Lecture 24-28

General Science (GSC101)
LECTURE # 33
Biology Lecture # 05
CHROMOSOMES, DNA AND GENES
Heredity Information Flow

Reproducing itself is a property of life. Transferring characteristics to next generation is a
property of living organisms. Heredity information flow in living organisms is carried out
by the genes. The “Chromosome theory of heredity” states that the genes are present on
chromosomes and are responsible for the transfer of characteristics from generation to
generation. Genes are present in the form of DNA molecules, organized in a structure
called chromosome (chromatin material).
Chromatin - the Genetic Material
Genetic material is present in the nucleus of the cell in eukaryotes and in the nucleoid
region in prokaryotes. These are called chromatin material. Chromatin material is not
visible during interphase (non-dividing state) of the cell. These become visible during
cell division due to condensation of chromosomes.
Functions of Genetic Material
There are some important properties of genetic material, which are following:
• It replicates itself.
• It regulates the growth and development of the organism.
• It allows the organism to adapt to the environmental changes.
Chromosomes - DNA – Genes
Chromosomes consist of DNA molecule associated with proteins. In chromosomes, DNA
is wrapped around proteins. Few of these proteins are called histones and few others.
DNA is associated with histone and non-histone proteins in a chromosome.
Introduction of DNA and Gene
DNA is a macromolecule (large molecule) organized in structure chromosome. In
prokaryotes DNA is a circular molecule. In eukaryotes it is a long linear molecule.
Mitochondria and chloroplast also have their own circular DNA molecules.
Gene is a length of DNA that codes for a peptide or protein. So that gene is a part or
length of DNA.
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Condensation of Genetic Material

Chromatin material condenses during prophase of mitosis in the form of chromosomes.
Chemical analysis shows that chromosome consist of DNA and proteins. DNA is a long
molecule about 2nm thick running continuously within each chromosome. Chemical
analysis shows that DNA is acidic in nature.
The Structure of Chromosomes
Chromosome consists of a DNA molecule wound around proteins. DNA in human cell
(all chromosomes) is about 6 feet long, packed in a microscopic nucleus of a cell. In one
human chromosome, it is 1.7-8.5 cm long. How is this possible? The answer is “coiling”
and “super-coiling”. The chromosome consists of highly condensed structure. If we can
open this like a thread, then the long thread will appear like a flower like structure called
solenoid which consists of many smaller units. These small units are called
“nucleosomes”. A nucleosome is a length of DNA coiled around a set of proteins. The
DNA coils around histones twice, which is up to 200 base pairs long. Two nucleosomes
are connected to each other by a length of DNA, which is called “linker DNA” (up to 80
base pairs long).
Chromosome coiling and nucleosome

Two nucleosomes
Chemical Composition of DNA
DNA is a complex macromolecule (large molecule). DNA stands for Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid. The smallest unit of DNA is called a “nucleotide”; nucleotides join to
make polynucleotide. We can say that DNA consists of nucleotides joined together.
Nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of:
1. Deoxyribose sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous base
phas
Ana
Meta
phas Telophase
e
Structure of a nucleotide
There are four nucleotides based upon four different nitrogenous bases attached to them.
Nitrogenous bases are of two types: purines and pyrimidine. Purines include two bases

Adenine and Guanine which have a double ringed structure. Pyrimidine bases include the
other ones called Thymine and Cytosine that have single ringed structure.
Mechanism of Gene Action
Genes express themselves by making proteins. Making the proteins by DNA occur by
two processes called transcription and translation. Transcription is formation of a form
of RNA from DNA called messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA is formed inside the nucleus
in eukaryotes and in nucleoid region in prokaryotes. The next process is translation,
which is formation of a protein or peptide by mRNA with the help of another organelle
called ribosome.
Replication is another function of DNA. It is doubling of DNA molecule to make two
copies of itself. Replication occurs before cell division to make copies of DNA for the
daughter cells.
Genetic code is a term used for the parts of DNA that code for proteins. A codon is a 3
nucleotides code for an amino acid, i.e., codon is a 3 nucleotide set of DNA molecule that
codes for a protein.
Transcription and Translation
• Transcription = DNA mRNA
• Translation = mRNA Protein
• The following scheme is called the central dogma of molecular biology / genetics
DNA RNA Protein
Transcription
• DNA mRNA
The process of transcription involves an enzyme called RNA polymerase. One strand of
DNA act as the template strand which is actually coded into the mRNA.
• Steps of transcription
o RNA polymerase identifies and attaches to a region called promoter on the

DNA upstream the gene.
o RNA polymerase open the double helix chain which results in the
formation of transcription bubble.

