Packaging Materials and Technology For Improving Quality of Frozen Foods

วารสารเทคโนโลยีการอาหาร มหาวิทยาลัยสยาม ปีที่ 10 ฉบับที่ 1 ตุลาคม 2557 - กันยายน 2558 81
เทคโนโลยีการบรรจุและวัสดุเพื่อการเพิ่มคุณภาพอาหารแช่เยือกแข็ง
Packaging Materials and Technologies for Improving Quality of Frozen Foods
ณัฐดนัย หาญการสุจริต
Nathdanai Harnkarnsujarit
ABSTRACT 1. Introduction
Quality of frozen foods is influenced by Freezing is a promising technology to
various factors including freezing operation, storage preserve quality and prolong shelf-life of food and
temperature, food components and packaging agriculture products. Several factors impact quality
systems. Packaging materials e.g. PE, nylon, PET, etc. of frozen foods including freezing process, food
and packaging atmosphere surrounded foods have components, packaging, storage and distribution
key role on quality changes of frozen products. This chain, and thawing. The freezing process governs the
paper aims to review utilization of packaging ice formation and initially changes microstructure of
materials and technologies applied in frozen foods frozen products. The rate of heat removal during
to improve and monitor quality of frozen products. freezing determines the size and distribution of ice
The principles of phase transition in freezing process crystal formed which directly impact quality of
and glass transition which affect quality deterioration frozen foods. Faster freezing leads to formation of
of frozen foods are explained. Migration of water, i.e. small size of ice crystals. In general, food structures
ice recrystallization and water loss from foods is the may be damaged by ice formation giving textural
major problem found in all frozen products. Several changes upon thawing and, therefore, small ice
biochemical reactions during frozen storage are crystals are desirable to preserve frozen food
limited, however, take place and are accelerated quality.
during thawing e.g. lipid and protein oxidation, The principle of food preservation by
enzymatic reaction and microbial activity leading to freezing include (i) the reduced temperature and
loss of quality and safety. Developed packaging thus decreased several chemical and biochemical
technologies i.e. modified atmosphere packaging, reactions including microbial growth and respiration
edible film/coating, active and intelligent packaging of fresh produce, and (ii) the reduced amount of
utilization and consequence on frozen food water due to water transformation into ice conforms
qualities are discussed. The appropriate selection of to the principle of food preservation as reduced
packaging materials and operations can minimize water activity (aw) and reduced molecular mobility
changes and improve quality of frozen foods. [1, 2]. However, migration of water and gas diffusion
possibly occurs at freezing temperature which
Keywords: Packaging technology, Packaging
subsequently cause deterioration of frozen foods
material, Quality, Freezing, Frozen food
e.g. ice recrystallization, dehydration and lipid
oxidation which are accelerated by temperature
fluctuation during cold chain. Moreover, the thawing
increases water availability for microbial and
nathdanai.h@ku.ac.th
อาจารย์ประจา ดร. ภาควิชาเทคโนโลยีการบรรจุและวัสดุ, คณะอุตสาหกรรมเกษตร มหาวิทยาลัยเกษตรศาสตร์
Lecturer, Dr., Department of Packaging and Material Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University
chemical reactions and thus accelerate loss of conforms to the release of heat and the ability of
quality and safety of frozen products. water to diffuse towards surface. The latent heat
Packaging plays an important role on quality associated with phase change is much larger than
preservation of food products. The basic functions that of sensible heat and is need to be removed so
of packaging include (i) protection and preservation, that the ice can form. Moreover, solutes must also
(ii) containment, (iii) provide convenience, and (iv) be rejected from the growing ice surface as ice
giving information and communication [3]. The tends to form pure crystals [2]. Accordingly, the heat
packaging materials provides barrier against and mass transfer control the growth of ice crystals.
environmental accelerated quality changes The time-temperature record during
including gas and water vapor transmission. Several freezing process or so called ‘freezing curve’;
packaging technologies including modified ‘freezing profile’ are shown in Figure.1a and 1b for
atmosphere packaging (MAP), edible film/edible pure water and food system, respectively. The
coating, active and intelligent packaging have been removal of sensible heat (4.18 kJ kg–1C) reduces
investigated and show effectiveness on enhancing temperature of the systems from initial temperature
quality of various food products. (point A) to that can fall below 0C without the
This paper reviews the utilization and formation of ice crystals because nucleation is
properties of packaging materials and technologies required for the crystallization. Once the critical
applied in frozen foods and their effectiveness on mass of nuclei is reached, the system nucleates
frozen food quality. Moreover, the principle of (point B) and releases its latent heat (335 kJ kg–1 at
phase transition during freezing and quality 0°C) showing the abrupt increase in temperature
deteriorations of frozen foods are demonstrated. (point B to C) which represents the onset of ice
2. Freezing and phase transitions crystallization. The lowering of temperature below
Freezing process causes phase transitions of the freezing point of materials without solidification
water and, in some cases, solute components. The is called supercooling. The supercooling is generally
cooling/freezing involves the removal of sensible lower in aqueous solutions than in pure water
heat and latent heat which associated with the because the presence of solute promotes
reducing temperature and phase changes, heterogeneous nucleation which accelerates the
respectively. The mechanism of ice crystallization nucleation [4]. When crystallization begins, the
consists of 2 processes namely nucleation and temperature reaches point C, the freezing point,
growth. A nucleus or seed with a critical radius is which is 0°C for pure water and below 0°C for
required before the ice can form and the process to solution and food systems. The further cooling
produce such seed is called ‘nucleation’ [2, 4]. causes ice formation and reduced amount of liquid
Consequently, the addition of water molecules to water. In pure water system, the liquid-solid
the solid-liquid interphase or ‘growth’ can occur transition of water takes place at an identical
once the stable nucleus is formed. The growth may temperature. Conversely, the increased
not be instantaneous because the phase change concentration of unfrozen phase causes instant
decreased freezing point due to colligative effect as
water forms ice. The freezing point depression is the crystallization of solute releases latent heat of
determined by the number of dissolved solute fusion that raises the temperature to eutectic
molecules [4]. Upon solidification, further removal equilibrium point that remains constant during
of heat decreases temperature of the systems eutectic solidification (point E to point F).
toward freezer temperature (point E in pure water Subsequently, the further cooling to freezer
system). The decreased temperature possibly temperature (point G) is achieved after the
causes solute crystallization at point D in Fig.1b, and solidification is completed.
Figure 1 Typical time-temperature record (freezing curve) of frozen (a) pure water and (b) food
systems.
As the phase transition of water is achieved, enough, the maximum ice formation can be
the system composes of ice and unfrozen phase or achieved at a certain temperature called Tmʹ, below
so called ‘freeze-concentrated unfrozen which the unfrozen systems progress no further ice
solutes/matrix’. As the water transforms into ice, the formation. The further decreased temperature
