fluctuations from different sources. This
combination considerably improves the quality of the power supply.
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Figure: Ceramic capacitors and one electrochemical capacitor
Safety Issues
In many devices, the difference between the input and output voltages can reach hundreds of volts,
which can be extremely dangerous. Therefore, equipment using high-voltage (HV) DC-DC
converters (for instance, power electronics) must meet safety requirements. They are regulated by
different standards, with the most common being IEC 60950-1 for Information technology
equipment, IEC 60335-1 for electrical appliances for household and similar purposes, and IEC
60601-1 for medical electrical equipment. Note that national standards are based on International
Electrotechnical Commission’s standards but may contain deviations. Whenever it is necessary to
provide the required safety level, electronics designers use isolated converters, as they don’t have
a direct connection between the input and output circuits. The IEC 60950-1 standard distinguishes
five electrical insulation grades.
• Functional Insulation
The functional insulation between the input and output circuits is only required for the proper work
of the device. However, it does not provide enough protection from electric shock if the input-to-
output insulation suffers a breakdown or fault. This level of protection must meet at least one of
the standard’s requirements sets:
a) Clearance and creepage distances;

b) Electrical strength tests;
c) Fault condition testing.
A device’s DC-DC converter is allowed to have functional insulation if:
- The AC-to-DC power supply uses reinforced or double insulation between the AC input and
DC output.
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- The AC-to-DC power supply uses basic or supplementary insulation, while the secondary
circuit of the DC-DC converter connects to protective Earth.
- The AC-DC supply has basic or supplementary insulation, while the primary circuit of the DC-
DC converter connects to protective Earth.
• Basic Insulation
This insulation grade provides basic protection against electric shock. Devices must meet all three
(a, b, and c) sets of requirements. This level is required if the AC-to-DC power supply has
functional insulation between the AC input and DC output, while the secondary circuit of the
DC-DC converter connects to protective Earth.
• Supplementary Insulation
Apart from meeting the basic insulation requirements, this grade adds one more level of protection,
such as increasing the distance through insulation by 0.4 mm for peak voltages above 71V. This
level of protection is required if the AC-DC power supply uses basic insulation between the AC
input and DC output.
• Double Insulation
This protection level combines basic and supplementary insulations.
• Reinforced Insulation
It’s a single insulation system capable of providing the same protection grade as double insulation.
It can comprise several protection layers and is required if the AC-DC power supply has no
insulation or functional insulation between the AC input and DC output.
Thermal Considerations
DC-DC converters are primarily used in portable devices. Mobile environments can be extremely
harsh on electronics, so developers must take care of heat generation issues as early in the design
stages as possible.
Note that a DC-DC converter’s maximum full-power temperature can be very different from the
temperature at which different standards (particularly, EN60950-1 and UL60950-1) begin to derate
the device that uses this converter.
Most heat is generated by transformers. Therefore, thermal insulating systems are rated by
standards according to what materials they are made from and how they interact at high
temperatures. In most DC-DC converters, you will find planar transformers that are constructed
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within the main PCB. They are not regarded as safety hazards unless their temperatures exceed the
maximum rating of the PWB (printed wiring board).
In rare cases, when transformers use unapproved (class A) thermal insulating systems, they are
regarded as safety hazards when their internal temperatures exceed +105°C. But in most cases,
such converters will require transformers with recognized thermal insulating systems – Class B
that can withstand operating temperatures of up to + 130°C and class F that can withstand +155°C.
Overheating issues can be solved with a combination of methods. For example, in the picture
below, you can see four power converters that generate a lot of heat. To solve the issue, our team
used MOSFET transistors with a lower static drain-to-source on-resistance. It means that less
energy is converted into heat. Additionally, we made wide parallel traces (going through all four
layers of the PCB) and added as many vias as possible. It allows the heat to be dissipated from
both sides of the board.
Developing Firmware for DC-DC Converters

Time is always a critical factor for these circuits. Changing the voltage level too early or too late
can result in the inefficient performance of the device or even malfunctions. In most converters,
everything is controlled by hardware, and response time takes no longer than microseconds.
Analog DC-DC converters modules are simple but perform well enough. However, in some cases,
electronics development companies may decide to use microcontrollers in the design of DC-to-
DC converters.
When there’s a need to control many parameters (in complex battery management systems, for
instance), this function can be implemented with a microcontroller. It provides better flexibility in
the realization of control algorithms. For example, in inverter welding machines, you need to
control the power keys and the output voltage and also measure the output current. The device has
different operating modes, including the one designed for working under the conditions of
increased humidity. This mode requires reducing the output voltage to not exceed 30 V. In such
cases, the control functions can be handed over to a microcontroller. Microcontrollers fulfill the
following functions:
1. House-keeping to ensure proper work of a DC-DC converter.

