Bacterial Structure and

Taxonomy

1st lecture /Microbiology

Assist Prof dr.Zubaida Najat
TOPICS OF LECTURE
1- Morphology Ultra structures,
2- physiology and metabolism of
microorganisms:-
-Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic cells
-Cell structure of prokaryotes
-Comparison between G+ve & G-ve
cell wall
 What is Microbiology
Microbiology :
Is The branch of biology that deals with
microorganisms and their effects on other living
organisms.
Microorganisms are those organisms that are too
small to see with the naked eye and include things
like bacteria, fungi, and viruses. protozoa.

Microbiology is Greek word mikros mean small;

bios mean life
Traditionally, though they were all classified into two
kingdoms, plants and animals, classification was arbitrary
and based on morphological and growth characteristics.

With the development of novel techniques, the latter

classification was expanded to include five kingdoms:

monera, protista, plantae, fungi and animalia.

However, the current understanding based on their genetic

relatedness is that all forms of life fall into three domains:
Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya.
Prokaryotes
Archea and Bacteria

Eukaryotes
(Fugi , protista ,animal, plant and
able 2: Differerece between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Cell component Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

no membrane, single circular membrane bound, a number

Nucleus
chromosome of individual chromosomes.

Extra-chromosomal DNA present in form of plasmid Present as mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondria and chloroplast

Organelles in cytoplasm Non
in photosynthetic organisms

Contain enzyme of respiration,

Semi-permeable layer not
Cytoplasmic membrane sit of phospholipids and DNA
possessing function
synthesis

Cell wall Rigid layer of peptidoglycan No peptidoglycan

Sterols Absent Present

Ribosome 70 S in cytoplasm 80 S in cytoplasmic reticulum
 Viruses
• are not included in this classification as they
are unique , metabolically inert organisms and
therefore replicate only within living cells.
 Structure
• Structures external to the cell wall
• Flagellum:-
• is the organelle of locomotion in the bacteria. It
is a fine hollow tube of a helically wound protein
called flagellin.
• Flagella may be borne in several configurations
Flagella may be
A- located at one end
Monotrichous
B- Tufts of flagella at one or
both sides Lophotrichous
C- Located at the polar ends
Amphitrichous

D- All over the outer surface

Peritrichous
 Fimbriae and pili
1-are fine, hair-like filaments, shorter than flagella,
that extend from the cell surface.

2- Pili found mainly on Gram-negative organisms

3- Composed of subunits protein, pilin.

4- mediate the adhesion of bacteria to receptors on

the human cell surface – a necessary first step in the
initiation of infection.
.
A specialized type of pilus,

the sex pilus, forms the attachment between

the male (donor) and the female (recipient)
bacteria during conjugation, when genes are
transferred from one bacterium to another.
 THE STRUCTURES EXTERNAL TO THE
CELL WALL
AXIAL FILAMENTS
Anchored at one end of the spirochete.
Have a structure similar to flagella.
Filament rotation produces a movement of the
outer sheath. Propels the bacteria in a spiral
motion (corkscrew motion).
E.g. Treponema pallidum – syphilis
 Glycocalyx (slime layer)
1- is a polysaccharide

2-coating that covers the outer surfaces of many

bacteria

3-allows the bacteria to adhere firmly to various

structures, e.g. oral mucosa, teeth, heart valves and
catheters.

4-contribute to the formation of biofilms.

This is especially true in the case of Streptococcus
mutans
 Capsule
1-An amorphous, gelatinous layer (usually more
substantial than the glycocalyx) surrounds the
entire bacterium.
2- it is composed of polysaccharide, and
sometimes protein (e.g.anthrax bacillus).
 The capsule is important
• It mediates the adhesion of bacteria to human
tissues or prosthesis such as dentures or
implants prerequisite
colonization and infection.

It hinders or inhibits phagocytosis; hence, the

presence of a capsule correlates with virulence.
 The capsule is important
• It helps in laboratory identification of organisms
(in the presence of antiserum against the
capsular polysaccharide the capsule will swell
greatly – a phenomenon called the quelling
reaction).

