Foucault :

powerful people often control conversations and behavior through social norms and rules.

⁃ By kneeling on the field, the players want people to focus on important issues like police violence
and unfair treatment of Black Americans. They know that millions of people will see their protest, giving
their message a bigger impact. The players are using their visibility to make the public think about social
justice and start a conversation about change.

For Foucault, the mirror becomes a metacommentary on vision and representation. The reflection folds
the viewer into the work, reflecting their gaze back at them and forcing them to grapple with the
inseparability of what one sees from the person seeing it. It calls into question the distinction between
subject and object and leads the viewer to doubt their subjectivity and situatedness as a viewer. In his
conclusion, Foucault positions Las Meninas as a shift in the tradition of Classical representation; instead
of obscuring the mechanisms of visual representation as the paradigm of single-point perspective had,
Velázquez demands the viewer interrogate these mechanisms and their role in them as viewers.

Barthes:
Barthes' concept of myth involves understanding how language and cultural artifacts communicate and
naturalize particular values.

Halls
Hall (1997: 1): “Culture is about ‘shared meanings’”.
- The production and exchange of meanings and the common access to language.
- Language is central to meaning.
- Culture as a key repository of cultural values and meanings.
- Representation, meaning and context

3 approaches to how representations of meaning through language works:

the constructionist approach -
various aspects of our lives and identities are not merely given by nature but are shaped by social
contexts and human interactions.

The constructionist approach (cont.)

- The language of traffic lights illustrates how languages
function as signifying or representational systems.
- We atribute meaning to the colours: red (stop!); green (go!),
amber (attention!).
- According to constructionists, what carries meaning as far as
traffic lights are concerned? Not the colours, but the difference
between them.
- Other example: the differences between letters –
sheep/sheet

The constructionist approach (cont.)

- The arbitrariness of the sign
- P. 27: “‘Arbitrary’ means that there is no natural relationship
between the sign and its meaning or concept.”
- Signs themselves cannot fix meaning.
- Meaning is relational. It depends on the relation between a
sign and a concept which is fixed by a code. (p. 27)

The Reflective Approach-

Language functions like a mirror that reflects the true meaning as it already exists in the world.
4th century BC – the Greeks and the notion of mimesis
For Aristotle, mimesis is a basic human instinct that serves as a learning tool. By imitating, humans gain
knowledge about their surroundings and themselves.
Art, thus, is not just an imitation but a re-creation of reality. It provides a form through which the essence
of things can be communicated and understood.

The act of imitation in art allows people to experience emotions and situations indirectly. This vicarious
experience contributes to a deeper understanding and provokes insight and emotional growth.

Plato was critical of mimesis in art, viewing it as a mere imitation of the physical world, which is itself an
imperfect copy of the ideal Forms.
He argued that artistic imitation could mislead people about the nature of reality, as it focuses on
appearances rather than truths.
. Mimesis (Merriam Webster Dictionary) = imitation, mimicry . Mimesis is a term usually used to make
reference to the imitation (of nature as object, phenomena, or process) or representation of nature in
aesthetic terms.

According to him, art is an extension of this natural tendency. The pleasure derived from art is rooted in
the recognition and interpretation of the imitated subjects.

the intentional approach

Codes
-Codes are essentially systems of signs and symbols combined with rules for their use and interpretation.
-Codes determine how signs (like words, gestures, or images) are connected to what they represent.
-By having a shared understanding of what each sign signifies, members of a culture or language group
can communicate effectively. Codes help stabilize meaning, ensuring that when a word or symbol is used,
there is a common understanding of what it refers to, thereby reducing confusion and misinterpretation.
- Codes are not static; they evolve as societies change. What a sign represents in one era or culture might
differ significantly in another.
-Meaning is not inherent in signs but is constructed through cultural and linguistic practices.

‚the word "snow" is arbitrarily linked to the actual physical phenomenon of snow. This linkage is not
natural but is agreed upon within a language community.

Saussure’s legacy –
The influence of his model of understanding of what language is and how it works in a semiotic approach
as far as the discussion of representation is concerned.