2. Parameter setting that implies dynamic control over the output voltage or current, etc.
3. Generating control signals for transistors.
In such converters, almost all functions are managed through code. Therefore, it’s very important
to properly organize the firmware structure and thus provide the highest speed possible. The
microcontroller’s tasks can be divided into two types: time-critical, such as loop control, ADC
measurements, system protection, state machine; and non-time-critical, such as fault logging,
PMBus or universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter communication, etc. Thus, the firmware
can also be divided into two parts: one that takes care of time-critical tasks (the interrupt loop) and
one that controls non-time-critical tasks (the background loop).
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Figure: firmware of the microcontroller
After the system is initialized, the central processing unit goes into an infinite loop where non-
time-critical tasks are carried out. The timer here is responsible for generating fixed-frequency
interrupts. When an interrupt occurs, the CPU stops performing its current task to store related
data and then jumps to the interrupt routine. After completing the interrupt routine, the CPU
resumes the background loop. The goal of the interrupt loop is to control the converter, measure
the ADC inputs and protect the system. It is crucial here to know the current state of the converter,
as well as its current and upcoming tasks. For that purpose, the interrupt loop uses a state machine
as its key part.
Figure: State machine element of the interrupt loop.
The central processing unit monitors the input voltage until it exceeds a pre-defined threshold.
This activates the converter that performs a soft start to increase the output voltage up to a certain
point. Then it switches to regulation mode. The converter stays in this mode until a fault occurs
(in which case, it will shut down and latch or restart if commanded to) or it is commanded to turn
off. In summary, most modern devices use distributed power architecture. Instead of using
multiple power sources, developers now use a single power supply that is distributed between
various points of need with DC-DC converters. They are especially useful for designing portable
devices since their efficiency and run time are limited by the number of batteries and their
voltages.
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When designing electronics, developers must choose from various DC-to-DC converter types that
can meet technical specifications, efficiency requirements, as well as EMI and safety standards. A
single device can contain multiple converters of different types that supply a number of sub-
circuits. So, it’s a challenging task to find models suitable from technical and financial
perspectives. This is one of the many issues electronics developers face when designing new
products and systems. Thanks to our rich experience, the Integra Sources team can handle any task
from designing printed circuit boards to developing electronic products and power electronics.
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CHAPTER 7
INVERTERS
With today’s realities, like the collapsing of the electric grid for couple of times a year, the frequent
fuel scarcity, the challenge to sleep at night due to generator noise and pollution; the need for power
supply without those mentioned challenges becomes imperative; which can be provided by an
electronic device called INVERTER. Hence, inverter is the most convenient power backup solution.
Before going into detail on inverter, lets once more understand the difference between AC and DC
electricity.
Difference Between DC and AC Electricity

When science teachers explain the basic idea of electricity to us as a flow of electrons, they're
usually talking about direct current (DC). We learn that the electrons work a bit like a line of
ants, marching along with packets of electrical energy in the same way that ants carry leaves.
That's a good enough analogy for something like a basic flashlight, where we have a circuit (an
unbroken electrical loop) linking a battery, a lamp, and a switch and electrical energy is
systematically transported from the battery to the lamp until all the battery's energy is depleted.
In bigger household appliances, electricity works a different way. The power supply that comes
from the outlet in your wall is based on alternating current (AC), where the electricity switches
direction around 50–60 times each second (in other words, at a frequency of 50–60 Hz). It can be
hard to understand how AC delivers energy when it's constantly changing its mind about where
it's going! If the electrons coming out of your wall outlet get, let's say, a few millimeters down the
cable then have to reverse direction and go back again, how do they ever get to the lamp on your
table to make it light up?
The answer is actually quite simple. Imagine the cables running between the lamp and the wall
packed full of electrons. When you flick on the switch, all the electrons filling the cable vibrate
back and forth in the lamp's filament—and that rapid shuffling about converts electrical energy
into heat and makes the lamp bulb glow. The electrons don't necessarily have to run in circle to
transport energy: in AC, they simply "run on the spot."
WHAT IS AN INVERTER
An inverter is a piece of standalone equipment that converts a DC voltage to an AC voltage. The
inverter performs conversion of direct current to an alternating voltage by converting the energy
stored in the dc sources like battery and rectifiers. The batteries in the inverter store energy in the
form of direct current and the home appliances we use need alternating current and this is how
inverters work. In case of power cuts and such emergencies, the inverter can be used to operate
our appliances.
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How Do Inverters Work

