ENLIGHTENMENT

TIMING

The term “Enlightenment” denotes a movement in the mid of the 18 th century in

Europe. Geographically the Enlightenment centered in France but it gained
important outposts in other European States.

That movement was an intellectual movement which was shaped by the ideas and
writings of a group who were called as “philosophes.” The philosophes were the
people whose ideas were secular, rationalist, liberal and egalitarian in terms of their
essence. These philosophes regard themselves as “cosmopolitans.
“Cosmopolitanism” of the Enlightenment means citizenship of an enlightened
intellectual world in which the interest of persons was above the interest of their
countries.

Who were these philosophes?

Voltaire, Montesquieu, John Locke, Newton. They are the first generation of the
Enlightenment. In the second generation there are David Hume, Jean Jacques
Rousseau for example. And the third generation involves Immanuel Kant, Adam
Smith, Adam Ferguson etc.

Under the light of the ideas of these names, the Enlightenment can be regarded as a
general process of society awakening from the darkness of superstition and
ignorance.

What are the keys on which the philosophes of the Enlightenment agreed?

The basic concepts and thoughts that the Enlightenment focused on.

Reason and rationality: these two are very important as the ways of organizing
knowledge through experiment and observation.

Empiricism: it defends the idea that all thought and knowledge about the natural
and social world is based on the facts which human beings can obtained through
their senses and observations.

Science and scientific knowledge: the knowledge based on the experimental

method.

Universalism: Universalism was the concept that reason and science could be
applied to any and every situation; because the principles of reason and science
were same in every situation.

Progress: It was the idea that natural and social condition of human beings could
be improved by the application of science and reason so that happiness and well-
being of human beings would increase.
 Individualism: The individual was the starting point for all knowledge and
action and individual cannot be subjected to a higher authority.

Toleration: It was the notion that all human beings are essentially the same;
the beliefs of the other races or of the other civilization could not be inferior
to those of European Christianity.

Freedom: It referred to an opposition to feudal and traditional constraints on

beliefs, communication, social interaction, sexuality and the ownership of
property.

Uniformity of human nature: The characteristics of human nature were

always and everywhere the same.

Secularism: It was anticlericalism. Secularism emphasized the need for

knowledge which was not under the Church impact or control; free of
religious doctrines.

The new ideas and new approaches about human being, individual, society
and nature were challenging existing ideas, conceptions that were dominated
by Christianity and traditionalism which were dominated by religion.

With a special emphasis on science and scientific thought, the Enlightenment

produced its own intelligentsia which were large and powerful enough for the first
time to challenge the Church and its institution such as clergy. There emerged critical
thinking and approach towards the established forms of Christianity and its some
values, such as belief in miracle; divine intervention, “holy scripture,” divinity of
Jesus etc. A hostility as well towards “theism” and anticlericalism appeared.
In this respect what the Enlightenment brought to the fore is “deism”. Deism is not
to believe in religions but belief in God. In other words, it was “natural religion.”

So, the Enlightenment, as an intellectual movement, had modernized the European

thought and intellectual life.

Of course, it cannot be denied the contribution of Renaissance and Reforms to the

Enlightenment since Renaissance and Reform paved the way for the movement of
Enlightenment. But during the time of Enlightenment, it is seen that the revolt
against the intellectual and cultural authority of the Church was sharper. So, the
Enlightenment had its roots in the Renaissance and Reformation period.

As for the values of the Enlightenment more specifically secularism, rational thought,
liberal and egalitarian understanding came to the fore. This was the modernization
of the European thought and intellectual life. Because the basic purpose of the
Enlightenment is the emphasis on reason and individualism rather than tradition. In
other words, it was an intellectual liberation. It means that the enlightenment aimed
to make rational thinking free from old, traditional and dogmatic thoughts and
ideologies.

Thus, it can be defined as an important revolt against the cultural and intellectual
authority of Christianity.

So, what was the purpose?

1. to reform society by using reason

2. to challenge ideas which had been grounded in tradition and faith.
3. to advance knowledge by scientific method.

In short reason, rational thinking, knowledge and scientific method are the key
words of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition and
intolerance and brought scientific thought, skepticism and intellectual interchange to
the fore. Therefore, it can be said that the enlightenment was a revolution in human
thought.

What is much important than this? the ideas of the enlightenment had a significant
impact on the culture, politics and governments of the Western World. During the
Enlightenment each European country had its own representatives. Isac Newton is
one of them. He was associated with the scientific revolution. Rene Descartes,
Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes and John
Locke are the important figures of the rationalist and empiricist tradition.

