The Nervous System-

Nervous Tissue
Chapter 7
 Learning objectives:
❖Upon successful completion of this study unit, the student
should be able to:
❖Describe the general organisation of the nervous system
❖Explain the general functions of the nervous system
❖Describe the general structure of a neuron
❖Classify neurons
❖Name four types of neuroglial cells
❖Describe the functions of each of the neuroglial cells
❖Describe the action/activities/events that lead to the conduction of
a nerve impulse
 Learning objectives, Cont …:
❖Explain how a nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another
❖Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
❖Explain the two ways in which impulses are processed in neuronal
pools
❖Describe a reflex arc
❖Explain the concept reflex behaviour
❖Explain the process of regeneration of an injured nerve fibre
❖List factors why a recovered peripheral nerve may not be that efficient
compared with the original nerve
❖List factors why there is no nerve regeneration in CNS as in PNS
General Organization of the nervous system
❖Two Anatomical Divisions:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
• Brain
• Spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• All the neural tissue outside CNS
• Afferent division (sensory input)
• Efferent division (motor output)
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
The Nervous system has three major functions:
▪ Sensory – monitors internal & external environment
through presence of receptors (afferent)
▪ Integration – interpretation of sensory information
(information processing); complex (higher order)
functions
▪ Motor – response to information processed through
stimulation of effectors
▪ muscle contraction
▪ glandular secretion
 Peripheral nervous system
❖Two Divisions:

1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system
 Peripheral nervous system
❖Two Divisions:
1. Somatic nervous system (Voluntary response)
➢All your nervous system except your brain and spinal
cord.
➢ Function: sensory input and control movement
(muscles)
➢These peripheral nerves senses information from 4
senses: smell, sound, taste and touch, and sends to
the brain.
➢Carry commands from brain to muscles for
movement.
➢Consists of Afferent division (sensory input) and
Efferent division (motor output)
 Peripheral nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)

1. Parasympathetic
- Responsible for “Fight-or-Flight’ response.
- E.g. release adrenaline, increase heart rate, dilates air
ways, dilate pupil, etc.

2. Sympathetic nervous system

- Responsible for rest and digest.

NB: Parasympathetic NS manages the body’s heartbeat,

blood pressure, digestion, etc.
General Organization of the nervous system

Brain & spinal

cord
 Types of cells of the peripheral nervous
system

▪ Neurons - are nerve cells; for processing, transfer, and

storage of information
▪ Glial (Neuroglia) – support cells; for support regulation (control
chemical balance of the NS) & protection of neurons (create
myelin on axons),
▪ Nuclei – cluster of nerve cells, responsible of connecting nerve
fibres with other cells.
▪ Ganglia – larger groups of closely related cells, which are part of
the body’s senses of hearing and balance.
 Histology of neural tissue

Two types of neural cells in the nervous system:

▪ Neurons - For processing, transfer, and storage
of information
▪ Neuroglia – For support, regulation & protection
of neurons
Types of Neuroglia (glial cells)
CNS neuroglia:
1. astrocytes
2. oligodendrocytes
3. microglia
4. ependymal cells

PNS neuroglia:
1. Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
2. Satellite cells
General functions of the neuroglial cells

➢Maintaining neural survivability

➢Protecting the nervous system
➢Producing myelin
➢Myelin sheath is an insulating sheath that allows
electrical impulses to transmit quickly and
efficiently along the nerve cells.
 1. Astrocytes
• Create supportive
framework for neurons
• Create “blood-brain
barrier”
• Monitor & regulate
interstitial fluid surrounding
neurons
• Secrete chemicals for
embryological neuron
formation
• Stimulate the formation of
scar tissue secondary to
CNS injury
 2. Oligodendrocytes
• create myelin
sheath around axons
of neurons in the
CNS. Myelinated
axons transmit
impulses faster than
unmyelinated axons

3. Microglia
• “brain
macrophages”
• phagocytize cellular
wastes & pathogens
 4. Ependymal cells
• line ventricles of
brain & central canal
of spinal cord
• produce, monitor &
help circulate CSF
(cerebrospinal fluid)
 Neurons
❖Sends signals throughout the body.
❖Signals come in electrical and chemical forms.
❖This is how the body system communicate.
 Structure of a neuron
❑Each neuron consist of:
➢Cell body
➢Axon
➢Dendrites
➢Myelin

(Myelin sheath surrounds many axons; protect and help speed

up certain signals as they travel through the neuron.)
Neuron structure
Neuron structure
 1. Schwann cells
• Surround all axons of neurons in the
PNS creating a neurilemma around them.
Neurilemma allows for potential
regeneration of damaged axons
• creates myelin sheath around most
axons of PNS