• Its polysaccharides are used as antigens in certain

vaccines because they elicit protective antibodies
(e.g. polysaccharide vaccine of S. pneumoniae
 THE CELL WALL
• Cell wall – a complex, semirigid structure
• Protects cell from adverse changes in the
outside environment.
• Almost all prokaryotes have cell walls.
• Major function is to prevent bacterial cells
from rupturing.
• Maintain the shape of the bacterium.
• Serve as point of anchorage for flagella.
 THE CELL WALL
• Contributes to Pathogenecity
• Site of action of some antibiotics.
• Cell wall composition used to differentiate
major types of bacteria.
 Cell Wall In Gram positive bacteria
• Peptidoglycan layer forms 50% of cell wall material.
• Peptidoglycan is responsible for cell wall rigidity.
• Peptidoglycan is formed of N-acetyl glucosamine and N-
acetyl muramic acid.
• Attached to each muramic acid molecule is a tetra
peptide.
• Then the tetra peptide chains are cross-linked together by
identical inter bridge peptide (penta Glycine inter bridge.
In addition to peptidoglycan, there is
teichoic acid which:
is highly immunogenic adheres the bacteria to
mucosal surfaces.
Lipoteichoic acid links peptidoglycan layer to
the cell membrane.
 Gram-negative organisms
• Inner peptidoglycan layer forms only 5-10% of the cell wall
material.
• Outer membrane layer formed of Lipopolysaccharides: T
he lipid portion (lipid A) is called endotoxin. It is released
when the bacterial cells are lysed. It is highly toxic.

• The polysaccharide portion is called somatic or O antigen.

It is highly immunogenic.

• The space between the inner and outer layers is called

periplasmic space which contains beta lactamase enzyme
that degrades beta lactam antibiotics.
Lipoprotein molecules cross-link the peptidoglycan
layer and the outer membrane
Gram Positive Cell Grame Negative Cell
2 Layers 3 Layers
1-Inner cytoplasmic 1-Inner cytoplasmic membrane
membrane 2- Thin peptidoglycan layer (5-10%)
2-Outer thick peptidoglycan 3-Outer membrane with
layer (60-100%) Lipopolysaccharide(LPS)

Low lipid content High lipid content

No endotoxine (except Listeria Endotoxine(LPS). Lipid A
monocytogenes)
No periplasmic space periplasmic space
No porin channel porin channel
Susceptible to Lysozyme and Resist to Lysozyme and penicillin
penicillin attack attack
 In acid fast bacteria
1- These bacteria contain high concentration of mycolic
acid and wax in their cell wall.

These bacteria are not stained by Gram stain but stained

by Ziehl- Neelsen stain.

Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

 Bacteria with defective cell walls
Mycoplasma spp
Lacks cell wall.
Pleomorphic in shape.
Not affected by penicillin.
Not stained by Gram stain.
The only bacteria that
contains sterol in its cell
membrane.
 Protoplast , Spheroplast, L-Form
• When bacterial cell wall is lost under the
effect of certain conditions like penicillin:
• Gram positive bacteria form protoplasts.
• Gram negative bacteria form spheroplasts.
• If protoplasts and spheroplasts grow and
divide, they are called L-forms.
• Unlike mycoplasma, L-forms can revert to the
parental form on removal of the cell wall
inhibitor.
 Cytoplasmic membrane
The cytoplasmic membrane lies just inside the
peptidoglycan layer of the cell wall and is a ‘unit
membrane’ composed of a phospholipid bilayer
similar in appearance to that of eukaryotic cells.
However, eukaryotic membranes contain sterols,
whereas prokaryotes generally do not (the only
exception being mycoplasmas.
 The membrane has the following
major functions
active transport and selective diffusion of molecules
and solutes in and out of the cell
.• electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
in aerobic specie.
• synthesis of cell wall precursors
• secretion of enzymes and toxins
 This is a convoluted
Mesosome invagination of the
cytoplasmic membrane
that functions as the origin
of the transverse septum
that divides the cell in half
during cell division.