concentration of unfrozen phase increased which reaches the glass transition temperature of the
substantially increases viscosity of the unfrozen maximally-freeze-concentrated systems or Tgʹ. The
matrix. When the viscosity reaches 1010-1012 Pa s, molecular mobility of the systems is restricted in the
solidification without crystallization (vitrification) glassy state and the reaction kinetics and molecular
occurs, and the freeze-concentrated unfrozen mobility depend on the different between storage
phase becomes a glass which is an amorphous and glass transition temperature or T-Tgʹ [7]. The
meta-stable state of materials [5, 6]. The physical state of unfrozen matrix affects the stability
temperature at which the transition takes place is of frozen foods as most chemical reactions relate to
called glass transition temperature which occurs in a the molecular diffusion of reactants. Accordingly,
range of temperature. If the cooling rate is slow the storage temperature is a direct factor affecting
frozen food quality and shelf-life e.g. a product Moisture in frozen foods tends to diffuse from the
retains its good quality for months at -20C but can center to surface and sublimated into the
deteriorate in a few days at -10°C. However, the headspace between product and package. The
frozen storage at -18°C corresponds to an optimum different in chemical potential and activity of water
between the financial costs and the shelf life of promotes water migration. The water vapor
frozen products [6]. Unfortunately, the Tgʹ of frozen pressures in the frozen systems are determined by
foods and desserts are well below -18C and, the temperature and independent of components.
therefore, diffusion of reactants still take place Accordingly, the temperature gradient due to
leading to several quality deteriorations. temperature fluctuation within package causes the
vapor flux and thus accelerates water migration. The
3. Quality deteriorations of frozen foods decreased temperature leads to the decreased
The major quality loss of frozen products water vapor pressure; therefore, the vapor tends to
attribute to physical and chemical deteriorations. crystallized at a colder surface of food and
The migration of water is a major physical changes; packaging due to a less vapor pressure known as
whereas, chemical changes of frozen foods include ‘frost’ formation which obviously affects
lipid hydrolysis and oxidation, protein denaturation consumer’s appeal [9]. The elimination of package
and oxidation, enzymatic activity, degradation of effectively prevents frost formation due to the
vitamin and color pigment, and flavor changes [4, 6]. absence of headspace.
Water migration with and without change in Lipid oxidation cannot be inhibited at
water content is the major physical deterioration of freezing temperature and occurs by both enzymatic
frozen foods. The ice recrystallization causes no and non-enzymatic reactions. Moreover, the
changes in water contents, however, impacts the dehydration of surface due to ice sublimation
texture of frozen products e.g. sandy texture in ice increased O2 exposure which enhances oxidation
cream and frozen desserts, increased enzymatic and consequently produces rancidity off-flavor. The
reactions and drip loss upon thawing of fresh extent of lipid oxidation is influence by the amount
produce and meat products due to cell wall and and degree of saturation of lipids i.e. highly
tissue damage. The water migration with the change unsaturated lipids are prone to oxidation than
in water content includes water loss and water saturated ones. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are
translocation within products with heterogeneous autoxidized in the presence of oxygen forming
water content e.g. pastry and filling. The ice hydroperoxides which subsequently decompose
sublimation causes loss of water from frozen food into volatile compounds, forming off-flavor and off-
which affects organoleptic properties including aroma compounds [6]. Moreover, free radicals
appearance of both frozen food and package as produced by autoxidation of lipids also initiate
well as reduced weight of frozen products. The degradation of pigment and oxidation of protein
dehydration occurs, particularly, at the surface components producing protein radicals that interact
contributes to the glassy appearance due to the with other proteins or lipids forming protein-protein
presence of tiny cavities known as ‘freezer burn’ [8]. or protein-lipid aggregates [10]. Although oxidation
occurs slowly at freezer temperatures due to low rancidity, bitterness or undesirable fishy taste, owing
temperature effect on rate of reaction, it remains a to the formation of low-molecular-weight
problem, since shelf-life of frozen foods is compounds from lipid oxidation, protein
approximated as 6-12 months [6, 9]. denaturation and enzymatic activity. Accordingly,
Protein denaturation occurs in the unfrozen several reactions such as moisture migration
phase due to the change of environment namely induced cell damage, lipid oxidation due to enzyme
the increased concentration of salts in the unfrozen and non-enzymatic reactions, and protein
phase by; the high ionic strength that produce denaturation promote off-flavor formation [10].
competition with existing electrostatic bonds and
4. Packaging materials
thus modify the native protein structure [4]. The
Suitable packaging provides an effective
denaturation of proteins causes a consequent
barrier to the loss of moisture and flavor/volatiles
decreased solubility, altered water binding capacity,
from the food to the external environment as well
loss of biological activity, particularly enzymatic, and
as the exposure to oxygen and thus plays a key role
increased susceptibility to attack by proteases due
to minimize quality loss of food during frozen
to the unmasking of peptide bonds in unfolded
storage and distribution. The essential requirement
structures [6]. Protein aggregation may subsequently
of packaging materials include temperature stability,
occur due to decrease in protein-water hydrogen
barrier properties, insulation properties, compatibility
bonding and an increase in protein-protein
with packaging machinery and packaging systems,
interactions.
and consumer appeal [11]. Physical and chemical
Enzymatic activity including hydrolytic
stability of packaging materials over a broad range of
enzymes (hydrolases such as lipases,
temperature, i.e. below the freezer temperatures
phospholipases, proteases, etc.) can remain active
and high temperatures during the cooking of the
during frozen storage. The hydrolysis of lipids can
food package in the microwave or conventional
lead to undesirable flavor and textural changes;
oven of ‘ready-to-eat’ or ‘ready-to-cook’ frozen
whereas, proteases catalyze the hydrolysis of
products, are important. Moreover, thermal
proteins to peptides and amino acids. Moreover, the
insulation and heat-transfer resistance materials
browning of plant tissue is caused by enzymatic
help maintain low temperatures for frozen foods
oxidation of phenolic compounds in the presence
during cold chain distribution, e.g. thicker package
of oxygen [4]. The ice formation causes cellular
wall, multilayered wall structure, impervious sealing
damage which enhances the exposure between
and foamed material (such as polystyrene foam)
enzymes and substrates that catalyze reaction.
and air space for insulation function, and helps
Blanching effectively inactivate enzymes and is
minimize temperature fluctuations that accelerates
typically applied before freezing of various
degradation of the products [9, 12]. Several
vegetables.
packaging materials i.e. plastics, paper and
Flavor loss and odor pick up affect
paperboard, and aluminium are used to pack frozen
consumer acceptability leading to quality loss of
foods.
frozen foods. Deterioration of flavor involves
4.1 Plastic its mechanical properties; however, it has high oil