Deoxyribose sugar
P
Transcription Process
• RNA polymerase moves on the gene, the helix unwinds and make a
complementary strand of RNA. This strand of mRNA protrudes out of
transcription bubble.
• At end of the gene there is a stop sequence. Usually it is a series of GC
base pairs followed by a series of AT base pairs.
• These sequences make a hair pin loop like structure which stops RNA
polymerase from transcribing.
• Thymine is coded as uracil in mRNA.
Promoter region on
DNA

Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

In prokaryotes, the mRNA directly moves into cytoplasm and its translation starts
because there is no nuclear membrane, nucleoid region is continuous with cytoplasm. In
eukaryotes, mRNA formed moves out of nucleus through nuclear pores and then it is
translated in the cytoplasm with the help of ribosomes.
Modification of mRNA in eukaryotes
mRNA in eukaryotes has to travel from nucleus to cytoplasm, to protect it from the action
of nucleases (the DNA cutting enzymes) and proteases (protein cutting enzymes), it is
modified. On its 5’ end a cap of 7 methyl GTP is added; while on the 3’ end a poly A tail
is added. Introns are also removed. Introns are DNA sequences in the eukaryotes which
are non coding and should be removed from the mRNA. The coding regions are called
exons.
mRNA formed RNA Polymerase
RNA Template
Gene: the coding region
polymerase strand
Exon
mRNA in eukaryotes have regions – exons and introns

Translation
• mRNA ------- Protein
The process of translation consists of three major steps: initiation, elongation, and
termination.
Steps of Transcription
• In prokaryotes, translation starts while transcription is going on because there is
no barrier between nucleoid and cytoplasm.
• In eukaryote, first introns are removed.

Process of Translation
Initiation:
• The mRNA binds to the small unit of ribosome.
• The large ribosomal subunit has 3 binding sites called E (Exit), P (Peptidyl), and
A (Aminocyl).
• When the first codon (triplet code) is aligned at the P site then the large ribosomal
subunit attaches to the small subunit.
A ribosome
• A tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine attaches to the start codon (AUG) on
the messenger RNA.
A tRNA with an amino acid on the P site

Elongation:
• A tRNA with its amino acid attaches to the A binding site.
• Peptide bond formation occurs between the methionine and the amino acid carried
at the A binding site.
• Ribosome moves in the 3' direction down the messenger RNA by three bases,
shifting the tRNA and polypeptide chain to the P Binding site.
• The A binding site is open and a vacant tRNA (without amino acid) is in the E
binding site.
• Now, the next tRNA brings another amino acid and bind to A site.
• A peptide bond is formed between the second and this new (thirs) amino acid.
• Ribosome moves in 3’ direction and the vacant tRNA is released from the E site.
• This process continues until a stop codon arrives on mRNA.
• A Releasing factor comes and binds to the A site in place of stop codon. The
polypeptide chain separates from tRNA and ribosome. Then ribosomal units
disassemble again. mRNA molecule also released which has been coded.
Peptide bond is formed between the amino acids brought by tRNAs present on P and A
sites.

Growing polypeptide is present on P site and empty amino acid on E site. New
tRNA with an amino acid will come and attach on A site.
Exercise
1. Explain the process of transcription with the help of diagram.

2. Explain the process of translation with the help of diagrams.
3. Differentiate between the transcription and translation processes of prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.

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General Science (GSC101)

CHROMOSOMES, DNA AND GENES

Heredity Information Flow

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Condensation of Genetic Material

Chromosome coiling and nucleosome

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o RNA polymerase identifies and attaches to a region called promoter on the

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Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

mRNA formed RNA Polymerase

mRNA in eukaryotes have regions – exons and introns

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A tRNA with an amino acid on the P site

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1. Explain the process of transcription with the help of diagram.

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