- Relevance of Saussure’s approach:

(i) There is not a natural relation between signifier and signified ➛ openness of representation to a
constant production of new meanings and new interpretations.
(ii) Meaning should be read and interpreted actively (‘sliding of meaning’).
(iii) The fundamental role played by the reader/viewer.

Can use : The constructionist approach helps us understand campaigns against sexual harassment, abuse,
and domestic violence by showing how social meanings are shaped through cultural interactions.
Activists redefine these behaviors by promoting new norms and challenging old stereotypes that once
downplayed harassment and violence. Campaigns like #MeToo reveal power imbalances and push for
structural changes in laws and attitudes. They emphasize supporting victims and changing societal
perceptions, making it clear that these issues are not just individual problems but reflect broader cultural
norms. In this way, constructionism shows how society’s changing understanding can lead to legal and
social shifts that better protect victims and prevent further abuse.

The Other is often represented as, for instance, being exotic, violent, hostile and mysterious, and either
stands in opposition to, or is portrayed as being completely different from the Western

Edward Said’s book Orientalism revolutionized how we understand the "Other" by challenging the
deeply embedded stereotypes and assumptions about Eastern cultures that had been propagated for
centuries in Western scholarship. Before his work, Western scholars often portrayed the East through a
Eurocentric lens, emphasizing its supposed exoticism, irrationality, and inferiority compared to the
rational and progressive West. Said argued that these ideas were not merely errors but were instead
deliberate constructs that reinforced and justified colonial domination.
Said explained that Western scholars had historically depicted the "Orient" as a mirror image of the West,
everything that the West was not. In this dichotomy, the "Occident" represented reason and progress,
while the "Orient" symbolized backwardness and mysticism (Said, 2003). Said criticized this binary
because it presented a distorted image of the East, denying its complexity and diversity. The portrayal of
the East as inferior also validated the colonial "civilizing mission," where Western countries claimed to
bring progress and enlightenment to Eastern societies. This framework helped maintain colonial
dominance by depicting non-Western societies as needing Western guidance to modernize.
In Orientalism, Said also highlighted the power dynamics behind Western representations of the East. He
argued that the construction of Orientalist knowledge was not neutral or objective but deeply entwined
with the structures of colonial power. By presenting the East as irrational, fanatical, and incapable of
progress, Orientalist scholars indirectly supported Western imperial ambitions and shaped policies toward
the region (Said, 1994). They contributed to stereotypes that were used to justify imperial rule and
exploitation, reducing entire cultures to simplistic caricatures.
Said's analysis was groundbreaking because it called for a reassessment of how cultures are understood
and portrayed. He urged scholars to recognize the impact of power on knowledge production and consider
alternative perspectives that empower marginalized voices rather than reinforce dominant narratives. In
this way, Said’s work laid the foundation for postcolonial studies, which emphasize understanding the
perspectives of the colonized rather than relying on the narratives of the colonizer. He encouraged
researchers to scrutinize literature, media, and academic disciplines for biased representations and
develop more inclusive models that respect the complex realities of diverse societies.
Overall, Said’s Orientalism showed that the way we represent other cultures can be influenced by biases
and power structures, and it urged us to be more careful, thoughtful, and respectful in the process. By
challenging traditional views and calling for more equity in how cultures are studied and understood, his
work continues to shape our understanding of the "Other" today.

The act of football players taking a knee during the US national anthem has become a powerful symbol of
protest against racism and injustice. It all started back in 2016 when Colin Kaepernick, a football player,
decided to kneel during the national anthem to protest against police brutality and racial inequality. Since
then, many other players have joined him in this peaceful protest, especially after the death of George
Floyd in 2020, which sparked widespread outrage and renewed attention to issues of systemic racism.
To understand why this gesture is so significant, we can look at the ideas of Michel Foucault, a
philosopher who talked about how power works in society. Foucault believed that power isn't just about
big institutions like governments or companies—it's also about the ideas and language we use every day.
When football players take a knee, they're challenging the traditional meaning of kneeling. Instead of it
being a sign of respect, they're using it as a way to speak out against injustice. This challenges the
dominant narratives about patriotism and national pride, forcing people to think about the darker sides of
society.
By kneeling, football players are also creating new conversations about racism and police violence.
They're using their platform as athletes to raise awareness and make sure that these issues are not ignored.
Foucault would see this as a form of resistance against the systems of power that perpetuate inequality.
Moreover, the act of kneeling during the national anthem is a visible form of protest that cannot be
ignored. It draws attention to the systemic injustices faced by Black communities and serves as a
reminder that there is still work to be done to achieve true equality.
In essence, when football players take a knee, they're not just making a simple gesture—they're
challenging the status quo, raising important questions, and demanding change. It's a powerful example of
how athletes can use their platform to advocate for social justice and inspire others to take action