Plastic packaging is typically produced by resistance, barrier properties and better clarity than
synthetic polymers with some additives such as HDPE. PVDC films are clear, soft, good oxygen barrier
plasticizer, anti-fogging etc. Synthetic plastics have and excellent cling characteristics and, therefore,
wide range of physical, mechanical and barrier can used for vacuum skin-tight of frozen poultry [9,
properties depending on their structures. Numerous 14].
plastic packagings were used for frozen foods PS is a clear, hard, brittle and low-strength
including polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), material with a melting point around 90°C and poor
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyvinylidene chloride impact strength but high resistance to freezer
(PVDC), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate temperature. The modification with elastomer e.g.
(PET), ethylenevinyl acetate (EVA) and polyamide butadiene produce high-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
(nylon). Several properties and structures of some which is more suitable for freezer temperature. HIPS
plastic materials are shown in Table 1 is widely used for deep-draw packaging e.g. egg
PE materials have good mechanical and trays, ice cream containers and cups. Addition of
easy processing properties that can be used with foaming agents produce expanded polystyrene
‘form-fill-seal’ packaging systems. PE bags are (EPS) that is a poor heat conductor and hence an
commonly used to pack individual quick frozen insulation against high and low temperatures for
foods (IQF) e.g. fruits, vegetable and shellfish [11, 14]. frozen foods [9, 11, 14].
The materials have a good heat sealing property PET is a major plastic used for food
with low cost and therefore, can be used as a layer packaging that need to be biaxially-oriented to
for heat-sealing. PE can also be classified into high improve its clarity and mechanical properties. It can
density (HDPE) and low density (LDPE) due to the tolerate very high and low temperature and acts as
different side chain branching and crystallinity which a better O2 barrier than PE and PP. The crystallized
directly affect their physical, mechanical and barrier PET is able to withstand up to 220°C and hence
properties. HDPE has relatively few side chains and frequently used for frozen ready meals that is
can withstand high temperature in excess of 100°C precooked in microwave and conventional dual
as for ‘boil-in-bag’ packaging; whereas, LDPE is oven [9].
stretchiness, clarity, heat sealability and low cost [9, Nylon 6 is a common polyamide used for
11]. food packaging. It produces clear film which acts as
PP has the lowest density among major a gas and aroma barrier but poor moisture
plastic materials but high tensile strength, hardness resistance, however, a superior strength and
and stiffness; however, it cannot tolerate freezing puncture resistance at low temperature [14].
temperature and shows cracking which limited its
4.2 Paper and paperboard
effectiveness as a single material for packaging of
Paper and paperboard are commonly used
frozen foods.
as individual package and secondary package that
PVC is a naturally hard and brittle material
contain several boxes containing individual package.
that is usually modified with plasticizers to improve
Although the barrier properties against O2 and other desirable barrier and printing quality such as PET-
gases of paper-based materials are poor, they laminated paper is used as dual ovenable trays, PE-
provide structural support that protects frozen laminated for heat sealing properties. The heat
foods from mechanical damage and is also used to transfer resistance of paperboard may be a problem
separate heterogeneous food components [9]. during freezing process; however, it may minimize
Paper packaging is commonly laminated with other effects of temperature fluctuation during frozen
materials i.e. wax, plastic and aluminium to achieve storage that leads to quality loss.
Table 1 Structure and properties of plastic materials for packaging of frozen foods
Tensile WVTR OTR
Density Elongation Tm Tg
Material Structure strength (g/m2 (ml/(m2
(kg/m3) (%) (C) (C)
(GPa) day) day)
PE
LDPE 910-925 0.01-0.03 200-600 115 -110 16-31 7750
HDPE 945-967 0.02-0.04 200-600 137 -90 6 1550-3100
PP 900 0.14-0.20 50-275 176 -18 6 1550-2480
PVC 1220-1360 0.03-0.06 100-400 212 87 31-465 465-9300
PVDC 1600-1700 0.06-0.11 50-100 202 -17 0.8-5 0.8-5
PS 1050 0.06-0.08 2-30 240 100 109-155 3100-5430
PET 1400 0.17-0.23 70-130 265 69 16-23 50-90
10,850-
EVA 930 0.01-0.02 500-800 90 -33 31-47
13,950
Nylon
1140 0.17-0.26 70-120 220 47 155 15-30
6
Tm = Melting temperature, Tg = Glass transition temperature, WVTR = Water vapor transmission rate, OTR Oxygen transmission rate
Source: Yam et al., 2004; Agroui et al. (2012); Lee & Sun (2012); Butler & Morris (2013); Robertson, 2013
4.3 Aluminium prevents penetration of gas, water vapor, foreign