Inverters do not generate electricity or store it. Its primary function is to convert the AC power from
power stations into DC power and store it in the batteries. You may ask why we can’t store electricity
in its available AC form? The simple answer is that while household appliances run on AC power,
inverter batteries can only be charged with DC power. Therefore, the inverter must convert the AC
power into DC power and store it in a battery.
Figure: Block diagramme of an inverter device
From the block diagramme, first, the converter circuit used in the front part constantly converts
alternating current to direct current. This process is called rectification. The wave’s direction and
magnitude changes periodically over time since alternating current is a sine wave. Therefore, a
diode, which is a semiconductor device, is used so as to pass electricity in a forward direction to
convert it into direct current, but not in the reverse direction. When direct current goes through the
diode, only the forward direction passes electricity and a positive peak appears. However, the other
half of the cycle will be wasted because it does not pass the peak in the negative direction. The
reason why the diode's structure is shaped like a bridge is so that it can pass the negative peak in a
forward direction. This is called full-wave rectification due to the fact that it transforms both the
forward and negative wave peaks.
However, full-wave rectification by itself cannot produce a smooth waveform as traces of the
alternating current and rippled voltage fluctuations will remain. Therefore, in order to clean these
up, the capacitor is repeatedly charged and discharged, gently smoothing and changing the
waveform close to that of direct current. The inverter circuit then outputs alternating current with
varying voltage and frequency. The DC/AC conversion mechanism switches power transistors
such as "IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)" and changes the ON/OFF intervals to create
pulse waves with different widths. It then combines them into a pseudo sine wave. This is called
“Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)”.
Types of Inverters
There are three major types of inverters namely;
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1. Square Wave Inverters: This is the least efficient inverter type of all three. It is used for
rudimentary appliances that need little power to start up again.
2. Modified Sine-Wave Inverters: This inverter takes up several minutes to kick in. It produces
power which is adequate for powering basic electronics. It does not provide as smooth a power
transition as the pure sine wave inverters.
3. Pure Sine-Wave Inverter: This uses more sophisticated technology to protect sensitive
electronics. It can adjust voltage settings as per the need at any time. It is the best inverter type
for homes and shops.
The Square Waveform Inverters
As the name suggests, these inverters generate a square-shaped waveform. The square wave
inverter is less efficient as compared to the pure sine waveform inverter and the modified sine
waveform inverter. This inverter is ideal for you if you need only a few devices connected to the
inverter. These are readily available in the market and are easy on the pockets. But having a square
waveform inverter can be problematic as these machines tend to get noisy.
This kind of inverters use electromagnetic switches that flick on and off at high speed to reverse
the current direction. Inverters like this often produce what's known as a square-wave output: the
current is either flowing one way or the opposite way or it's instantly swapping over between the
two states. These kind of sudden power reversals are quite brutal for some forms of electrical
equipment. In normal AC power, the current gradually swaps from one direction to the other in a
sine-wave pattern.
Modified Sine Waveform Inverters
The modified sine wave inverters work well with multiple devices at once. But unlike the pure
sine wave inverter, the modification does not offer a completely smooth transition. So, how
inverter works in modified sine waveform? The inverter may take a brief pause while switching
on or off during power outages. Although powerful, the modified sine wave may occasionally
affect the efficiency of the home devices. This can lead to dimmed lights or even humming noise
from the appliances. These inverters are ideal for appliances with a resistive load and do not need
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any start-up surge of power. The modified sine wave inverters benefit because they are more
budget-friendly than the pure sine wave inverters.
Pure Sine Waveform Inverters
Similar to a wall socket, a pure sine wave inverter supplies clean, reliable and consistent current
from the battery. How inverters work in pure sine waveform? These types of inverters release the
current in a sine waveform which is similar to a utility supply. A pure sine wave inverter is perfect
if you want to use multiple home appliances and other devices with a higher power requirement.
A pure sine wave inverter avails power backup for numerous devices at once and fulfils their power
consumption needs; hence it falls on the expensive side of the inverter market space.
CHOOSING THE CORRECT INVERTER

