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978-1-108-47084-1 — Research Methods

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Bernard C. Beins
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Research Methods: A Tool for Life

Fourth Edition
Research Methods is an introduction to the importance of scientific research in every-
day life and uses familiar examples to keep students engaged. The text analyzes
controversies in psychology to stimulate student interest while explaining crucial
methodological concepts. It presents ethical issues related to research, as well as
social and cultural factors that might affect it, and provides a comprehensive intro-
duction to a wide variety of methodologies. Through this book, students will learn
how to generate research questions and select appropriate methodology, as well as to
write a successful research report.
Bernard C. Beins is Professor of Psychology at Ithaca College. He has been President

of the New England Psychological Association and the Society for the Teaching of
Psychology.
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RESEARCH
METHODS
A Tool for Life
Fourth Edition
Bernard C. Beins
Ithaca College

4th Edition
Bernard C. Beins
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Cambridge University Press is part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment,

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We share the University’s mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
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DOI: 10.1017/9781108557191
First, second, third edition © Pearson Education, Inc., 2004, 2009, 2013
Third edition © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2017
Fourth edition © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2019
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment.
First edition 2004
Second edition 2009
Third edition 2013 & 2017
Fourth edition 2019
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ISBN 978-1-108-47084-1 Hardback
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publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will
remain, accurate or appropriate.

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Once again, I dedicate this book to the most important people in my life:
Linda, Agatha, Simon, Jenny, Evie, and Julian.

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BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xix
Part I Understanding Research

1 Psychology, Science, and Life 1
2 Ethics in Research 38
3 Planning Research: Generating a Research Question 67
4 Practical Issues in Planning Your Research 103

5 Measurement and Sampling 127
Part II Experimental Approaches

6 Conducting An Experiment: General Principles 160
7 Experiments with One Independent Variable 181
8 Experiments with Multiple Independent Variables 208
9 Expanding on Experimental Designs: Repeated Measures and
Quasi-experiments 229
Part III Correlational and Nonexperimental Designs

10 Principles of Survey Research 258
11 Correlational Research 287
12 Studying Patterns in The Natural World: Observational Approaches 311
13 Research in Depth: Longitudinal and Single-case Studies 333
Part IV Culture and Research

14 People are Different: Considering Cultural and Individual Differences
in Research 361
Appendix A – Writing a Research Report 395

Appendix B – Statistics Review 415
Appendix C – Statistical Tables 441
References 451
Index 495

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CONTENTS
Preface xix
Part I Understanding Research

1 Psychology, Science, and Life 1
Learning Objectives 1
Key Terms 1
Chapter Preview 1
Why are Research Methods Important Tools for Life? 3
Why Learning About Research is Important 5
Answering Important Questions 6
Why We Do Research 7
Description 8
Prediction 9
Explanation 10
Control 12
Research Applied to Life: Suicide 12
What Should You Believe? 13
Characteristics of Science 14
Science is Objective 15
Science is Data-driven 18
Scientific Methods are Replicable and Results are Verifiable 19
Science is Public 20
Culture and Research 21
The Interaction of Science and Society 22
The Government’s Role in Science 23
Societal Values and Science 24
Scientific Literacy 25
What Would it Take to Change Your Mind? 26
Science and Pseudoscience 27
Warning Signs of Bogus Science 28
Junk Science 30
Controversy: The Myth of Vaccination and Autism Continues 30
What Can You Do About This? 31
Chapter Summary 32
Chapter Review Questions 33
Multiple Choice Questions 33
Essay Questions 36
Answers to Chapter Review Questions 36
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 36
Answers to Essay Questions 36

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Contents ix
2 Ethics in Research 38
Learning Objectives 38
Key Terms 39
Chapter Preview 39
Unethical Research Practices: Past and Present 41
Ethical Problems in the Early Years of the Twentieth Century 41
Ethics and Plagiarism 43
Current Examples of Ethical Lapses 43
The Impact of Ethical Lapses 46
Ethical Guidelines Created by the American Psychological Association 46
Aspirational Goals and Enforceable Rules 47
Ethical Standards as They Affect You 48
Legal Requirements and Ethics in Research 50
Institutional Review Boards 50
The Importance of Social Context in Deciding on Ethics in Research 51
Stanley Milgram’s Research Project on Obedience 52
The Ethical Issues 52
What You Need to do if Your Research Involves Deception 53
Some Research May Require Deception 54
The Effects of Debriefing on Research 55
The Controversy About Deception 56
Ethical Issues in Special Circumstances 57
Ethics in Cross-cultural Research 57
Ethics in Internet Research 59
Ethics in Research with Nonhuman Animals 60
Chapter Summary 61
Essay Questions 65
3 Planning Research: Generating a Research Question 67