Aluminium is a light metal and has low substances, and light thus giving a high protection for
density that is harmless to health and even has frozen foods. Aluminium has high thermal stability
antibacterial effect [16]. It resists to corrosion and over the wide range of temperature from -70C up
to 600°C. The high electric and thermal conductivity red meat due to the presence of oxymyoglobin.
of aluminium support its utilization for oven baking However, high O2 possibly promotes oxidative
dish and giving browning and crispiness for ready- degradation of lipid, protein, pigments, vitamin, etc.
meals. Moreover, the metallic sheen characteristic of leading to quality loss of foods as discussed in section
metal acts as self-promoting packaging that appeals 3. CO2 functions as bacteriostatic and fungistatic in
consumer of high quality products [16]. MAP [3]. The high solubility of CO2 in food
It is obviously that no single packaging components can cause ‘package collapse’
material may offers all the desirable features e.g. unappealing to consumer that can be prevented by
temperature tolerance, barrier properties, printing and addition of N2 to remain package volume. N2 is an
sealing properties; therefore, combination of the inert gas that has no relevance to chemical and
desirable characteristics of individual materials may biochemical reaction and thus is used in MAP to
provide an excellent suitable packaging. Lamination replace O2 preventing oxidative reaction.
and co-extrusion are used to develop and produce The dehydration and subsequent frost
desirable characteristic packaging such as biaxially formation is a major deterioration of frozen foods
oriented polypropylene (BOPP), BOPP coated by that is obviously detected by the consumer due to
acrylic copolymer, metallized BOPP by aluminum, the precipitation of the water vapor within the
and LDPE [17]; laminated PE/aluminum/PET film, and headspace onto surface of foods and/or package.
a co-extruded polyolefin film [18]. Therefore, the vacuum skin-tight packaging systems
which eliminate headspace within package effectively
5. Packaging technologies
inhibit ice sublimation and subsequent water loss,
5.1 Modified atmosphere packaging
freezer burn and frost formation of frozen foods. The
Typical gaseous composition of dry air at sea
VP system is successful to pack several frozen
level are nitrogen (N2) 78.03%, oxygen (O2) 20.99%,
products including seafood, meat and poultry;
argon (Ar) 0.94%, carbondioxide (CO2) 0.03%,
however, the color loss of red meat due to reduced
hydrogen (H2) 0.01%. The modification or alteration of
oxymyoglobin is primary concern since color is a
gaseous and atmosphere surrounded foods is known
major factor affecting consumer choice for buying red
as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) which
meat products [19]. The MAP systems also affect lipid
includes the vacuum packaging (VP) i.e. the air is
oxidation, color, firmness and sensory qualities of
removed in the presence or absence of headspace.
frozen foods as shown in Table 2.
The MAP technology has been applied to prolong
shelf-life of fresh and low temperature storage of 5.2 Edible films and coatings
food and agriculture products. The permeation of Edible film and coating refer to a thin layer of
packaging material is a critical factor controlling the edible materials that cover foods to improve overall
effectiveness of MAP. The major gas used in MAP quality and extend shelf life of food products by
includes O2, N2 and CO2. increased functional barriers to moisture, gas, and
O2 has major role in cellular respiration and solute transmission [8]. Edible film is a preformed and
retaining a desirable cherry-red color or ‘bloom’ of stand-alone solid sheet that is then used to wrap
products; whereas, a coating is applied in liquid form casein, whey protein, corn zein, wheat, gluten, soy
such as dipping or spraying and formed sheet directly protein, egg white protein, fish myofibrillar protein,
on food surface itself [25, 26]. The edible films and sorghum protein, pea protein, rice bran protein,
coatings reduce the rate of moisture transfer cottonseed protein, peanut protein and keratin [41].
between the food and the surrounding atmosphere, Proteins are good film formers exhibiting excellent O2,
thus decreased freezer burn and also eliminate CO2, and lipid barrier properties, particularly at low
quality changes associated with the oxidation of relative humidities. The denaturation or modification
lipids, vitamins, pigments, and flavor compounds via of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of
their good oxygen-barrier properties [8]. The edible proteins controls desirable film physical, mechanical
film-forming materials are polysaccharide, protein, and barrier properties such as heat denaturation,
lipids and multi-components. Several edible pressure, irradiation, mechanical treatment, acids,
materials applied as edible films and coatings of alkalis, metal ions, salts, chemical hydrolysis,
frozen foods and their benefits are shown in Table 3. enzymatic treatment, and chemical crosslinking [41,
Polysaccharides are water-soluble which 42].
dissolve in and form intensive hydrogen bonds with Lipids and resins including waxes e.g.
water contribute to thickening and/or gelling of the beeswax, paraffin, carnauba wax, candelilla wax, rice
aqueous solutions. The film characteristic influenced bran wax, resins e.g. shellac, terpene, and
by the extent of intermolecular hydrogen bonding acetoglycerides are film-forming materials which have
between polymer chains due to molecular structures poor mechanical properties and are mostly soft
including the presence or absence of branching, solids at room temperature. Heat treatment causes
electrical charge, substitution of sugar units, and reversible phase transitions between fluid, soft-solid,
molecular weight [40]. The polysaccharide-based and crystalline-solid states that used to mold and
film-forming materials e.g. starch, modified starch, casting lipid materials [41]. Edible films and coatings
cellulose derivatives namely carboxymethyl made from lipid materials have very high water
cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose resistance and low surface energy due to their
and hydroxypropyl cellulose, alginate, carrageenan, hydrophobic nature with a glossy surface such as
pectin, pullulan, chitosan, gellan gum, xanthan gum those found in candy and chocolate products.
and agar contain large number of hydroxyl group Accordingly, the lipid-based substances are
contributes to hydrophilic property. Polysaccharide- incorporated into polysaccharide and protein
based films and coatings provide a good barrier to O2 polymeric matrix to improve the moisture barrier of
and CO2 under certain conditions (temperature and the films and coatings. Several factors affect water
relative humidity), but a poor barrier to water vapor barrier properties lipid-based films and coatings
due to their hydrophilic nature [8]. namely number of carbon atom, degree of
Protein film-forming materials come from saturation, lipid polymorphism and homogeneity of
plant, meat, egg and milk including collagen, gelatin, distribution [8].
Table 2 Effects of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on frozen food quality