⁃ Postmodern Architecture:
Postmodern architecture combines traditional and modern elements.
Illustrations include the Cholets in El Alto, Bolivia, blending chalets and indigenous architecture.
⁃ Crisis of Representation in the 20th Century:
Key shifts include the move from modernism to postmodernism.
Modernism emphasized progress, technology, and innovation, often conflicting with tradition.
Postmodernism emerged as a cultural response, often questioning established high-modernist
norms.
⁃ Fredric Jameson's Analysis:
Describes postmodernism's emergence as linked to late capitalism (third phase of capitalism).
Differentiates between the gradual emergence of postmodernism and its cultural dominance.
 Recognizes the complexity of its development, noting shifts in technology, mass culture, and
gender categories.
Postmodernism is less a stylistic break and more a new cultural dominant.
Potential Questions and Answers
1. How did Fredric Jameson define the relationship between modernism and postmodernism?
Jameson argued that postmodernism isn't a radical break but a "restructuring" of earlier elements.
Modernism was characterized by innovation and progress, while postmodernism continues to employ
similar elements but has restructured them. It is a cultural dominant defined by the third phase of
capitalism, with new syntaxes, blurred cultural boundaries, and dominance of the image.
2. What role does technology play in postmodernism according to Jameson?Jameson highlights how
postmodern culture reflects the technological shifts of late capitalism. The rise of new technologies,
particularly in media, led to changes in aesthetic production. The integration of aesthetic production into
consumer goods production reinforced mass culture's dominance.
3. How does postmodern architecture reflect the broader cultural logic of postmodernism?
Postmodern architecture reflects the broader postmodern cultural logic by incorporating both traditional
and modern elements, thus rejecting the purist ideas of modernism. Examples like the Cholets in Bolivia
showcase this fusion, merging local and international styles, while playing with symbolism and
ornamentation.
4. What is the 'crisis of representation' in literature, and how is it illustrated in J. M. Coetzee's
novel 'Foe'?The 'crisis of representation' refers to the challenge of representing complex, often horrific
realities (e.g., world conflicts, decolonization). In 'Foe', Coetzee explores this by questioning storytelling
itself, focusing on whose voices are heard and how narratives are constructed.

