DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

(DSP-7CC10)

Unit-IV REALIZATION OF DIGITAL

FILTERS

Faculty: V.RAJENDRA CHARY(VRC),

Assistant Professor,ECE
Class: III B.Tech,II Semester, ECE
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM
3. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS
…..mid 1
4. REALIZATION OF DIGITAL FILTERS
5. DIGITAL FILTERS
6. MULTIRATE DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
…..mid 2
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 UNIT-IV REALIZATION OF DIGITAL
FILTERS
• Review of Z-transforms, Applications of Z–transforms, Block
diagram representation of linear constant-coefficient difference
equations, Basic structures of IIR systems, Transposed forms,
Basic structures of FIR systems, System function.
• Applications: Design of digital system function to meet the given
specifications.

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 UNIT-V DIGITAL FILTERS
• Analog Filter Approximations – Butterworth and Chebyshev
Approximations.
• IIR digital filters: Design of IIR Digital filters from analog filters-
Impulse Invariance, Step invariance and Bilinear Transformation
methods, Design Examples, Analog-Digital transformations.

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 UNIT-V DIGITAL FILTERS(contd.)
• FIR digital filters: Characteristics of FIR Digital Filters, frequency
response, Design of FIR Digital Filters using Fourier series
method, Windowing Techniques-Rectangular, Triangular,
Hamming, Hanning and Bartlett’s Windows, Steps in Kaiser
windowing method, Frequency Sampling technique, Comparison
of IIR and FIR filters.
• Applications: Design of IIR/FIR digital filter conforming to
given specifications.

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 UNIT-VI MULTIRATE DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
• Decimation, interpolation, sampling rate conversion. Introduction
to DSP Processors.

• Applications of Multirate Digital Signal processing: Design of

digital filter banks and quadrature mirror filters etc.

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REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS(R1)

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REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS(R2)

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REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS(R3)

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 Outline Of The Unit
• Review of Z-transform, Applications of Z–transforms(3)
• System function(1)
• Block diagram representation of linear constant-coefficient
difference equations(1)
• Basic structures of IIR systems, Transposed forms
• Basic structures of FIR systems
• Applications

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Lecture-1
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 Review of Z-transforms
• Z-transform
• Region of Convergence
• Properties of Z-transform
• Inverse Z-transform

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 Z-transform
• The Z-transform is the discrete-time counterpart of the Laplace
transform.
• The Z-transform plays an important role in the analysis and
representation of discrete-time LTI systems.
• The Z-transform may be one-sided(unilateral) or two-
sided(bilateral).

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 Z-transform(contd.)
• The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal or
sequence x(n) is given by:

where z is a complex variable

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 Z-transform(contd.)
• The unilateral or one-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal or
sequence x(n) is given by:

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 Region of Convergence(ROC)
• The set of values of z or equivalently the set of points in z-plane,
for which X(z) converges is called the region of
convergence(ROC) of X(z).
• If there is no value of z( i.e no point in the z-plane) for which X(z)
converges, then the sequence x(n) is said to be having no Z-
transform.

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Properties of ROC

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Properties of ROC

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Summary of ROC of discrete-time signals

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Summary of ROC of discrete-time
signals(contd.)

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Summary of ROC of discrete-time
signals(contd.)

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 Properties of Z-transform
• Linearity
• Time shifting
• Multiplication by an exponential sequence
• Time reversal
• Time expansion
• Multiplication by n or differentiation in z-domain
• Convolution

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 Properties of Z-transform(contd.)
• Multiplication or complex convolution
• Correlation
• Parseval’s theorem
• Initial value theorem
• Final value theorem

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Linearity Property

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Time Shifting Property

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Time Shifting Property(contd.)