It is also the binding site of

the DNA that will become
the genetic material of
each daughter cell
 Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm comprises an inner, nucleoid region
(composed of DNA), which is surrounded by an
amorphous matrix that contains ribosomes,
nutrient granules, metabolites and various ions.
 Nuclear material or nucleoid
Bacterial DNA comprises a single, supercoiled,
circular chromosome that contains about 2000
genes(It is analogous to a single, haploid
chromosome.)
During cell division, it undergoes semiconservative
replication bidirectionally from a fixed point.
Electron micrograph of a thin section of
Neisseria gonorrhoeae showing the
organizational features of prokaryotic cells.
Note the electron-transparent nuclear region
(n) packed with DNA fibrils, the dense
distribution of ribosomal particles in the
cytoplasm, and the absence of intracellular
membranous organelles
 Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
Bacterial ribosomes differ from those of eukaryotic
cells in both size and chemical composition.

They are organized in units of 70S, compared with

eukaryotic ribosomes of 80S. These differences are
the basis of the selective action of some antibiotics
that inhibit bacterial, but not human.
 Cytoplasmic inclusion granules
The cytoplasm contains different types of
inclusions, which serve as sources of stored
energy; examples include polymetaphosphate,
polysaccharide and β-hydroxybutyrate.
 Spores are formed in response
to adverse conditions by the
Bacterial spore
medically important bacteria
that belong to the genus
Bacillus (which includes the
agent of B.anthrax) and
Clostridium (which includes the
agents of
Cl. tetanus and CL.botulism).
These bacteria sporulate (form
spores) when nutrients, such as
sources of carbon and nitrogen,
are scarce
• When appropriate conditions presented (i.e
water ,nutrient)
• enzymatic degradation of the coat and the
spore transform itself into metabolizing ,
reproducing bacterial cell again
 Taxonomy
• The systematic classification and categorization of
organisms into ordered groups are called taxonomy

• Phenotypic taxonomy

• Genotypic taxonomy
Morphological classification
 Morphological classification
• Bacilli
 Morphological classification
3. ACTINOMYCETES (actin- ray, mykes-fungus)
These are rigid organisms like true bacteria but they
resemble fungi in that they exhibit branching and tend
to form filaments.
They are termed such because of their resemblance to
sun rays when seen in tissue sections.

4- Spirochaetes
 Morphological classification
5. Mycoplasmas
These bacteria lack in rigid cell wall (cell wall lacking) and
are highly pleomorphic and of indefinite shape.
They occur in round or oval bodies.

6. Rickettsiae and Chlamydiae

These are very small, obligate parasites, and at one time
were considered closely related to the viruses. Now,
these are regarded as bacteria.
• Capsule
– Capsulate– Streptococcus pneumoniae
– Non-capsulate – Viridans streptococci
• Flagella
– Flagellate –
• Monotrichous
• Lophotrichous
• Amphitrichous
• Peritrichous
– Aflagellate – Shigella spp.
• Spore
– Spore-forming – Bacillus spp.
– Non-sporing – Escherichia coli
 Based on Staining reaction
GRAM’S STAIN •
Gram-positive cocci – Staphylococcus aureus –
Gram-negative cocci – Neisseria gonorrhoeae –
Gram-positive rods – Clostridium spp. –
Gram-negative rods – E. coli –

ACID FAST STAIN •

Acid-fast bacilli –Mycobacterium tuberculosis –
Non-acid-fast bacilli – Bacillus anthrax –
 How do organisms get their names?
• Organisms are named according to a
hierarchical system, beginning with the
taxonomic rank domain, followed by kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species
(Table 2.3). The scientific name of an organism
is classically
• a binomial of the last two ranks, i.e.
a combination of the generic name
followed by the species name, e.g.
Streptococcus salivarius (note that
the species name does not begin
with a capital letter). The name is
usually written in italics with the
generic name abbreviated (e.g. S.
salivarius). When bacterial names
are used adjectivally or collectively,
the names are not italicized and do
not begin with a capital letter (e.g.
staphylococcal enzymes,
lactobacilli).
Thank You