The number of options present in the market are too many, and it can get challenging to choose
the perfect inverter for the required need. Knowing how the inverters work, can be of help in
making the correct choice. Listed below are a few of the things that will help someone decide on
the best inverter for a particular power requirement.
1.Decide And Calculate Your Power Requirements

To decide on a suitable inverter for your place, first, you need to decide on the devices you’ll be
using during a power cut situation. These devices can include bulbs, fans, charging points, and
wifi routers. Here are a few of the home devices and their energy consumption:
• CFL: 10 – 25 W
• Wifi Router: 5W or Less
• Ceiling Fan: 75 – 90 W
• Computer: 150 – 250 W
• Induction Cooker: 1000 – 1500 W
• A mobile phone charger: 5W or even less
These are just the basic numbers that depict the energy consumed by the above-listed commonly
used home appliances. All you need to do is select the devices you want to use during the power
outages and then calculate the overall consumption to help you choose the ideal inverter for your
home.
2.Study The Required Capacity

The power consumption is not the same as the inverter’s capacity, although it does seem ideal for
it to be that way. The incoming power to the inverters is not as efficient, and hence the power
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factor measured for residential use is 0.8. Therefore, to calculate the required capacity of the
inverter and know how inverter works, you need to divide the total energy consumption (in Watts)
by 0.8 to derive an inverter’s capacity. This resultant capacity of the inverter is measured in VA.
This capacity denotes the maximum amount of power load a respective inverter can handle when
all the decided appliances are used simultaneously. You can select an inverter that fulfils your
power requirements based on this derived capacity. It is essential to understand that the capacity
calculation may not always be accurate; hence it is smart to go with inverters with higher power
capacity than that derived in the calculation.
3.Select The Battery Size

The factors mentioned above will help you find the ideal inverter for your needs, but it is also
essential to select the correct battery size. The battery size is measured in Ah. For calculating the
ideal battery size, you will need to know how inverters work and decide on a particular time period
for which you will need the inverter to provide backup. You can calculate the battery size by
multiplying your inverter’s power by the number of hours you want to use the inverter. Once you
are done multiplying, the resultant will be measured in VAh (battery voltage x no. of batteries x
capacity of batteries (AH)), but as the vital inverter battery capacity is 12 V, you will have to divide
the above-calculated result by 12. You will find the ideal inverter size based on your power needs
and preferences. If the exact battery capacity inverter is not available, you should always opt for a
higher capacity. Some of the other factors you need to mind when opting for an inverter, the battery
types are essential factor.
• Lead-acid: These are often used in batteries. The lead-acid batteries are lightweight, easily
rechargeable, and they do produce the required amount of current. These batteries last for
up to 3 – 4 years with regular maintenance.
• Tubular: Tubular battery type is the most popularly used inverter battery. These are
known for their high efficiency and long operational life of up to 8 years. The various
benefits and properties of Tubular batteries make them expensive, but they are still a
popular choice.
• Maintenance-free: The maintenance-free batteries are sealed acid batteries that can last
up to 4-5 years and do not require frequent check-ups or maintaining the electrolyte levels.
PREVENTATIVE MEASURES OF INVERTERS

Inverters are meant to light up your houses when the power gives out, but the best inverter is the
one that will keep your appliances operational even after hours of an extended power cut. To ensure
the best functioning of your inverter, there are a few measures you should take to avoid any
malfunction.
Wiring is Crucial
Every electrical appliance has wirings and when you want to buy an inverter, it is essential to get
the wirings of all the appliances you want to isolate checked, understanding how inverters
work can come in very handy here. You can appoint an electrician to do the isolation of appliance
wires for you.
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Placement
The placement of the inverter unit is crucial and it should be placed in a cool and dry place. Ensure
that the inverter is out of children’s reach. Always place the device on a levelled ground or invest
in an inverter trolly if you find it necessary. Ensure you keep the device away from direct sunlight,
any heat sources, and other flammable materials.
Keep a Check on the Earthing