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Multiplication by an exponential sequence
Property

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Time Reversal Property

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Time expansion Property

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Multiplication by n or differentiation in z-
domain Property

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Convolution Property

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Multiplication or complex convolution
Property

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Correlation Property

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Parseval’s theorem

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Initial value theorem

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Final value theorem

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 Applications of Z-transform
• The Z-transform converts the difference equations of a discrete
time system into linear algebraic equations so that the analysis
becomes easy and simple.
• Frequency response can be determined.
• Pole-zero description of the discrete-time system.
• It also helps in system design, analysis and also checks the system
stability.
• Used to obtain impulse response.
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 Advantage of Z-transform
• Z-transform exists for most of the signals for which DTFT does not
exist.

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Lecture-2
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 Problem
• (R2 eg 3.6)

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 Problem
•
(R2 eg 3.8)

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 Problem
• Find the Z-transform and ROC of the sequence (R2 eg3.9)

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 Problem
• Find the Z-transform of the following sequences (R2 eg3.10)

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 Problem
• Find the Z-transform of
a)unit impulse sequence δ(n), b)unit step sequence u(n), c) anu(n)
d)a-nu(n) e) a-nu(-n-1) f) -anu(-n-1) g) ∑ δ(n-k) (summation of k
limits-o to ∞)

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Lecture-3
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Inverse Z-transform

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 Inverse Z-transform(contd.)
• This direct method of finding inverse Z-transform is quite
complex. So inverse Z-transform is normally found using indirect
methods. Some of those methods are:
Power series/long division method
Partial fraction expansion method
Complex inversion integral/residue/contour integration method
Convolution method

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 System function
• Consider a discrete-time LTI system having an impulse response
h(n) as shown in figure

x(n) y(n)

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System function(contd.)

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Block diagram representation of Linear Constant-
coefficient Difference Equations(LCCDE)
• To realize a discrete-time system, the given difference equation in
time domain is to be converted into an algebraic equation in z-
domain and each term of that equation is to be represented by a
suitable element.
• The symbols of the basic elements used for constructing the block
diagram of a discrete time system are tabulated below

(contd..in next slide)

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Block diagram representation of LCCDE
(contd.)

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Lecture-4
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 Problems
• Find the inverse Z-transform of
a) X(z)=z3+2z2+z+1-2z-1-3z-2+4z-3( R2 eg 3.22)
b) ( R2 eg 3.23,b)

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 Problems
• Find the system function and impulse response of the system
described by the difference equation
y(n)=1/5*y(n-1)+x(n) (R1 eg 2.15)
• Find the system function and impulse response of the system
described by the difference equation
y(n)=x(n)+2x(n-1)-4x(n-2)+x(n-3) (R1 eg 2.16)

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 Problem
• Using long division, find the inverse Z-transform of (R2 eg 3.29)

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 Problem
• Using long division, find the inverse Z-transform of (R2 eg 3.30)

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Lecture-5
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 Problem
• Using Partial fraction expansion, find the inverse Z-transform of
(R2 eg 3.31)

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 Problems
• Using residue method, find the inverse Z-transform of (R2 eg 3.36)

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 Problem
• Determine the inverse Z-transform of the following equation using
Long division, Partial fraction method and Residue method .
( R3 eg 3.7)

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 Problems
• Find the inverse Z-transform of the following equation using
Convolution method. (R2 eg 3.40)

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 Problem
• Construct the block diagram for the discrete-time systems whose
input-output relations are described by the following difference
equations: (R2 eg4.1)
a)y(n)=0.7x(n)+0.3x(n-1)
b)y(n)=0.5y(n-1)+0.8x(n)+0.4x(n-1)

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 Canonical and Non-Canonical Structure
• When the number of delays in a structure is equal to the order of
the system, the structure is called canonical structure.
• When the number of delays in a structure is not equal to the order
of the system, the structure is called non-canonical structure.

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 Basic Structures of IIR Systems
• If the impulse response of the system is of infinite duration, then
the system is called IIR system.
• The convolution formula for IIR systems is given by:

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Basic Structures of IIR systems(contd.)
• In general, an IIR system is described by the difference equation:

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Basic Structures of IIR systems(contd.)

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Basic Structures of IIR systems(contd.)
• For each of these equations, we can construct a block diagram
consisting of delays, adders and multipliers. Such block diagrams
are referred to as structure for realization of system.
• The main advantage of re-arranging the sets of difference equation
is to reduce the computational complexity, memory requirements
and finite length effects in computations.

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Basic Structures of IIR systems(contd.)
• The basic structures for realizing IIR systems are:
Direct form-I
Direct form-II
Cascade form
Parallel form

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Lecture-6&7
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Direct form-I

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 Direct form-I(contd.)
• The equation of Y(z) can be directly represented by a block
diagram as shown in figure(next slide).This structure is called
direct form-I structure.
• The direct form-I requires separate delays for input and output.
Hence for realizing the structure, more memory is required.

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Direct form-I(contd.) (R3 fig3.15,pg3.75)

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 Direct form-I(contd.)
• From the direct form-I structure, it is observed that the realization
of Nth order discrete-time system with M number of zeros and N
number of poles involves M+N+1 multiplications ,M+N additions
and M+N+1 memory locations .
• The direct form-I is a non-canonical structure.

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 Limitations of Direct form-I
• Since the number of delay elements used in direct form-I is more
than the order of difference equation, it is not effective.
• It lacks hardware flexibility.
• There are chances of instability due to the quantization noise.

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Direct form-II

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Direct form-II(contd.)

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 Direct form-II(contd.)
• The equations of W(z) and Y(z) represent the IIR system and the
structure realized is called direct form-II structure.

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Direct form-II(contd.) (R3 pg 3.77)

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 Direct form-II(contd.)
• From the direct form-II structure, it is observed that the realization
of Nth order discrete-time system with M number of zeros and N
number of poles involves M+N+1 multiplications ,M+N additions
and max(M,N) memory locations .
• The direct form-II is a canonical structure.

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 Limitations of Direct form-II
• It also lacks hardware flexibility.
• There are chances of instability due to the quantization noise.

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 Cascade form
• Consider an IIR system with system function
H(z)=H1(z)H2(z)……Hk(z)
This can be represented using block diagram as:

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 Cascade form(contd.)
• Now realize each Hk(z) in direct form-II(or direct form-I) and
cascade all structures.
• For example let us consider a system whose transfer function is

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 Cascade form(contd.)
• Realizing H1(z) and H2(z) in direct form-II and cascading we
obtain a structure of cascade form.

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 Cascade form(contd.)
The difficulties in cascade structure are:
• Decision of pairing poles and zeros
• Deciding the order of cascading the first and second order sections.
• Scaling multipliers should be provided between individual sections
to prevent the filter variables from becoming too large or too small.

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 Parallel form
• The transfer function H(z) of a discrete time system can be
expressed as a sum of first and second-order sections using partial
fraction expansion as:

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 Parallel form(contd.)
• Each first and second order section is realized either in direct form-
I or direct form-II structure and the individual sections are
connected in parallel to obtain the overall system as shown in
figure(next slide).
• This structure is used for high speed filtering applications.
• The difficulty with this structure is expressing the transfer function
in partial fraction form is not easy for higher order systems.

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Parallel form(contd.) (R2 pg4.13)

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 Problem
• Obtain the direct form-I realization for the system described by
difference equation
y(n)=0.5y(n-1)-0.25y(n-2)+x(n)+0.4x(n-1) (R1 eg5.21)
• Obtain the direct form-II realization for the following system
y(n)=-0.1y(n-1)+0.72y(n-2)+0.7x(n)-0.252x(n-2) (R1 eg5.23)

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 Problem
• An LTI system is described by the equation
y(n)+2y(n-1)-y(n-2)=x(n).
Determine the cascade and parallel realization structures of the
system. (R2 eg4.10)

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Lecture-8
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 Problem
• Obtain the direct form-I, direct form-II, cascade and parallel form
realizations of the LTI system governed by the equation (R2 eg4.6)