2. Satellite cells
• Support groups of cell
bodies of neurons within
ganglia of the PNS
 •Most axons of the nervous system are
surrounded by a myelin sheath (myelinated
axons)
•The presence of myelin speeds up the
of Ranvier
transmission of action potentials along the
axon
•Myelin will get laid down in segments
(internodes) along the axon, leaving
unmyelinated gaps known as “nodes of
Ranvier”
•Regions of the nervous system containing
groupings of myelinated axons make up the
“white matter”
•“gray matter” is mainly comprised of groups
of neuron cell bodies, dendrites & synapses
(connections between neurons)
 Classification of neurons
Structural classification is based on number
of processes coming off of the cell body:
 Classification of neurons
1. Anaxonic
2. Bipolar
3. Pseudounipolar
4. Multipolar
Anaxonic neurons
• No anatomical clues to
determine axons from
dendrites
• Functions unknown
 Bipolar neuron
• two processes coming
off cell body – one
dendrite & one axon
• only found in eye, ear
& nose
Unipolar (pseudounipolar)
neuron
• Single process coming off cell
body, giving rise to dendrites
(at one end) & axon (making up
rest of process)
Multipolar neuron
• multiple dendrites &
single axon
• most common type
 Classification of neurons
Functional classification based on type of information &
direction of information transmission:
• Sensory (afferent) neurons –
• transmit sensory information from receptors of PNS towards the CNS
• most sensory neurons are unipolar, a few are bipolar
• Motor (efferent) neurons –
• transmit motor information from the CNS to effectors
(muscles/glands/adipose tissue) in the periphery of the body
• all are multipolar
• Association (interneurons) –
• transmit information between neurons within the CNS; analyze inputs,
coordinate outputs
• are the most common type of neuron (20 billion)
 REFLEX ARC
❖The reflex arc governs the operation of reflexes.
❖Nerve impulses follow nerve pathways as they travel through the
nervous system.
❖The simplest of these pathways, which include only a few
neurons, is called the reflex arc.
❖Reflexes whose arc passes through the spinal cord are called
spinal reflexes.
 REFLEX ARC
❖Receptor
❖Sensory neuron
❖Interneuron
❖Motor neuron
❖Effector organ
 STEPS OF A REFLEX ARC
1. A receptor in the skin detects a stimulus (i.e., change in
temperature)
2. Sensory neurons send electrical signals to relay neurons, which
are in the spinal cord. They connect sensory neurons to motor
neurons.
3. Motor neuron sends electrical impulse to an effector.
4. The effector produces a response ( i.e., muscle contracts to
move hand away.)
NB: The pathway of a reflex action does not initially go to the
brain to increase the speed of reaction. It only travels through relay
neurons in the spinal cord and not to the brain.
Conduction of an impulse across synapses

In order for neural control to occur, “information” must

not only be conducted along nerve cells, but must
also be transferred from one nerve cell to another
across a synapse

Most synapses within the nervous system are

chemical synapses, & involve the release of a
neurotransmitter via the process of exocytosis.
The Structure of a Typical Synapse
Neuronal Pools
Anatomical organization of neurons

Neurons of the nervous system tend to group together into

organized bundles

The axons of neurons are bundled together to form nerves in

the PNS & tracts/pathways in the CNS. Most axons are
myelinated so these structures will be part of “white matter”