Learning Outcomes 67
Key Terms 67
Chapter Preview 67
Where Research Ideas Begin: Everyday Observations and Systematic Research 69
Informal and Formal Sources of Ideas 70
The Effect of Theory 71
How Can You Develop Research Ideas? 74
Culture and Research 77
The Virtual Laboratory: Research on the Internet 78
Internet Research 80
Factors that can Make a Difference 82
Advantages to Internet Research 85

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x Contents
Potential Problems with Internet Research 86

Checking on Research: The Role of Replication 87
Don’t Reinvent the Wheel: Reviewing the Literature 89
What is a Literature Review? 90
The Effect of Peer Review on the Research Literature 90
How to Conduct a Literature Review 91
Electronic Databases 91
Starting Your Search 91
Different Sources of Information 93
How to Read a Journal Article 94
Understanding the Format of a Research Paper 94
Summary 98
Essay Questions 101
4 Practical Issues in Planning Your Research 103

Key Terms 103
Chapter Preview 103
How Can You Develop a Research Idea? 104
Practical Questions in Planning Research 106
Understanding Your Research 106
Carrying Out a Literature Search 107
Conducting Your Study 107
Descriptive Research 108
Survey Research 108
Experimental Research 108
Determining the Research Setting 110
Choosing Your Methodology 111
Approaches to Psychological Research 111
Selecting Research Materials and Procedures 113
Why Methodology is Important 115
Choosing Your Participants or Subjects 116
The Nature of Your Participants 117
Deciding How Many Participants to Include 118
Research Applied to Life: Can Animal Research Help Us Understand
Human Stress? 119
Differing Approaches in Different Areas of Psychology 120
Different Approaches in Different Journals 120
Different Types of Participants in Different Journals 121
Making Choices in Your Research Design 121
Summary 123

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Contents xi

Essay Questions 125
5 Measurement and Sampling 127

Key Terms 127
Chapter Preview 127
Psychological Concepts 129
Measuring Complex Concepts 129
Operational Definitions 129
Defining and Measuring Variables 131
The Importance of Culture and Context in Defining Variables 135
Multiple Possible Operational Definitions 136
Probability Sampling 136
Simple Random Sampling 137
Systematic Sampling 138
Stratified Random Sampling 138
Cluster Sampling 138
Nonprobability Sampling 140
Convenience Sampling 141
Quota Sampling 142
Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling 142
Chain-referral Sampling 143
Making Useful Measurements 143
Reliability 144
Validity 145
Considering Validity in Research 145
Construct Validity 145
Internal and External Validity 147
Statistical Conclusion Validity 151
Convergent and Divergent Validity 152
Research Applied to Life: The Head Start Program 152
Scales of Measurement 153
Nominal Scales 153
Ordinal Scales 154
Ratio and Interval Scales 154
Summary 155
Essay Questions 158

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xii Contents
Part II Experimental Approaches

6 Conducting An Experiment: General Principles 160
Key Terms 160
Chapter Preview 160
Choosing a Methodology: The Practicalities of Research 162
Determining the Causes of Behavior 162
Trying to Determine Causation in Research 163
Requirements for Cause–Effect Relationships 163
The Logic of Experimental Manipulation 164
Research Applied to Life: Withholding Treatment in Research 166
Experimental Control – Or What Can Go Wrong 167
Lack of Control in Experimental Research: Extraneous Variables and
Confounds 167
Do Women Show Fear of Success? 169
Experimenter and Participant Effects 171
Minimizing the Likelihood of Experimenter and Participant Effects 172
The Hawthorne Effect 173
Research Applied to Life: Drug-sniffing Dogs 175
Realism in Research 176
Summary 177
Essay Questions 180
7 Experiments with One Independent Variable 181

Key Terms 181
Chapter Preview 181
Determining Variables of Interest 183
Investigating Psychology and Criminal Justice 183
Variety of Research Variables 184
Independent and Dependent Variables 186
Using Experiments to Determine Causation 189
Is it Ethical to Induce Depression in Research? 190
Types of Independent and Dependent Variables 191
Qualitative and Quantitative Independent Variables 192
Research Applied to Life: What We Believe 194
Independent Variables Created by Different Types of Manipulations 195
Types of Dependent Variables 197
Research Applied to Life: Race and Pain 197
Understanding Your Results 198
Comparing Two Groups 198
Generalizing Research Results 200