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 Problem
• Determine the direct form-I,direct form-II,cascade,parallel
structures of: (DTSP Oppenheim)

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 Problem
• Obtain the direct form-I, direct form-II, cascade and parallel form
realizations of the LTI system governed by the equation.(R3
eg3.26)

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 Problem
• Obtain the direct form-I, direct form-II, cascade and parallel form
realizations of the LTI system governed by the equation.(R3
E3.15)

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Lecture-9
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Transposed form realization of IIR System

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 Transposed form realization of IIR with
direct form-I system(R2 fig 4.10a pg.288)

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 Transposed form realization of IIR with
direct form-II system(R2 fig 4.10b pg.288)

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 Problem
• Determine the direct form-II and transposed direct form-II for the
given system y(n)=1/2*y(n-1)-1/4*y(n-2)+x(n)+x(n-1) (R1 eg5.24)
(A12 supply)

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Direct form-II

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Transpose form

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 Basic Structures of FIR systems
• If the impulse response of the system is of finite duration, then
the system is called FIR system.
• The convolution formula for FIR systems is given by:

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Basic Structures of FIR systems(contd.)

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Basic Structures of FIR systems(contd.)

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Basic Structures of FIR systems(contd.)
The basic structures of FIR system are:
• Direct form/Transversal form/tapped delay line filter form
• Cascade form

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 Direct form realization
• Since there are no poles in an FIR system, the direct form has only
one structure. The direct form structure can be obtained from the
general equation for Y(z) or y(n) governing the FIR system.

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Direct form realization (contd.)

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 Direct form realization (contd.)
• From the direct form structure, it is observed that the realization of
an Nth order FIR discrete time system involves N number of
multiplications ,N-1 number of additions and N-1 delays.
• The direct form structure is a canonical structure.

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 Cascade form realization
• The block diagram representation of cascade form is

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 Cascade form realization(contd.)
• The transfer function of FIR system, H(z) is an (N-1)th order
polynomial in z.
• When N is odd,(N-1) will be even and so H(z) will have (N-1)/2
second order factors.

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 Cascade form realization(contd.)
• When N is odd, each second order factor of H(z) can be realized in
direct form and all the second order systems are connected in
cascade to realize H(z) as shown in figure(next slide).

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Cascade structure of FIR System when
N=odd

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 Cascade form realization(contd.)
• When N is even,(N-1) will be odd and so H(z) will have one first
order factor and (N-2)/2 second order factors.
• When N is even,

• Each one of them can be realized in direct form and all of them are
connected in cascade as shown in figure(next slide)
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Cascade structure of FIR System when
N=even

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 Problem
• Determine the direct form realization of system function
H(z)=1+2z-1-3z-2-4z-3+5z-4 (R1 eg6.22)

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 Problem
• Draw the direct form structure of the FIR system described by the
transfer function (R3 eg3.34)

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Direct form structure of previous slide
problem

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 Problem
• Obtain the cascade realization of system function (R1 eg6.23)
H(z)=(1+2z-1-z-2)(1+z-1-z-2)

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 Problem
• Obtain the cascade realization of system function (R1 eg6.24)
H(z)= 1+5/2*z-1+2z-2+2z-3

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Transposed form structure realization of FIR
System

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Transposed form structure realization of FIR
System(contd.)

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 Problem
• Realize the second order FIR system y(n)=2x(n)+4x(n-1)-3x(n-2)
by using the transposed form structure. (R2 eg4.13)

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Direct form-I v/s Direct form-II

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IIR System v/s FIR System

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 Application
• Design of digital system function to meet the given specifications.

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Appendix(Z-transforms)

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Appendix(Z-transforms)

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 Conclusion of the Unit
In this unit we studied about:
• Review of Z-transform, Applications of Z–transforms
• System function
• Block diagram representation of linear constant-coefficient difference
equations
• Basic structures of IIR systems, Transposed forms
• Basic structures of FIR systems
• Applications
• Appendix
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 Thank you
For Your Attention !
Any Questions?
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