Every house should have a properly managed earthing facility. An earthing reduces the
possibilities of short circuits and cases of electrocution. Never touch the device with wet hands, as
it is pretty dangerous. Not all inverters have a shock-proof body; hence it is advisable to be extra
careful with it.
Regular Maintenance
Like any other device in your house, your inverter also needs proper maintenance. It is essential
to clean the inverter and the battery with a microfibre at regular intervals to avoid the accumulation
of dust or any other particles that can block the device. Also, maintain a schedule to keep a check
on the water levels in the inverter and refill it at regular intervals.
The Aftercare
Buying the market’s best inverter is not the end. Like every other device, you need to take proper
care and maintain the inverter for it to last longer and function efficiently. Inverters are long-term
investments and it is crucial to get how inverters work. It is essential to ensure complete care to
ensure excellent functioning.
Avoid Power Overloads

Although you might have an inverter with a higher power capacity, it is essential to use only a
limited number of appliances at once. Connecting multiple devices can cause an overload.
Minimize the use of high energy consuming appliances like refrigerators, water geysers, washing
machines and air conditioners. If you have to use an appliance like the mixer or similar, then make
sure you disconnect or switch off all the other devices to avoid any kind of power overload.
Take Proper Care

Know how inverters work, and keep a check on the sockets and plugs for rust which can occur due
to humidity or water spillage. Applying grease is an effective preventative measure. The rust on
the body of your inverter can be easily removed by using a mix of baking soda and hot water. You
can regularly wipe the body with a microfibre to avoid the collection of dust.
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Special Attention to the Battery

The tubular and the lead batteries need their distilled water replenished at regular intervals. It is
helpful to make a schedule denoting the timely refills. Timely care and refills ensure a long-lasting
and better-performing inverter. You can also take a simple step like discharging the battery once
a month and charging it all over again can help balance and rejuvenate the electrolyte solution.
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Advanced Semiconductor Power Circuits

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REAGAN NNABIO ROBINSON

Figure: AC Sinusoidal Waveform

Rectifier Circuit Phases

1-PULSE, 2-PULSE, AND 6-PULSE UNITS

Figure: Pulse waveforms

Figure: Pulse period

WHAT IS RIPPLE FACTOR

Why Ripple is Present

Figure: DC output waveform

Ripple Factor Formula and Derivation

Ripple Factor for Half Wave Rectifier

Ripple Factor for Full Wave Rectifier

What is the harmonic mean of 4 8 16?

Find the harmonic mean for data 2, 5, 7, and 9.

Figure: Harmonic distortion waveform

Preventing Harmonic Distortion

POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS

Types of Power Converters

1. Rectifiers – converts fixed AC to variable DC

Below is a chart representing the different types of power electronic converters.

Figure: Halfwave rectification

Figure: Sinusoidal average value

Half-wave Rectifier Average Voltage

Figure: Halfwave rectifier average voltage

a) Maximum Voltage Amplitude, VM

b) Equivalent DC Voltage, VDC

d) Power Dissipated by the Load, PL

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Ripple production is more

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Figure: Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design.

Figure: Full-wave center-tap rectifier:

Figure: Full-wave center-tap rectifier

Figure: Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers

Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier.

Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles.

Figure: Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles.

Figure: Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.

Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Output Waveform

Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Average Value

Figure: Full-wave Rectifier Average Voltage

a) Rectifier Supply Voltage, VRMS

c) Load Current Passed by Each Diode, ID

d) Power Dissipated by the Load, PL

Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Figure: Half-controlled bridge rectifier

Figure: Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Half-controlled Rectifier Average Output Voltage

Fully-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Figure: Fully-controlled Bridge Rectifier

Fully-controlled Rectifier Average Output Voltage

Advantages of Full-Wave Rectifier

The advantages of full-wave rectifiers are:

o Their rectification efficiency is double that of half-wave rectifiers.

Disadvantages of Full-Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of full-wave rectifiers are: