RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

CUTTING TOOLS AND METAL CUTTING
PRINCIPLES /MaEng3152/

CHAPTER – THREE

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

By: Berhe Syum (MSc.)

1
3. Mechanics of Metal Cutting
3.1. Mechanisms of formation of chips
▪ Metal cutting or machining is the process of producing a work
piece by removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in
the form of chips.
▪ This process is most important since almost all the products get
their final shape and size by metal removal, either directly or
indirectly.

2
3.1. Mechanisms of formation of chips/ cont…
Chip formation
▪ Mechanics of metal cutting greatly depends on the shape
and size of the chips formed.

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction. 3
 Mechanism of chip formation in machining
ductile materials

•Compression of work material ahead of the tool tip

•Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to
understand the characteristics of chips and to attain favorable
chip forms.

4
 Mechanism of chip …ductile materials/ cont…
◼ During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work
material just ahead of the cutting tool (edge) is subjected to
almost all sided compression, hence shear stress develops.
◼ When the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of
that work material in the deformation region, yielding or slip
takes place resulting in shear deformation in that region and
the plane of maximum shear stress.
◼ The forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip
quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that region
moves along the tool rake surface towards and then goes
beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.

5
Mechanism of chip …ductile materials/ cont…
◼ As a result the slip or shear stops propagating before total separation
takes place.
◼ This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal
of chips in thin layer by layer.

primary deformation
(shear) zone

secondary
deformation zone

6
 Mechanism of chip formation in machining
brittle materials
❖ During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip
due to wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-
tip stress concentration takes place.
❖ In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at
the crack-tip and reduces the effect of stress concentration and
prevents its propagation as crack.
❖ In case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly
propagates, under stressing action, and total separation takes
place from the parent work piece through the minimum
resistance path.
❖ Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and
mostly of irregular size and shape.

7
 Mechanism of chip formation in machining
brittle materials /cont…
crack propagation in
Initial case of brittle materials
minute crack
Development and
propagation of crack causing
chip separation

Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials

8
3.2. Types of chips in metal Cutting
Four Basic Type of Chips in Machining are

• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip

• Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

• Serrated chip

9
3.2. Types of chips in metal Cutting /cont…
Discontinuous chip
◼ When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material
gets fractured very easily and thus the Chip produced is in the form
of discontinuous segments
Reasons
◼ Brittle work materials
◼ Low cutting speeds
◼ Large feed and depth of cut
◼ High tool-chip friction

10
 3.2. Types of chips in metal Cutting /cont…
Continuous chip
◼ Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or
ductile materials at high cutting speeds.
◼ The continuous chip which is like a ribbon flows along the rake face.
Reasons
◼ Ductile work materials
◼ High cutting speeds
◼ Small feeds and depths
◼ Sharp cutting edge
◼ Low tool-chip friction

11
 3.2. Types of chips In metal Cutting /cont…
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
▪ When the friction b/n tool and chip is high while machining ductile materials, some
particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip.
▪ When such sizeable material piles upon the rake face, it acts as a cutting edge in
place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up edge (BUE).
▪ By virtue of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material
Reasons
◼ Ductile materials
◼ Low-to-medium cutting speeds
◼ Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
◼ BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

12
3.2. Types of chips In metal Cutting /cont…
Serrated chip

• Semi Continuous ( saw tooth appearance) chips produced when machining

tool steels or Harden materials at high cutting speeds.

• Serrated chips (also called segmented or non-homogeneous chips) are semi

continuous chips, with zones of low and high shear strain.

• Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases sharply
with temperature, such as titanium, exhibit this behavior.

• Reasons
◼ Ductile materials
◼ Low-to-medium cutting speeds
◼ Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
◼ BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically
13
3.3. Orthogonal and oblique cutting
◼ Orthogonal cutting

❑ The cutting edge of the tool is straight and

perpendicular to the direction of motion.
◼ Oblique cutting

❑ The cutting edge of the tool is set at an angle to the

direction of motion.

14
 3.3. Orthogonal and oblique cutting /cont…
◼ Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a
chip. As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
◼ Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a
position that is perpendicular to the direction of relative work or tool
motion. This allows us to deal with forces that act only in one plane.

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a). 15
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting
▪ Ideal Orthogonal Cutting is when the cutting edge of the tool is
straight and perpendicular to the direction of motion.
▪ During machining, the material is removed in the form of chips,
which are generated by shear deformation along a plane called
the shear plane.
▪ The surface the chip flows across is called the face or rake face.
▪ The surface that forms the other boundary of the wedge is called
the flank.
▪ The rake angle is the angle between the tool face and a line
perpendicular to the cutting point of the work piece surface.

16
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Orthogonal cutting model:
◼ t1 = undeformed chip thickness

◼ t2 = deformed chip thickness (usually t2 > t1)

◼ α = rake angle

◼ If we are using a lathe, t1 is the feed per revolution.

17
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
◼ In turning, w = depth of cut and t1= feed

18
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…

Cutting force (Fc) is tangential and Thrust force is axial (Ft)

Cutting forces in a turning operation 19

 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio, C u t t i n g r a t i o = r = t1
t2
where
▪ r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
▪ t1 = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
▪ t2 = chip thickness after separation
◼ Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0

20
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Shear Plane Angle
▪ Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model,
the shear plane angle ө can be determined as:

r cos 
ta n  =
1 − r s in 
where
▪ r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
▪  = Rake angle
▪ ө = Shear angle

21
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Shear Plane Angle Proof

22
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Shear Strain in chip formation

(a) chip formation depicted as a

series of parallel plates sliding
relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain,
and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation.

23
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Shear Strain in chip formation

◼ Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following

equation, based on the preceding parallel plate model:

❑  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ
where

❑  = shear strain

❑ θ = shear angle

❑  = rake angle of cutting tool

24
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting/cont…
Shear Strain Proof

◼ From the shear strain triangle (image c –slide 100)

▪  = AC/DB= (AD+DC)/DB

▪  = AD/DB + DC/DB

▪ AD/DB = Cot θ

▪ DC/DB = tan (θ - )

▪ Therefore  = Cot θ + tan (θ - )

❑  = tan(θ - ) + cot θ

25
 3.4. Merchant’s circle diagram- Force and Velocity
relationship
Forces Acting on a Chip
◼ Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
◼ Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting
26
3.4. Merchant’s circle diagram- Force and Velocity
relationship /cont…
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
◼ F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be measured directly, in order to measure these
forces the forces acting on the tool to be measured initially
❑ Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal cutting: (b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured 27
Forces Acting on a Chip/ cont…
Resultant Forces

◼ Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

◼ Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

◼ Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

❑ R' must be equal in magnitude to R

❑ R’ must be opposite in direction to R

❑ R’ must be collinear with R

28
Forces Acting on a Chip/ cont…
Shear Stress, S
▪ Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Fs
S =
As
▪ where As = area of the shear plane

t1 w
As =
sin 

▪ Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

29
 Shear Stress- Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Shear angle and its significance
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
◼ Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower
shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a
corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
30
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Force Calculations
◼ The forces and angles involved in
cutting are drawn here,

◼ Having seen the vector based

determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:

F
= tan  = 
N
Where  = The coefficient of friction

31
Force Calculations

Where the Resultant force R is

Given by

R = Fc2 + Ft 2 = Fs2 + Fn2 = F 2 + N 2

32
Force Calculations/cont…
◼ We can write the cutting and
thrust forces in terms of the
shear force:

33
Velocity Calculations
◼ Having seen the vector based
determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:
◼ Vc= Cutting velocity (ft/min) as
set or measured on the machine
◼ Vs= Shearing velocity
◼ Vf= Frictional velocity

Using the sign rules:

Vs Vc
=
sin ( 90 −  ) sin ( 90o +  −  )
o

Also,
Vc sin ( 90 −  )
o
Vc cos  Vc sin 
Vs = = Vf =
sin ( 90 +  −  ) cos ( −  )
o
cos ( −  )

34
Cutting Force Vs Rake Angle α
◼ The effects of rake angle on cutting force are shown in the graph below,

35
Merchant Equation
▪ To determine θ he assumed the minimum energy
principle applied in metal cutting so that the deformation
process adjusted itself to a minimum energy condition.
◼ Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can
occur, the work material will select a shear plane angle θ
that minimizes energy, given by

 
 = 45 + −
2 2
❑ Derived by Eugene Merchant

36
Merchant Equation/ cont…
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

◼ To increase shear plane angle

❑ Increase the rake angle ()

❑ Reduce the friction angle (β) or coefficient of friction

 
 = 45 + −
2 2

37
 Merchant's Force Circle
◼ Merchant's Force Circle is a method
for calculating the various forces
involved in the cutting process.
1. Set up x-y axis labeled with forces,
and the origin in the centre of the
page. The scale should be enough to
include both the measured forces.
The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential
force (Ft) is drawn vertically.
(These forces will all be in the
lower left hand quadrant).
Merchant's Force Circle 38
Merchant's Force Circle/ cont…
2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle
that encloses vector R. If done correctly,
the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie
on this circle.
4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right
hand quadrant, taking care to draw the
correct rake angle (α) from the vertical
axis.
5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of Merchant's Force Circle
the tool (at the same rake angle) through
the circle. This now gives the friction
vector (F).
39
Merchant's Force Circle/ cont…
6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the
friction vector, to the head of the resultant vector
(R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a
friction angle (β) between vectors R and N. As a
side note recall that any vector can be broken
down into components. Therefore,
mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the
cut depth to find the shear force. To do this, the
chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before
drawing, select some magnification factor (e.g.,
200 times) to multiply both values by. Draw a
Merchant's Force Circle
feed thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal
axis. Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to
the tool cutting face.

40
 Merchant's Force Circle/ cont…
8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool point)
towards the intersection of the two chip
lines, stopping at the circle. The result will
be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure
the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.

9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn)

from the head of Fs to the head of R.

10. Use a scale and protractor to measure off

all distances (forces) and angles.

Merchant's Force Circle

41
 3.5. Power and Energy Relationships
◼ There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the power
consumed in cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast we can
cut, or how large the motor on a machine must be. Having both the
forces and velocities found with the Merchant for Circle, we are
able to calculate the power,
◼ The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc . Vc in kw
Pc = Fc . Vc / 33,000 in HP
where Pc = cutting power in KW
Fc = cutting force in KN
Vc = cutting speed in m/min
42
3.5. Power and Energy Relationships/ cont…
◼ Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is given by
P H Pc
Pg = c H Pg =
E or E

Where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools  90%
◼ There are losses in the machine that must be considered when
estimating the size of the electric motor required:
Pc
Pg = + Pt
Where E
❑ Pt = power required to run the machine at no-load
conditions (hp or kW)

43
3.5. Power and Energy Relationships/ cont…
◼ Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of
metal cut (power to cut one cubic inch per minute)

◼ Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc HPc
PU = or HPU =
RMR RMR

◼ where RMR = material removal rate

44
3.5. Power and Energy Relationships/ cont…
▪ Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc  V c Fc
U = Pu = = =
R M R V c  t1  w t1  w
◼ Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or
J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

◼ Specific energy is in fact pressure and sometimes is

called specific cutting pressure: Fc
U =
A
45
 Manufacturing Technology
Cutting Temperature
▪ Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat
▪ This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip
▪ The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip
High cutting temperatures
▪ Reduce tool life
▪ Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator
▪ Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to thermal expansion of
work material

46
3.6. Ernst-Merchant’s theory of shear angle relationship
◼ The real value of the Merchant equation is that it defines the
general relationship between rake angle, tool–chip friction, and
shear plane angle.
◼ The shear plane angle can be increased by :-
❑ (1) increasing the rake angle and

❑ (2) decreasing the friction angle (and coefficient of friction)

between the tool and the chip.
◼ Rake angle can be increased by proper tool design,
◼ And friction angle can be reduced by using a lubricant cutting
fluid.
◼ If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear plane angle
results in a smaller shear plane area.
◼ Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force
required to form the chip will decrease when the shear plane area
is reduced. 47
 3.6. Ernst-Merchant’s theory of shear angle
relationship/ cont…
◼ A greater shear plane angle results in lower cutting energy,
lower power requirements, and lower cutting temperature.
◼ These are good reasons to try to make the shear plane angle as
large as possible during machining.

Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b)
smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is
larger in (a), which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
48
 RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING
CUTTING TOOLS AND METAL CUTTING
PRINCIPLES /MaEng3152/

CHAPTER – FOUR

FORCES IN MACHINING
By: Berhe Syum (MSc.) 49
4.1. Forces in drilling and milling
4.1.1. Forces in drilling
Forces in drilling/ cont…

51
 Forces in drilling/ cont…
4. The width of cut b is measured along the lip and is
equal to the length of the lip:
b=d/(2.sin κ) in mm
5. The area of cut A per lip is:

f d fd
At = h.b = . sin  . =
2 2. sin  4
6. Engagement a is the distance from the machined surface to the drill
axis a=d/2 in mm

The cut and other variables for Core Drilling

1. The engagement a in core drilling is
d − do
a= in mm
2
 The cut and other variables for Core / cont…
2. The thickness of cut is determined in the same way as in drilling in full.
3. The width of cut b is
d − do
b= In mm
2 sin 
4.The area of cut A for one lip is:
d − do
At = b.h = f In mm2
4
Forces acting on a twist drill
There are 3 cutting edges on a twist drill: the cutting edge (lips),
minor Cutting edge (drill margin) and the chisel edge.