The cell bodies of neurons are clustered together into

ganglia in the PNS & nuclei/centers in the CNS. These are
unmyelinated structures and will be part of “gray matter”
Neural Tissue Organization
Cells and membrane potentials
❖All animal cells generate a small voltage across
their membranes
❖This is because there is a large amount of small
organic molecules in the cytoplasm
❖To balance this, animal cell pump Na+ out of the
cells
❖This regulates osmosis but it leaves a large
number of organic molecules
❖These are overall negatively changed (anions) in
the cytoplasm
❖Thus the cell has a potential difference (voltage)
across its membrane
Resting potential of a cell membrane
 Resting potential
❖At resting state:
✓The inside of the cell is negative compared to the outside of the
cell.
✓This permits the entry of Potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions
and prohibits Sodium ions due to the cell’s semi-permeable
membrane to Sodium ions.
✓Thus, the inside of the cell is negatively charged and the outside
of the cell is positively charged at the resting state of the cell.
 Nerve impulse
❖A nerve impulse is the movement of an action potential.
❖It is a sudden reverse of the electrical charge across the
membrane at arresting neuron.
❖The reversal of charges is called action potential.
❖It begins when a neuron receives a chemical signal (stimulus)
from another cell.
 The four stages of a nerve impulse or action
potential
1. Resting stage – nothing happens
2. Depolarisation – reverse of charges by Na+ ions moving in the
cell.
3. Repolarisation – restoring the charges by K+ moving out.
4. Sodium/Potassium pump – restores the resting stage by
pumping Sodium (Na+) back out and K+ back in the cell.
Action potential
 After the action potential
❖During this time, the potassium channels reopen, the sodium
channels close, gradually returning the neuron to its resting
potential.
❖Once the neuron has recharged, it is possible for another action
potential to occur and transmit signal down the length of the axon.
❖The sodium channels play a role in generating the action potential
in excitable cells and activating a transmission of a message along
the axon.
The resting potential
❖K+ ions slowly leak through K+ pore channels
❖The membrane has a poor permeability to Na+
ions so they cannot get in to the neurone
❖This brings about the membrane potential of
neurones
❖As the K+ leaks out the inside of the resting
cell becomes more negatively charged
Neurones
❖Neurones like other cells are more
negatively charged inside than outside
❖This results in a membrane potential of
about – 70 milliVolts
❖This is called the resting potential of the
neurone
❖This has an effect on the passive
movement of K+ and Na+ across the
neurone’s plasma membrane
Passive movement of ions across a
cell membrane
❖The concentration gradient:
causing the ions to diffuse down their
concentration gradient
❖The electrical potential:
causing ions to be attracted to the opposite
charge to the one they carry
Potassium & Sodium Ions
The two important ions in a nerve cell (neurone or
neuron) are K+ and Na+
Both are cations (positively charged ions)
Na+ ions move more slowly across the
membrane than K+ or Cl- ions
This is because although the Na+ ion is smaller
than the K+ ion
Na+ has a larger coating of water molecules giving
it a bigger diameter
This makes the plasma membrane 25 times more
permeable to K+ than Na+
Potassium & Sodium Ions
In addition to this K+ ions leak out of K+ ion pores
when the nerve cell is at rest
So to maintain the high concentration of K+ inside
the cell, it has to be actively pumped inwards a bit
when the cell is at rest
The result is that the resting potential of the
neuron is almost at the equilibrium for K+ ions
K+ leak out a bit and need pumping in
Na+ ions, however, are actively pumped out
and kept out
A coupled Na+-K+
pump plasma
Cytoplasm membrane ECF

K+ K+
coupled
ion
pump
Na+ Na+
Getting excited!
❖As the neuron’s membrane at rest is more
negative inside than outside, it is said to be
polarised
❖Neurons are excitable cells.
❖The cells are excited when their membranes
become depolarised.
Depolarisation
Depolarising membranes may be
achieved by:
❖a stimulus arriving at a receptor cell
(e.g. vibration of a hair cell in the ear)
❖a chemical fitting into a receptor site
(e.g. a neurotransmitter)
❖a nerve impulse travelling down a
neurone
Nerve impulses
❖Nerve impulses are self-propagating like
a trail of gunpowder
❖Localised currents in the ions occur just
ahead of the impulse causing localised
depolarisation
❖Nerve impulses are not like electrical
signals travelling down a wire
The action potential
❖The action potential is the state of the neuron
membrane when a nerve impulse passes by
❖A small change in the membrane voltage will
depolarise the membrane enough to flip open Na+
channels
❖These are called voltage-gated Na+ channels
❖As Na+ moves into the cell more and more Na+
channels open
❖A small change in the membrane permeability to Na+
results in a big change in membrane potential
❖This is because the volume of the axon is minute
compared to the volume of the extracellular fluid
+35

0
More Na+
channels open
mV Na+ floods
into neurone

Na+ voltage-
gated
channels open
-55 Threshold

-70

Time

Resting potential Action potential

All-or-nothing
As Na+ moves in the cell will become more
positive with respect to the outside
The ion pumps resist the change in the
membrane potential but it only has to rise by
15mV and the pumps cannot restore the
equilibrium
Na+ floods in
Nerve impulses all look the same, there are
not big ones and little ones
This is the all-or-nothing law
The threshold
❖–55mV (millivolts) represents the threshold
potential
❖Beyond this we get a full action potential
❖The membrane potential rises to +35mV this
is the peak of the action potential
❖The cells are almost at the equilibrium for
Na+ ions
+35 Na+ channels close
and K+ channels open,
K+ floods out of
neurone
0

mV

-55 Threshold

-70

Time

Resting potential Action potential Resting potential

Potassium takes over
❖After Na+ moves in passively until the Na+
channels start to close
❖At the same time K+ permeability increases as
voltage-gated K+ channels open – they are a
bit slower to respond to the depolarisation than
the Na+ channels
❖The K+ ions move out
❖This makes the cell negative inside with respect
to outside again
❖The membrane potential falls
Hyperpolarisation
❖The membrane potential falls below the
resting potential of –70mV
❖It is said to be hyperpolarised
❖Gradually active pumping of the ions (K+ in
and Na+ out) restores the resting potential
❖During this period no impulses can pass
along that part of the membrane
❖This is called the refractory period
 +35