MAP Packaging
Food Storage Quality Sensory Reference
conditions materials
Boiled 100%N2 -17 °C 3-layer laminated Oxidation: MAP inhibited TBARS increased up Rancid flavor: MAP inhibited [20]
shrimp (Oriented to 9 months. TBARS value of MAP was rancidity flavor formation
PA/cast PA/low 25% of non-MAP systems at 12 month of up to 9-12 months.
linear density storage indicated reduced oxidation. Toughness: MAP reduced
PE) Astaxanthin (red color): MAP slowed and toughness increase up to
decreased amount of astaxanthin loss in 6-9 months.
frozen shrimp. Color: MAP decreased color
Frost: Temperature fluctuation accelerated fading and retained color
frost formation which cannot be inhibited score after 3 months;
by MAP. whereas, non-MAP
decreased continually.
Turkey VP -20 °C 14-layer laminated Oxidation: VP and gas-MAP reduced TBARS - [21]
meat 60%CO2+ PP/PA/PE film and hexanal increase up to 6 months;
40%N2 7-layer laminated whereas non-MAP increased sharply after 3
PA/PE film months. Insignificant difference was
observed between VP and gas-MAP.
Lasagne 40%CO2+ -25 °C N/A Color: CO2/N2/O2 system was less bright than - [22]
(beef+ 60%N2 CO2/N2 and non-MAP (air) for non-reheated
pasta+ 40%CO2+ systems; however, the atmosphere had no
cheese+ 30%N2 + effect on lasagna color after heating.
sauce) 30%O2 Firmness: CO2/N2 samples were firmer (higher
shear force) than air systems of reheated
lasagna.
Total viable count: CO2/N2/O2 > CO2/N2 > air
in unheated systems.
Drip: MAP had no effect on drip loss.
Coho VP -18 °C PE Lipid oxidation: VP inhibited peroxide and Rancid odor: VP inhibited [23]
salmon VP + PE coated with p- conjugated diene formation, reduced increase of rancid odor
polyphenol coumaric and anisidine values. during frozen storage. A
coated PE ferulic acid Lipid hydrolysis: VP and polyphenol cannot difference was found
film prevent free fatty acid formation in frozen between VP and non-VP
salmon due to lipase and phospholipase (air) package during 15-18
activities. months. Polyphenol had
Tocopherol: VP reduced loss of α- and γ- no additional effect on
tocopherol. Polyphenol had extra benefit rancid odor
to maintain α-tocopherol. development.
Sugar- VP IQF PVDC/nylon bags Color: VP retained lightness and greenness of - [24]
apple (-48°C) pericarp (L, a, b, Hue)
and PPO activity: VP had higher PPO activity than
frozen non-VP (air).
storage Phenolic compounds: Gallic acid, eugenol,
catechin and chlorogenic acid was lower in
non-VP than VP due to conversion to
browning products by PPO and other
oxidation-related enzymes.
Chlorophyll: VP decreased chlorophyll
degradation.
Table 3 Biomaterials used for edible films and coating and their functions in frozen foods
Film/
Materials Frozen Food Functions References
coating
Polysaccharide
Pectin coating pre-fried cassava product Moisture retention during deep-frying (depend [27]
on products)
Decreased fat adsorption during frying
Cellulose derivatives
Methyl cellulose film sundae ice cream cone Retard moisture transfer from ice cream to [28]
Methyl cellulose-palmitic acid sugar cones
Additional moisture barrier with palmitic acid
Methylcellulose coating cowpea paste reduced oil uptake during deep-frying [29]
Hydroxyl methyl cellulose coating cowpea paste reduced oil uptake during deep-frying [29]
Cellulose ether-beeswax coated film bread-pizza sauce Retard moisture transfer from sauce to bread [30]
Chitosan coating Pink salmon Reduced moisture loss during frozen storage [31]
Delayed lipid oxidation
silver carp Inhibited lipid oxidation [32]
Delayed increase of total volatile basic nitrogen
Inhibited ATP degradation
lingcod Reduced drip loss [33]
Decreased lipid oxidation
Reduced total plate and psychrotrophic counts
strawberries Reduced drip loss [34]
Maintain texture properties (peak force) because
less moisture migration and thus high integrity
Sodium-alginate coating pork decreased thawing loss [35]
Amylose coating cowpea paste reduced oil uptake during deep-frying [29]
Protein
Whey protein coating pre-fried cassava product Moisture retention during deep-frying (depend [27]
on products)
Whey protein concentrate coating Atlantic salmon Delayed lipid oxidation [36]
(after Increase thaw yield
freezing) Decreased drip loss
coating Atlantic salmon Reduced weight loss during cooking [37]
Delay lipid oxidation
Whey protein isolate coating Atlantic salmon Reduced weight loss during cooking [36]
Delay lipid oxidation
Whey protein isolate + coating King salmon Reduced rate and amounts of moisture [38]
acetylated monoglyceride (bilayer) loss
Delayed lipid oxidation, reduced peak
peroxide values
Table 3 (continued)
Film/
Materials Frozen Food Functions References
coating
Soy protein concentrate coating Pink salmon Reduced moisture loss during frozen [31]
storage
Delayed lipid oxidation
Soy protein isolate coating pre-fried cassava Moisture retention during deep-frying [27]
product (depend on products)
Egg albumin coating Pink salmon Reduced moisture loss during frozen [31]
storage
Corn zein coating cowpea paste reduced oil uptake during deep-frying [29]
Whole egg + bread crumb coating buffalo meat Decreased lipid oxidation [39]
powder Decreased tyrosine value due to minimal
protein degradation
Lipid
Acetylated monoglyceride coating King salmon Reduced rate and amounts of moisture [38]
loss
Delay lipid oxidation, reduced peak
peroxide values
5.3 Active Packaging mechanism are shown in Table 4 namely O2