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Contents xiii
Comparing Multiple Groups 201

Data Analysis 202
Experiments with Two Groups 202
Experiments with Multiple Groups 203
Summary 204
Essay Questions 207
8 Experiments with Multiple Independent Variables 208

Key Terms 208
Chapter Preview 208
Research with Multiple Independent Variables 209
Main Effects 209
Interactions between Variables 211
Not Much Power in the Pose: Illustration of a 2 × 3 Design with an Interaction 212
A 2 × 2 Factorial Design with Repeated Measures 214
Research with More Than Two IVs 216
Practical Complexities in Research 217
Research Applied to Life: Racial Prejudice 219
Data Analysis 224
Summary 225
Essay Questions 228
9 Expanding on Experimental Designs: Repeated Measures and

Quasi-experiments 229
Key Terms 229
Chapter Preview 229
Repeated-Measures Designs 231
Advantages of Repeated-Measures Designs 231
Increasing Efficiency in Data Collection 231
Increasing Validity of Data 232
Finding Enough Participants 232
Reducing Error in Measurement 235
Limitations to Repeated-Measures Designs 235
Possible, but Unlikely, Repeated-Measures Designs 235
Subject (Participant) Variables 236
Research Applied to Life: Cell Phones, Alcohol, and Driving 236

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xiv Contents
Illustration of a One-variable Design with Repeated Measures 236

Order and Sequence Effects 237
Data Analysis with Repeated-Measures Designs 238
Quasi-experimental Designs 239
Causation and Quasi-experimental Designs 240
Combining Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs 240
Threats to Internal Validity 242
Threats Associated with Participants 242
Threat Associated with Measurement 243
Types of Quasi-experimental Designs 245
One-group Pretest–Postest Design 246
Static-group Comparison Designs 247
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 247
Interrupted Time-series Designs 249
Replicated Interrupted Time-series Designs 250
Research Applied to Life: Laws and Behavior 252
Summary 254
Essay Questions 256
Part III Correlational and Nonexperimental Designs

10 Principles of Survey Research 258
Key Terms 258
Chapter Preview 258
Surveys: Answering Diverse Questions 260
Census versus Sample 260
Accuracy of Survey Results 261
Ethics in Survey Research 262
Selecting Your Methodology 262
Online Data Collection 264
Question Types 265
Question Content 267
Research Applied to Life: How Many Adolescents Smoke? 272
Response Bias 272
Social Desirability 273
Acquiescence 275
Satisficing versus Optimizing 275
Culture and Response Styles 276
Acquiescent Response Style 277
Extreme and Moderate Response Style 277

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Contents xv
Studying Sensitive Issues 278

Are Telephone Surveys Appropriate for Sensitive Issues? 279
Crowdsourcing in Research 279
Sampling Issues 280
Finding Hidden Populations 280
Summary 282
Essay Questions 285
11 Correlational Research 287

Key Terms 287
Chapter Preview 287
Correlational Studies 289
Finding Relationships 289
Making Predictions 292
Research in Life: The Media and Violence 293
Using the Correlational Approach 294
Correlational Studies 295
Correlational Analysis 295
Positive and Negative Correlations 295
Strength of Association 296
Factors Affecting the Size of a Correlation Coefficient 298
Traditional Correlational Tests 303
The Pearson Product–Moment Correlation 303
Alternate Bivariate Correlations 303
Linear Regression 304
Correlations with Multiple Variables 305
Multiple Regression 306
Research Applied to Life: The Mental Health of College Students 306
Summary 308
Essay Questions 310
12 Studying Patterns in The Natural World: Observational Approaches 311

Key Terms 311
Chapter Preview 311
Observational Approaches 313
Scientific versus Casual Observation 313

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xvi Contents
Studying Natural Behaviors 314

Studying Complex Human Behavior 315
Ethology 316
Describing the Behavior of Nonhuman Animals 317
Approaches to Observational Research 318
Five Practical Steps in Observational Research 318
Structured and Unstructured Observations 319
Sampling Issues in Observational Research 321
Number of Sampling Blocks 321
Methods of Sampling Events During Observation 322
Estimating the Frequency and Duration of Behaviors 324
Ethological Observations in Clinical Research 325
The Human Side of Observational Research 325
Ethics 325
Participant–Observer Interactions 326
Subject Reactivity 326
Observer Effects 328
Data Analysis in Observational Research 329
Summary 329
Essay Questions 331
13 Research in Depth: Longitudinal and Single-case Studies 333