On the other hand, among them Hobbes and Locke, Hugo Gratius and Samuel
Pufendorf as well are the founders of modern “natural rights” theory in political
thought.

What was the common point among these enlightened figures?

The common point was the willingness to depart from tradition.

The other names are Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Kant who were also the
representatives of the Enlightenment. When we look their approach we can surely
claim that their approach was secular, rationalist, liberal and egalitarian.

The Enlightenment originated in France culminated by the great product

“encylopedie.”

ENCYCLOPEDIE (1751-1772)

It was a rational dictionary of the sciences, arts and professions. It was edited by
Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert And it was contributed by hundreds of
intellectuals who were called “philosophes” such as Voltaire, Rousseau and
Montesquieu.

Encylopedie was a massive theoretical and practical knowledge which were brought
together. It was printed in France.

In the middle of the 18 th century French was the language of all educated people in
Europe except for England and Spain.

What is the importance of encyclopedie during the enlightenment process in

Europe?

What about its function? What was its role? Or its contribution?

The French encylopedie enabled the French Enlightenment to spread over Europe.
It contributed much to the liberal, anti-clerical, scientific spirit of the Enlightenment.
It can be regarded as an attack of the intellectuals on the established order.
First of all, it represented the thought of the Enlightenment with its basic values,
such as rationalism, secularism, tolerance, scientific understanding.

The aim of encylopedie was to change the way of people’s thinking. Its function was
to spread knowledge.

Among the intellectuals of the enlightened thinkers Kant for instance admired this
work too much and he defined encylopedie as “dare to know.” Because for Kant
“knowledge was liberation.”

WHAT ABOUT THE EXPANSION OF ENLIGHTENMENT?

For enlightenment France was the leading producer and thus the leading figure as
well. Its role in the production and consumption of the enlightened literature is the
greatest one. Therefore it played a major role in this intellectual movement. With its
leadership France inspired or provoked the other countries’ enlightenment
movements.

Scottish enlightenment for instance with its major figures such as David Hume, Adam
Smith who was a thinker, Adam Ferguson who was both thinker and also historian
and John Miller.

All these names gave birth to modern economics and historical sociology.

In the second half of the century the Enlightenment spread to the Eastern and
western parts of European civilization.

The French and the Scottish ideas were embraced in the English colonies in North
America and a bit in the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the south.
In Germany Imanuel Kant was the best representative of Enlightenment in Germany.

What about the enlightenment in politics?

Its reflection or impact the European politics?

Enlightenment was not adopted only by the thinkers and the intellectuals but also by
the statesmen. The rulers or absolute monarchs attempted to apply the ideas of the
enlightened thinkers by means of the ideal state or ideal government. This is known
as “Enlightened Despotism” or “Enlightened Absolutism.”

There had been a great revolution in political thought in the 17 th century with the
emergence of the modern “natural rights” tradition. Hobbes, Locke and Pufendorf
and Gratius were the representatives of this tradition. And popularization of this
tradition through translations, summaries and commentaries was one of the major
achievements of this tradition.

By the mid of the 18th century the basic concepts of this natural right tradition such
as civil society, social contract and natural rights were welcomed and involved within
the mainstream of the Enlightenment political thought.

Within this framework the belief was that only legitimate basis of political authority
could be acceptable.

The majority of the Enlightenment thinkers accepted a pragmatic accommodation

with monarchy; monarchy was still the dominant state form in Europe.

They concentrated on securing civil liberties, freedom of religion, self-expression.

This might be termed as “proto-liberalism.”

ENLGHTENED ABSOLUTISM

Under the impact of the enlightenment, we also see another form of absolutism.

It was “enlightened absolutism”

ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM AND LIMITED MONARCHY IN THE 18 TH CENTURY

What is enlightened absolutism?

In the absolutism of Europe some of the absolutist monarchs as sovereigns of their

own countries claimed to be divine monarchs: the monarchs with divine rights or
rulers as the divine servants of the God.

But in the enlightened absolutism the monarchs regarded themselves as the

servants of their states.
They introduced reformist legislation and administration which were designed to
serve to the well-being of the state community as a whole.

They put an end to the privileges of the old institutions.

They abolished serfdom for instance.

They followed innovative policies in the fields of taxation, economic development or

in the area of education. Because they were under the impact of the enlightenment
as an intellectual movement. They tried to adopt the key values of this intellectual
movement.