The traditional packaging must be inert scavengers, ethylene scavengers, CO2 scavengers
which provide passive protection against and emitters, moisture absorbers, ethanol emitters,
environmental conditions or influences that affect flavor absorbing/releasing, anti-fogging and anti-
shelf-life of food products; however, active sticking, light absorbers, microwave susceptors,
packaging is design to interact with the contents antioxidant packaging [44, 45].
and/or the surrounding environment to increase Oxygen scavenger eliminates O2 within the
shelf-life and some quality parameters of foods [43]. packaging by incorporated substances based on
European FAIR-project CY 98-4170 defined active chemical and enzymatic oxidative reactions e.g. iron,
packaging as the packaging that changes the organic substances and anthraquinone dye. The
condition of the packaging to extend shelf-life or oxidation of such compounds is activated by some
improve safety or sensory properties while catalyst e.g. moisture, light and metals [12]. The
maintaining the quality of the foods [44]. The active MAP or VP technologies cannot completely remove
function can be delivered as (i) the independent O2 and the permeability of packaging materials may
systems e.g. bags, strips or labels which are contribute to the presence of oxygen within
incorporated into or attached to the inside of package that causes oxidative deterioration of
package as separate items or (ii) the integrated frozen products. The addition of oxygen scavenging
systems into the packaging material itself and not systems in the forms of sachet, dispersed/
visually perceptible as distinct elements [43]. embedded, layered package effectively remove
Several developed active packaging systems and residual oxygen in the package [45]. However, the
speed and capacity of oxygen scavenging system in maximum efficiency of antioxidant packaging can be
frozen food may be different from those at ambient achieved by the control-release systems of
or chilled storage conditions because the low antioxidant compounds to balance with lipid
temperature affects the rate of oxidation [12]. oxidation over storage time. Several factors such
Water loss due to ice sublimation causes that antioxidant diffusivity, loading, and package
surface desiccation that accelerates quality layer thickness are important variables to improve
deterioration. The addition of sachets containing antioxidant active function [50].
hygroscopic sugar and inorganic salt to maintain high Antimicrobial packaging can inactivate
relative humidity inside the package possibly microorganisms those present on food surface. The
reduces the water loss from frozen products [12]. As typical freezer temperature inhibits microbial growth
the water activity of the frozen systems is governed (<-10°C), however, cannot inactivate them. The
by the temperature, the gradient of storage microbial activity is recovered upon thawing due to
temperature contributes to water migration due to a the raised of temperature and water activity suitable
non-uniform vapor pressure [9]. Temperature for microbial growth which accelerates loss of
fluctuation of frozen foods may lead to partial ice quality and safety of frozen foods. As previously
melting; however, a sachet of moisture mentioned, aluminium packaging also have toxic
absorber/desiccant is not typically incorporated into effects to microorganisms due to the modification of
the packaging of frozen foods because it may cause ion transport, and binding to ATP, DNA, membranes,
a gradient of water activity that adversely affects enzyme or cell walls of microbes [51]. The typical
quality of frozen products [12]. The melted liquid antimicrobials incorporated in food packaging are
water can cause deterioration by chemical and organic acids, chitosan, nisin, lactoperoxidase, and
microbial reaction, therefore, a simply moisture some plant extracts and their essential oils which
absorbent pad may be placed to eliminate drip must be selected by the effectiveness against the
during thawing. target microorganism. The interactions among the
Antioxidant incorporated packaging has antimicrobial, the film-forming biopolymer, and
been widely applied in various foods in both other food components can modify the
synthetic and edible packaging. Some applications antimicrobial activity and the characteristics of the
of antioxidant packaging in frozen foods are shown film [52]. The antimicrobial packaging can be in the
in Table 5. Oxidative reaction produces free radicals forms of [48, 53]:
which are highly active. Several natural and 1. Sachets or pads containing volatile
synthetic antioxidant compounds efficiently react antimicrobial agents that give benefit for foods with
with free radicals forming a non-reactive substance irregular shape as volatile can diffuse freely through
and inhibit further oxidation. Antioxidants act as uneven surface.
radical scavengers that effectively eliminate free 2. Dispersion/Incorporation/Immobilization
radicals as soon as they are formed and, therefore, of volatile and non-volatile antimicrobial agents
neither high-barrier nor vacuum packaging materials directly into polymers by extrusion, heat-press and
would be required to avoid oxidation [43]. The casting.
3. Coating or adsorbing antimicrobials on can be categorized into 2 basic types [49, 61]
polymer surfaces which are in direct contact with namely:
the food surface. (i) Data carrier devices e.g. barcode labels and
4. Polymer materials those are inherently RFID tags that are used to store and
antimicrobial e.g. chitosan, UV-irradiated nylon, transmit data, and
polymers containing quaternary ammonium [12]. (ii) Package sensors and indicators e.g. TTIs,
integrity or gas indicators, freshness
Flavor release and absorber can eliminate
indicators (microbial or pathogen spoilage),
and/or mask the undesirable flavor, such as
gas sensors, biosensors, fluorescence-
rancidity from oxidation and breakdown of proteins
based oxygen sensors that are used to
in fish muscle, and thus improve quality of frozen
monitor the external environment.
foods. Packaging materials, particularly plastic, can
interact with flavor compounds and cause flavor The temperature indicators had been
loss due to molecular adsorption known as applied to monitor the handling of refrigerated and
‘scalping’ [45]. Therefore, the control-releases of frozen food products along cold chain distribution
flavor and aroma during thawing and/or microwave (e.g. storage warehouses, transportation vehicles and
heating and cooking would improve organoleptic retail outlets) in the United States. Such indicators
and consumer acceptance. However, the ethical can be classified into 3 categories [63, 64]:
issue should be considered that the active 1. Critical temperature indicators (CTI) which
packaging should not mask the undesirable shows the exposure above (or below) a reference
organoleptic properties due to quality loss, defects temperature but do not reveal if the temperature
and/or spoilage of food products. was lowered at a later time nor cannot show the
history of exposure above the critical temperature.
5.4 Intelligent Packaging
They show that the products experience an
Intelligent packaging has the ability to track
undesirable temperature for a sufficient time to
or monitor the product, environment inside or
cause a change critical to safety or quality of
outside the package, and communicate that
products such as the irreversible texture
information with human [61]. An extensive review of
deterioration that occur due to phase change i.e.
intelligent packaging in food systems was
defrosting of frozen products [64].
demonstrated by Suppakul [62]. Some examples of
2. Critical temperature/time integrators
intelligent packaging for foods are evidence of
(CTTI) that reflect the combination of time and
tampering, containment of a package breach,
temperature that exposed above a critical
package integrity, quality and safety indicators, time-
temperature.
temperature indicators (TTIs), microbial growth, gas-
3. Time temperature integrators or
sensing devices, pathogen detection, traceability/
indicators (TTI) which continuously reveal the
anti-theft devices, radiofrequency identification
combination of time and temperature dependent
(RFID) labels, tags, chips, product authenticity which
response throughout the product’s history.
The devices are typically attached on Wells [65] and Giannakourou & Taoukis [66, 67]. The
packaging to provide visual indications of mechanisms of TTIs can be categorized as
temperature history during distribution and storage, mechanical-, diffusion-, microbial-, enzymatic-,
which warn the manufacturer and consumer of the polymer-, and electrochemical-based [49, 67].
temperature abuse for chilled and frozen products Several TTIs work based on color changes and color
[61]. Systematic investigation of TTIs in quality development which is correlated to quality loss of
control of frozen foods can be found by Singh & food products.
Table 4 Functions and mechanisms of active packaging in foods [12, 45-49]