Key Terms 333
Chapter Preview 333
Longitudinal Research 335
Common Themes in Longitudinal Research 335
Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal Research 336
Varieties of Longitudinal Research 337
Trend Studies 338
Cohort Studies 340
Cohort-sequential Studies 340
Panel Studies 342
Research Applied to Life: Student Achievement 344
Issues in Longitudinal Designs 345
Retrospective and Prospective Studies 345
Attrition 346
Single-subject Experimentation 350
Experimental Analysis of Behavior 350
Methods of Single-case Designs 351
Withdrawal Designs 351
Single-subject Randomized Clinical Trials 352

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Contents xvii
Strengths of Single-participant Designs 352

Weaknesses of Single-participant Designs 353
Misunderstandings about Single-case Research 353
Case Studies 354
A Case Study with Experimental Manipulations: Tasting Pointed Chickens and
Seeing Colored Numbers 356
Summary 357
Essay Questions 359
Part IV Culture and Research

14 People are Different: Considering Cultural and Individual Differences in
Research 361
Key Terms 361
Chapter Preview 361
Different Cultural Perspectives 363
What is Culture? 364
Defining an Individual’s Culture, Ethnicity, and Race 366
Criteria for Inclusion in a Group 368
Social Issues and Cultural Research 369
Cross-cultural Concepts in Psychology 370
Are Psychological Constructs Universal? 370
Issues in Cross-cultural Research 372
Is There a Biological Basis for Race? 373
The Criteria for Race 373
Biological Insights Regarding Race 374
Are There Really Different Races? 375
Practical Issues in Cultural Research 376
Lack of Appropriate Training among Researchers 376
Why the Concepts of Culture and Ethnicity are Essential in Research 377
Studying Differences Due to Language and Thought Processes 377
Studying Differences in Simple and Complex Behaviors 378
Is Culture-free Theory Really Free of Culture? 379
Similarities and Differences within the Same Culture 380
Cultural Factors in Mental Health Research 381
Content Validity 381
Translation Problems 382
Cross-cultural Norms 382
Cross-cultural Diagnoses 384
Sex and Gender: Do Men and Women Come From Different Cultures? 386
Stereotypes and Gender-related Performance 386

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xviii Contents
Research Applied to Life: Are Men better than Women at Mathematics? 387
Summary 388
Essay Questions 391
Appendix A – Writing a Research Report 395

Appendix B – Statistics Review 415
Appendix C – Statistical Tables 441
References 451
Index 495

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PREFACE
Wouldn’t life be interesting if you could predict the future? Some people claim to be
able to do that. For instance, so-called psychics claim they can foretell the future.
Unfortunately, the only accurate prediction is that after you leave them, they will
have some of your money in their pockets.
It turns out, though, that it is possible to make reasonable predictions about the
future. The best predictions that we can make involve the results of research. For
example, meteorologists predict the weather every day based on scientific research
and mathematical models. It is based on science, which means that their predictions
are the best available, even if they aren’t perfect.
The same is true of psychological science. Psychologists have used research to
help us understand and predict behavior. This is what psychological science is all
about. A course in research methods or experimental psychology will give you the
tools to conduct research yourself. Any study you conduct could add to our knowl-
edge of what people are like, how they behave, and what you might predict about
them in the future.
For example, psychological research has identified the most effective approaches
to treating problems like posttraumatic stress disorder. Researchers have also discov-
ered strategies that maximize student learning, lead to effective group work, and
increase life satisfaction.
These outcomes may not be dramatic, but they demonstrate that psychological
science can be useful in helping us understand and predict behavior.
Your course in psychological research will let you develop skills needed to conduct
research projects yourself. But even if you don’t engage in research, this course will
help you learn to evaluate information to determine if it is credible. This is one of
the most important aspects of becoming scientifically literate and becoming an effec-
tive contributor to society, which increasingly relies on scientific knowledge.
Scientific awareness is important because, with newly developed artificial intelligence
applications, a computer can gather information and summarize it more quickly
than a person can. But the computer can’t evaluate the validity of claims that are
made. That is something that you need to do. Understanding about research can aid
you in evaluating claims that people make.
Ultimately, knowledge about research helps us have better lives through under-
standing human behavior. The purpose of this book is to show you how research has
helped us to discover why we think, act, and behave as we do. Beyond this, it is as
important to be able to recognize good research and to reject invalid claims as it is to
be able to conduct your own studies. With this knowledge, you will be able to make
better decisions as you move through life.
Advantages to this Book