But in spite of the adoption of these innovations of course they acted as monarchs;
because in their mind the state sovereignty depended on monarchy as a regime.

Prussia for example. The monarch Frederick the Great was a typical enlightened
absolutist monarch. He put an end to the bribing of judges; he established a system
of elementary schools; he promoted religious toleration; he abolished capital
punishment; he ended the forced labor services of his peasantry. All these were
important reforms which were carried out under the impact of the enlightenment.

What about the Enlightenment Public Sphere?

The ideas of the Enlightenment became the topics primarily of the scholars.
But was it limited to only that circle?
Where and by which way its ideas were expressed?
What were the institutions by which its ideas and values were circulated?
Whom else produced and consumed these ideas and values of the Enlightenment?
Any public sphere for the exchange of ideas?

The exchange of ideas reached its peak in the 18 th century. In fact socio-economic
developments in the early modern age made the public sphere for exchange of the
enlightenment ideas possible.

The most important development in the 18 th century in this respect was a revolution
in reading and writing. Literacy rates increased. Reading itself became deepened and
widened. Large numbers of women joined the ranks of the literate for the first time.
We see different kinds of books, wide range of periodicals, weekly and daily
newspapers. Finally, authorship itself started to be modernized during the
Enlightenment.

The 18th century public sphere depended on certain characteristic social institutions.
Most striking of all was the Enlightenment “Salon.”

Salon was periodic social gatherings of writers and intellectuals for the exchange of
ideas, presentation of written material, and display of works of art, typically under
the female leadership and direction. The Salons of 18 th century Paris were the most
famous one. But the Salons of London, Berlin and Vienna contributed to the local
circulation of the Enlightenment ideas.

What was the social profile of the people who attended the Enlightenment Salons?

Bourgeoisie, aristocrats, middle class intelligentsia.

What was the role of women in the Enlightenment?

The leading part was taken by women in fact. The women organized and hosted
salons. At this point we see the high rate of female participation. What was
significant in this respect was the circulation of the feminist ideas as well in the
salons. Because early feminist ideas were in circulation Europe from the 17 th century
onwards.

THE IMPACT OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

(OR THE ENLIGHTENMENT AS AN Intellectual Factor FOR THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION)

The French Revolution resulted from the various factors such as the continuing
existence of privilege, widespread social tensions, financial crisis and thus economic
depression, and a disable king at the throne

Another cause for the French revolution was intellectual. Maybe the ideas did not
lead to revolution, but they played crucial role in shaping it. On the one hand there
was a discontent nobility in front of the growing bourgeoisie; they wanted to keep
their privileges and other hand there was a discontent bourgeoisie with lack of
political rights and privileges. But, of course, at the top there were two privileged
institutions: the Church and the absolute monarchy.

The theories of the thinkers of the time contributed much to the occurrence of the
revolution such as Locke, Voltaire and Montesquieu and Jean Jack Rousseau.

The bourgeoisie welcomed the theoretical support from the Enlightenment thinkers
in their struggle for political recognition and their reaction to monarchial absolutism.

The Enlightened thinkers were arguing the production and distribution of the wealth.
According to them the production and distribution of the wealth should become
subject to only laws, not to the wills of the nobility. At the same time according to
the enlightened thinkers, mercantilism should be removed. It was the state control
over the economic activities.
They thought that agriculture and trade should be free from the state control and
state regulations. Among the enlightened intellectuals of this period, an important
name was Jean Jack Rousseau:
He played very important role in shaping the ideas and attitudes of the French
revolutionaries.

His significant work: “On the origin of Inequality and the other one, “Social
Contract.”

SOCIAL CONTRACT

He told that the evil in the society was arising from the quarrels over the property
rights. It was this quarrels in turn produced social and economic inequality.According
to him in order to ensure and provide social security a civil society should be
established. And in this civil society individual should surrender their rights to
community.

What does it mean?

Each person in the society should submit the will of the majority. This change should
be accomplished by a social contract. He told that sovereignty is indivisible. All
sovereignty should be vested in the civil society.All individuals should give their
rights and should submit absolutely to the general will.

It means what?

It means that the sovereign power should not be subject to any limitation.

What we should understand from the ideas of Rousseau?

He opposed to hereditary privilege.

Who had hereditary privileges in the society? : Nobles; in other words aristocrats.

He defended democratic absolutism at the same time by emphasizing the general

will of the society instead of individual interests.

Therefore his ideas put its impact of course on the French revolutionaries.