Active function Mechanisms/Compounds Foods
O2 scavengers Enzymatic reactions: Ground coffee, tea, roasted
Glucose oxidase-glucose → glucono-δ-lactone + H2O2 nuts, potato
Ethanol oxidase-ethanol → acetaldehyde chips, chocolate, powdered
Chemical reactions: milk, drinks, bread, pizza,
Oxidation of ferrous (Fe2+), nanocrystalline TiO2 refrigerated fresh pasta, fruit
Oxidation of ascorbic acid, unsaturated fatty acids and hydrocarbons tortes, cakes, cookies, beer,
Oxidation of photosensitive dye + singlet-oxygen acceptor to form bound meats,
oxygen (need light as oxidation catalyst) e.g. anthraquinone dye smoke and cured meats, fish,
Oxidation of sulfites: 2SO2 + O2 +2H2O → 2H2SO4 cheese
Palladium/alumina catalyst :oxidation of hydrogen to water
Yeast or aerobic bacterial spore: respiration consume O2 and produce alcohol
Ethylene scavengers Activated carbon (charcoal)/ activated charcoal-bromine, activated carbon- Fruits e.g. kiwifruit, banana,
paladium catalyst avocados, persimmons
Activated earth and finely dispersed clays e.g. bentonite, Kieselguhr, zeolites,
Japanese oya and other powdered mineral
KMnO4, KMnO4-silica gel
CO2 scavengers Iron oxide, calcium oxide or lime Roasted coffee
CO2 emitters Sodium bicarbonate-citric-water Meat, fish, fresh produce
Moisture absorbers Desiccants e.g. silicates (i.e., silica gel), zeolites and humidity-controlling salt Dried fruits and meat
Cellulose fiber pads products, fresh meats
Ethanol emitters Absorption or encapsulation of ethanol in a carrier material Bakery products, fish
Flavor absorbing/releasing Flavor/odor absorber e.g. activated clay, alumina, silica gel, odor-absorbing Fruit juice, ready meals,
polymers or activated carbon. Acidic compounds such as citric in films can ground coffee, ice cream
interact with amines formed by fish degradation.
Flavor control-release by encapsulation or extrusion into packaging films
Anti-fogging and anti-sticking Biaxially oriented vinylon, compression rolled oriented HDPE Fresh fruit and vegetable
packages, soft candies,
cheese slices
Light absorbers UV blocking agents, hydroxybenzophenone Frozen ready meal, pizza,
milk
Microwave susceptors Metallized thermoplastics Ready-to-eat meals
Antioxidant packaging Synthetic antioxidant: BHA, BHT, TBHQ and Irganox® Cereals, meat, fish, frozen
Natural antioxidant: tocopherol, ascorbic acid, curcumin, tyrosine, essential oils fruits
and plant extracts of barley husks, borage, cinnamon, citronella, clove, ginger,
green tea, marigold, murta leaves, rosemary, oregano, thyme, etc.
Table 4 (continued)
Active function Mechanisms/Compounds Foods
Antimicrobial packaging Metal and metal oxide materials: silver (Ag), gold (Au), zinc oxide Fruit juice, fresh meat,
(ZnO), silica (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and cured meat/ ham, fish
iron oxides (Fe3O4, Fe2O3). fillets, sausages, seafood,
Enzymes: lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, glucose oxidase, alcohol cheese, fresh-cut fruits and
oxidase vegetables, salad
Bacteriocins (peptide or small proteins): nisin, lacticins, pediocin,
diolococcin, and propionicins
Plant extracts: polyphenolic compounds and phenolic acids.
Polyphenols can penetrate the semipermeable bacterial
membrane and react with cytoplasm or cellular proteins,
destabilizing microbial cells.
Essential oils: terpenes, terpenoids, and aromatic constituents e.g.
garlic oil, cinnamon, clove, ginger, rosemary, oregano, dill, and
basil extracts which are more active against Gram-positives than
Gram-negatives. The antibacterial effect depends on the
hydrophobic character of the oils that might separate the lipids of
the bacterial cell membranes, making them more permeable.
Essential oils can also inhibit the production of bacterial essential
enzymes or affect bacterial genetic materials.
Anhydrides and weak organic acids e.g. acetic, benzoic, lactic, citric,
malic, tartaric, propionic, fumaric, or sorbic acid. Dissociated form
of the acids freely diffuse across the microbial cell membrane
resulting in cytoplasm acidification.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) by disrupting the
lipopolysacharide structure of Gram-negative bacteria by chelating
Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts.
Antimicrobial macromolecules e.g. chitosan which the positive
charge of amino group at pH below 6.3 interacts with the
negatively charged cell membranes. ε-Polylysine is a natural
antimicrobial polypeptide with polycationic nature, that interact
extensively with bacterial membranes.
Radiation-emitting material films which emit long-wavelength
infrared radiation on exposure to water or water vapor is effective
against microorganisms.
Self-heating/cooling Self-heating: Exothermic reaction of CaO hydration, reaction of acid- Rice, Ready-to-eat meals
alkaline earth oxide (CaO, BaO), reaction of anhydrous CaCl2 with
water, reaction between KMnO4 and glycerine, reaction between
CuSO4 and zinc, and oxidation of iron and magnesium by salt
water
Self-cooling: zeolite-technology
Steam cooking: moisturized paper pad in microwavable package
Table 5 Applications of active compounds incorporated packaging materials for frozen foods
Storage
Active Active Packagin Incorporation
Food temperature Quality parameters Reference
compounds functions g matrix method
/time
BHT antioxidant LDPE blow- Sierra fish -25°C 120 d BHT-LDPE reduced lipid oxidation, [54]
films extrusion fillets thiobarbutyric acid, peroxide
values and free fatty acids,
decreased tissue damage,
reduced loss of firmness and
minimized protein damage
and denaturation.
Barley husk antioxidant LDPE coating salmon, -20°C 12 mo Natural extract from husk barley [43, 55-58]
extract films halibut, slowed down lipid hydrolysis
hake, cod and increased oxidative
blue shark, stability as determined from
swordfish peroxide value, conjugated
dienes, conjugated triene
hydroperoxides, free fatty
acids, totox value,
thiobarbituric acid index and
p-anisidine value.
Oregano antioxidant Starch- blow- chicken frozen 150 d OEO and KS decreased oxidation. [59]
essential oil antimicrobi Ecoflex® extrusion steak storage Active compounds reduced
(OEO) al films microbial population (total
Potassium viable count, total coliforms
sorbate (KS) and E. coli) during frozen
storage
Borage antioxidant gelatin solution horse -20°C 240 d TBARS and peroxide values were [60]
extract film mixing mackerel reduced indicating inhibited
patties lipid oxidation.
Phenolic compounds from the
borage films diffused to the
patties and increased the
antioxidant capacity of the
muscle as determined from
ferric reducing capacity (FRAP).
6. Conclusion formation. The appropriate selection of packaging