There are several advantages to using this book. I hope the format of the chapters
and the varied features both enhance the learning of research techniques and

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xx Preface
foster an appreciation of why research is important. The features include the

following:
• Clear and engaging writing style that will capture the reader’s interest.
• Presentation of important concepts without reliance on excess technical jargon.
• A chapter focusing specifically on diversity and its importance in understanding
behavior.
• Presentation of research that involves diversity in sampling, going beyond the
typical American undergraduate groups.
• Demonstrations of the wide range of methods that psychological scientists use to
address varied research questions.
• Interesting examples that relate to the lives that people lead.
• Discussions that show how laboratory studies are important to everyday life.
• Explanations of research that has an impact on important societal issues.
• Inclusion of end-of-chapter practice quizzes with multiple-choice and short-
answer items for each chapter.
Using this Book

This book is intended for students who are newly involved in learning about and con-
ducting research. Students who have completed a statistics course will be most able to
begin their work as researchers as they go through the book. Students who have not
yet learned the basics of statistics will come to grasp the subtleties of the research pro-
cess so that, with some supplementary work, they can analyze the data they collect in
their projects. Instructors do not need to follow the order of chapters. Students can
benefit from the material in the book when the presentation of chapters is changed.
The order of the chapters is such that the first five chapters provide the basic phi-
losophy of research and elements of critical thinking and scientific literacy. After stu-
dents learn this introductory material, they will have the essential tools to create a
research project.
The next set of chapters focuses on the experimental method. This is the
approach that psychological scientists rely on to understand causes of behavior and
is frequently the first approach they implement. Following the experimental chap-
ters, there are chapters involving correlational research that is valuable in spotting
relations among variables even when we cannot draw conclusions about causation.
Finally, I have included a chapter that specifically addresses diversity in psycholo-
gical research. With the changes in society associated with issues of race, ethnicity,
nationality, sex and gender, and so forth, it is important to be aware of the impact of
these factors on the people we study.
Supplementary Material
Part of the pedagogical package for this book is an instructor’s manual with activities,
demonstrations, and data-collection exercises. Data sets for increasing the power
of statistical analysis are available to supplement data collected in small classes.

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Preface xxi
There is also a test bank that contains multiple-choice questions, short-answer

questions, and other integrative questions. The items generally focus on understand-
ing concepts rather than simply repeating vocabulary, and they require that students
go beyond simple memorization.
The supplementary material also includes PowerPoint files that track the material
in the chapters. Some of the material in these files goes beyond what appears in the
book so that the instructor can generate useful discussion of actual research projects.

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Cambridge University Press & Assessment

978-1-108-47084-1 — Research Methods

Research Methods: A Tool for Life

Bernard C. Beins is Professor of Psychology at Ithaca College. He has been President

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of Cambridge University Press & Assessment,

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Part I Understanding Research

4 Practical Issues in Planning Your Research 103

Part II Experimental Approaches

Part III Correlational and Nonexperimental Designs

Part IV Culture and Research

Appendix A – Writing a Research Report 395

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Part I Understanding Research

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

3 Planning Research: Generating a Research Question 67

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Potential Problems with Internet Research 86

4 Practical Issues in Planning Your Research 103

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Multiple Choice Questions 124

5 Measurement and Sampling 127

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Part II Experimental Approaches

7 Experiments with One Independent Variable 181

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Comparing Multiple Groups 201

8 Experiments with Multiple Independent Variables 208

9 Expanding on Experimental Designs: Repeated Measures and

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Illustration of a One-variable Design with Repeated Measures 236

Part III Correlational and Nonexperimental Designs

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Studying Sensitive Issues 278

11 Correlational Research 287

12 Studying Patterns in The Natural World: Observational Approaches 311

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Studying Natural Behaviors 314

13 Research in Depth: Longitudinal and Single-case Studies 333

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Strengths of Single-participant Designs 352

Part IV Culture and Research

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Appendix A – Writing a Research Report 395

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Advantages to this Book

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

foster an appreciation of why research is important. The features include the

Using this Book

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

There is also a test bank that contains multiple-choice questions, short-answer

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

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