Key Points:
⁃ Saussure's Semiotic Theory:
Signifier & Signified: The signifier is the form (word, image), while the signified is the concept or
idea associated with that form.
Langue & Parole: Langue refers to the structured system of language, whereas parole is the
individual act of communication.
Language Constructs Reality: Language does not reflect reality but constructs it, and signs gain
meaning only through their relationship with other signs.
Criticism: Saussure's model is criticized for focusing on formal language aspects while ignoring
interactive, dialogical features and leaving out the topic of power dynamics.
⁃ Barthes' Semiotic Approach:
Denotation & Connotation: Denotation is the literal meaning, while connotation is the cultural or
ideological meaning attached to the sign.
Myth as a Mode of Signification: Myths convey ideologies via a secondary signification level,
transforming the denotative sign into a signifier of connotative meaning.
Aims of Semiotic Analysis: Barthes emphasizes deconstructing codes in popular texts and
revealing how specific values are reinforced while others are suppressed.
⁃ Structuralism and Post-Structuralism:
Structuralism: Saussure’s linguistic structuralism influenced thinkers across disciplines.
Post-Structuralism: Rejects the idea of a stable underlying system and focuses on deconstruction,
revealing the instability between signifier and signified.
Potential Questions:
1. How did Saussure conceptualize the relationship between the signifier and the signified, and how
does this relate to the process of representation?
2. How did Barthes expand Saussure's theory to analyze myth, and what are the implications of
connotation in myth?
3. What criticisms have been leveled against Saussure's structuralism, and how does post-
structuralism address these issues?
Detailed Answers:
1. Saussure’s Conceptualization of Signifier and Signified:
• Saussure introduced the concept of the sign as being composed of two parts: the signifier (form,
e.g., a word or image) and the signified (concept or idea).
• Representation is thus the result of signs conveying meanings through this relationship between
signifier and signified.
• The meaning emerges not inherently but through differences between signs within the system,
making signs meaningful in context.
2. Barthes' Expansion on Saussure's Theory:
• Barthes developed Saussure’s semiotic approach by introducing two levels of signification:
denotation (literal meaning) and connotation (ideological meaning).
• In Mythologies, he explored how myths operate as a second layer of signification, where the
primary sign (denotation) becomes a signifier for a broader, often ideological meaning.
• For instance, Barthes’ analysis of the Paris Match cover photo revealed how a denotative image
of a black soldier saluting the French flag connotatively represented French colonialism.
3. Critiques of Structuralism and Post-Structuralist Approaches:
• Saussure's model is criticized for neglecting the referent (connection to reality) and
overemphasizing the formal aspects of language.
• Post-structuralists like Derrida and Foucault argue that no stable underlying structures exist,
focusing instead on the deconstruction of meaning-making processes.
• They highlight the instability of the signifier-signified relationship and analyze how dominant
ideologies shape language, challenging Saussure’s idea of language as a stable system.

⁃ Foucault’s Contribution: He offered a novel approach to discussing representation, emphasizing

knowledge production via discourse instead of only language.
⁃ Core Ideas:
Discourse: A system that provides a language to represent knowledge at specific historical
periods.
Epistemes: Different historical periods create their own systems of knowledge.
Discursive Formations: Discourses appear across various institutions and practices.
Power-Knowledge: How knowledge and power intertwine, especially through institutions like
the panopticon.
⁃ Las Meninas Analysis: Foucault’s interpretation of Velásquez's Las Meninas reveals how the
painting plays with representation and reality. The relationship between the painter, the mirror image, and
the subjects provides a complex interplay of perspectives.
⁃ Meta-Painting Concept: Foucault suggests that Las Meninas is a meta-painting, reflecting on the
painter's role and royal authority in representation.
⁃ Critical Themes:
Historical Context: Understanding representations requires recognizing the context and meaning
within a specific period.
Discontinuities: Emphasizing breaks and shifts in discourses over time.
Possible Questions and Answers
4. Question: What role does discourse play in Foucault's theory of representation?
 Answer: Discourse is crucial because it provides a structured way to talk about and represent
knowledge within a particular historical period. It produces and shapes what we consider knowledge and
how that knowledge is used to govern behavior. Discourses are found across various institutions and
practices, shaping their understanding.
5. Question: How does Foucault’s interpretation of Las Meninas illustrate his ideas on
representation?
Answer: Foucault’s analysis of Las Meninas highlights the paradox between reality and
representation. The triangular relationship between the painter, the mirror image, and the onlookers
suggests a layering of perspectives that blend illusion and reality. The painting questions the nature of
representation by reflecting on the role of the artist and the authority that underpins representation,
creating a meta-painting.
6. Question: How do epistemes affect the production of knowledge in different historical periods,
according to Foucault?
Answer: Epistemes are frameworks or structures of thought that define what is considered valid
knowledge in different historical periods. They determine the criteria for truth and influence how
discourses emerge and shape our understanding. Foucault emphasized that shifts between epistemes
create radical breaks, leading to new systems of knowledge that are often discontinuous with previous
periods.
7. Question: How do knowledge and power interact in Foucault’s theory?
Answer: Foucault argues that knowledge and power are intertwined. Knowledge doesn't just
reflect power relations but actively shapes and maintains them. Through institutions and discourses,
power operates to control behavior, such as the concept of panopticism, where surveillance leads to self-
regulation. Thus, knowledge is a tool used to govern individuals and society.