Freezing prolong shelf-life of food and materials (synthetic plastic, paper, aluminium, edible
agriculture products; however, several quality films) and packaging technologies can minimize the
deteriorations possibly take place which are undesirable physical, chemical, biochemical and
accelerated by temperature fluctuations during sensory changes that occur during cold chain
frozen storage and cold chain distribution. The distribution storage and thawing that would improve
moisture loss from frozen foods accelerated quality quality of frozen products.
deteriorations i.e. frost formation, dehydration,
freezer burn, texture, lipid oxidation and off-flavor
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Packaging Materials and Technology For Improving Quality of Frozen Foods

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วารสารเทคโนโลยีการอาหาร มหาวิทยาลัยสยาม ปีที่ 10 ฉบับที่ 1 ตุลาคม 2557 - กันยายน 2558 81

4.1 Plastic its mechanical properties; however, it has high oil

PP 900 0.14-0.20 50-275 176 -18 6 1550-2480

PVC 1220-1360 0.03-0.06 100-400 212 87 31-465 465-9300

PVDC 1600-1700 0.06-0.11 50-100 202 -17 0.8-5 0.8-5

PS 1050 0.06-0.08 2-30 240 100 109-155 3100-5430

PET 1400 0.17-0.23 70-130 265 69 16-23 50-90

4.3 Aluminium prevents penetration of gas, water vapor, foreign

Table 2 Effects of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on frozen food quality

5.3 Active Packaging mechanism are shown in Table 4 namely O2

Table 4 Functions and mechanisms of active packaging in foods [12, 45-49]

6. Conclusion formation. The appropriate selection of packaging

References Handbook of frozen foods. Marcel Dekker,

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