Hyperpolarisation of
the membrane
0

Active pumping of
mV
Na+ out and K+ in
during the
refractory period

-55 Threshold

-70

Time

Resting potential Action potential Resting potential

SUMMARY
Mechanism that creates an Action Potential
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction

1. Electrical Synapses: Communication via gap junctions

between smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
some neurons of the CNS. Provide fast,
synchronized, and two-way transmission of
information.

2. Chemical Synapses: Communication via chemical

neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic
cleft. Provides slow one-way information flow
 Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction
1. Action potential arrives at
a synaptic end bulb.
2. Depolarization of membrane
causes the opening of Ca2+
channels.
3. Increase in (Ca2+) inside of
presynaptic neuron triggers
exocytosis of neurotransmitter
4. Neurotransmitter diffuses across
synaptic cleft and binds to
receptor (ligand-gated channel)
on postsynaptic neuron
 Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction

5. Na+ channels open causing a

depolarization (Na+ channels)
EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic
potential) or a
hyperpolarization (Cl-
channels) IPSP (inhibitory
post-
synaptic potential) of the
postsynaptic neuron.
6. If depolarization reaches a
threshold, an action potential is
generated on the postsynaptic
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction

Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine: Found in the PNS
and CNS. EPSP and in
parasympathetic neurons IPSP.
2. Amino Acids: Glutamate and
Aspartate produce EPSP’s in the
CNS. Gamma Aminobutyric Acid
(GABA) produces IPSP’s in the
CNS. Valium enhances the action
of GABA.
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons at a
synaptic junction

Neurotransmitters
3. Biogenic Amines:
Norepinephrine and epinephrine
produce EPSP’s in the sympathetic
system. Serotonin controls mood
and induction of sleep.
4. Gases: Nitric Oxide produce by
the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.
Causes vasodilation and erection.
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction

Neurotransmitters
5. Neuropeptides:
Substance P: Enhances perception of
pain.
Endorphins: inhibit pain by blocking
release of Substance P

6. ATP-Adenosine 5’-triphosphate
Between taste buds and nerves that carry
taste sensations –Finer et. al. Science vol 310, 2005
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction
Nervous System Physiology:
Communication between neurons
at a synaptic junction
 Changes in axon
1. Degeneration process
a. Distal segment of axon
• Swelling and fragmentation of axon &
branches called wallerian degeneration
• Debris digested by Schwann cells and
tissue macrophages

b. Proximal segment of axon

• Degenerate till first node of Ranvier
2. Regeneration process
• Schwann cells rapidly proliferate and forms
parallel cords within basement membrane
• Endoneurial sheath and contained cords of
Schwann cells called band fiber
• The band fiber extends from first node of Ranvier
in proximal segment up to end organ.
 • When there is gap in the injury site
Schwann cell will form the codes and
bridge the gap if only endoneurial
tube is intact.

In CNS microglial cells

phagocytosed the debris and
astrocytes form a scar and no band fiber
formation
❖So regeneration of PNS depends on endoneurial tubes and Schwann cells
❖Multiple sprouts arise from proximal axon and cross the gap through the codes
of Schwann cell and enter in to distal segment.
But only one filament will persist and
grows and reach the end organ
❖When axon reaches end organ
Schwann cells begin to lay down
the myelin sheath.
❖It starts from injury site and
spread distally.
❖The time may be months to
complete the process depending
on the severity of injury
Recovery- reappearance of Nissl
gran: due to Protein synthesis
Reduction of edema
Repositioning of nucleus
 Recovered peripheral nerve may not be
that efficient compare with the original
nerve.
Why?

1.Reduced conduction velocity

(Axon that reaches end organ will have 80%
original diameter)
2.Muscle control will be less precise
(Innervation of more muscle fibers)
No nerve regeneration in Central nervous system as
in PNS.
Why?

1. Absence of endoneurial tubes.

2. Failure of oligodendrocytes to serve as in the same
manner as schwann cells in PNS
3. Laying down of scar tissue by active astrocytes cells
4. Absence of nerve growth factors, or
5. Production of nerve inhibitory factors in CNS
Thank you!