The effect of all forces acting on the drill can be represented by the
thrust force Tth and the resisting torque T(M). The action at the
chisel edge is not trully a cutting action but rather a pushing into the
material like a wedge.
But the effect of the chisel edge on the torque is negligible as it is on
the axis of the rotation (radius is almost zero)
 Forces acting on a twist drill/ cont…
A. Thrust Force
The total thrust force Fth is:
Fth=2Ff+Fch+Ffr
Ff: Feed force
Fch:Force on the chisel edge
Ffr: Friction force on the drill margins which rub on
the machined surface of the hole and the friction force
due to chip flow.
The horizontal forces Fp (the passive forces), cancel each
other. The feed force Ff consumes about 40% of the
thrust force and chisel edge force consumes 57% and
the friction force 3%.
B. The Feed Force
The pure feed force is the sum of the two feed forces lips
(cutting edges of a drill):
Ff=Ff1+Ff2
 Forces acting on a twist drill/ cont…
Using the cutting variables developed, the feed force
acting on one cutting edge is:
(a) Drilling in full d f . sin  1− y
Ff 1 = Ff 2 = { } .k f 1.1
2 sin  2
(b) Core drilling d − d f . sin 
Ff 1 = Ff 2 = o
{ }1− y .k f 1.1
The Torque
2 sin  2
The torque is made up of
(1) Torque of the main cutting force (Fc) - T
(2) Torque due to scrapping of chisel edge-Tch
(3) Torque of the friction force – Tfr
T=Tc+Tch+Tfr
About 80% of torque is due to the main cutting force, 12% to the chisel edge
and 8% to friction.

*In these equations 1-z; 1-y; 1-m; kc1.1; kf1.1; kp1.1 are called work-piece
Material cutting constants and are determined experimentally.
 Forces acting on a twist drill/ cont…
Calculation of the Torque
The two main cutting forces form a force couple with a distance x
between them. Theoretically the distance x should be half the
twist drill diameter. However, recent research results show that:
X = 0.50d……..0.57d for drilling in full
X = 0.26d……..0.41d for core boring
For all practical purposes this distance should be assumed as:
x = 0.5d
With this assumption the drilling torque is then
T = 0.5dFc1 = 0.5dFc2
for drilling in full and for core drilling (boring)
d − do d + do
T = (d o + ) Fc1/ 2 = ( ) Fc1/ 2
2 2
The cutting Power Requirement for Drilling and Core Drilling
The drilling power is calculated from the torque as follows:
Pc=Cutting torque X angular velocity
Pc = Tω = T.2πn
 4.1.2. Forces in Milling
Introduction
◼ The milling operation can be classified into two major groups:
(1) Vertical Milling or Face Milling
(2) Horizontal Milling or Plain Milling
The latter is also grouped into Up Milling and Down Milling
4.1.2. Forces in Milling/ cont…

Fig. Main Features of the Milling Process

4.1.2. Forces in Milling/ cont…
Cutting Variables and the Definition of the Cut in Vertical Milling
The following variables, which were not considered under
turning, are introduced to be able to calculate the milling power

Fig. New variables on vertical (face) milling

4.1.2. Forces in Milling/ cont…
1. B: Cutting Height (Width of the Workpiece)
2. D: Diameter of Milling Head
3. t: Number of cutting edges (teeth)
4. φ1: Cutting angle (feed motion angle) on entry
5. φ2: Cutting angle (feed motion angle) on departure.
6. φc = φ2 -φ1: Cutting arc angle
7. ft : tooth feed
8. fc: Cutting feed
9. e: eccentricity i.e. distance between work-piece
and milling head centres.
Note: For good cutting the ratio between B and D must
be:
B:D = 3:4 or B = 0.6D
 Definition of the Cut in Vertical (face) Milling
1. Thickness of cut h
The thickness of cut in vertical (face) milling varies with the cutting arc angle φc or
the feed motion angle φ . It is zero when the cutting edge enters the wor-
kpiece, when φ = 0 and increases to maximum value when φ=90o after which
the value decreases to another minimum value on leaving the wor-kpiece,
when φ= φc.
It follows therefore, that: h=f(φ) And from triangles in Figures
6.3.2 follows that: h=fc.sinχ
From the diagram on that follows:

Fig. Elements of the cut in vertical (face) milling

 Definition of the Cut in Vertical (face) Milling/ cont…
fc
sin  = Hence
ft
f c = f t . sin 
Substituting this value in equation 2 gives:
h(φ) = ft.sinφ.sinχ
2. The Tooth Main Cutting Force in Vertical (Face) Milling
Using the main cutting force equation, the tooth cutting force in milling can
be written as
Fct ( ) = b.( f t.sin. sin  )1− z .kc1.1

Using the specific cutting force:

Fct(φ) = b.ft.sin φ.sin χ.kc
The relationship between Fct(φ) and φ is shown in the diagram below.
The Magnitude of the tooth main cutting force is represented by the
area of the sine curve. The same can be represented by a rectangular
shaped curve as shown in the diagram.
 Definition of the Cut in Vertical (face) Milling/ cont…
The mean cutting force of a tooth is

2
1
 2 − 1 1
Fcmt = b. f t . sin  . sin  .kc .d

The above equation can be written

as:
2
1
Fcmt = b. f t . sin  .k c  sin  .d
c 1
Fig. Tooth main cutting force as of
Which is the feed motion angle
1
Fcmt = b. f t . sin  (cos1 − cos 2 ).k c
c
B1 2B
cos1 = = 1
D2 D

 2 = 90o + 
 Definition of the Cut in Vertical (face) Milling/ cont…
B2 2B
cos 2 = cos(90o +  ) = sin  = − =− 2
D/2 D
Then

1 B1 + B2
Fcmt = .b. f t . sin  .2( ).kc
c D
1 2B
= .b. f t . sin  . .kc
c D

φc in radians
2 o 1
 c _ in _ radians = . c =  co
360 57.296
57.296 2B
Fcmt = .b. f t . sin  . .k c
 co D

114.6 B
Fcmt = .b. f t . sin  .kc .
 co D
 Definition of the Cut in Vertical (face) Milling/ cont…
Note that only a few teeth are engaged at any given time.
So if
nt= number of teeth of the milling cutter
ta=average no. of teeth engaged at any given time
τ= angle between two adjacent teeth
Then the following relationship has been proved to hold:
 co .nt
 co
ta = =
360 
3. The mean main cutting Force

Fcm = Fcmt .t a
4. The Cutting Power in Vertical Milling

Pc = Fcm .v = Fcmt .t a .v
 Cutting Variables and Definition of the Cut in Horizontal
Milling (Plain Milling)
Cutting Variables
The following features distinguish Horizontal Milling fromVertical
Milling regardless of whether it is up milling or down milling
(i) φ1=0
(ii) φ2= φc; Hence cos φ2=cos φc
(iii) b=B
For better cutting, the centre
of the milling head arbour is
higher up than the engagement

D/2−a 2a
cos 2 = cos c = = 1−
D/2 D

Fig. cutting variables of vertical milling

 Cutting Variables and …. (Plain Milling)/ cont…
Definition of cut
The area of cut A in horizontal milling is equal to the area of the arc extended
by an angle φc at the centre. The area of such an arc is given as:
Length of the arc * mean width (thickness)
L * hm
D
L= . 2
2 Hence
D
A = a. f t = hm . c .
2 From which

2.a. f t 114.6 a
hm = = . f .
 c .D  co
t
D
For horizontal milling, therefore, the mean tooth main cutting force is:
114.6 a
Fcmt = b.hm .k c = B.hm .k = .B. f t . .k c
 co D
The cutting power is Pc = Fcm .v = Fcmt .t a .v
4.2. Construction and principle of operation of tool dynamometers
Tool force dynamometers
◼ To estimate power required for machining operations, the force
has to be measured by a suitable measuring instruments.
◼ Generally, cutting forces in cutting tool are measured in different
ways such as: Dynamometer, Ammeter, Wattmeter, Calorimeter,
Thermocouple, etc. Among these, dynamometers are generally
used for measuring cutting forces. Especially, strain gauge
dynamometers are used.
◼ In this case, spring deflection is measured which is proportional
to the cutting forces.
 Design requirements for Tool force Dynamometers
The following requirements are considered during design and
construction of any tool force dynamometer:
❖ Sensitivity: The dynamometer should be reasonably sensitive for
precision measurement.
❖ Rigidity: to withstand the forces without causing much deflection
which may affect the machining condition.
❖ Cross Sensitivity: The dynamometer should be free from cross
sensitivity such that one force (say Fz) does not affect measurement of
the other forces (say Fx and Fy).
❖ Stability: against humidity and temperature.
❖ Quick time response: High frequency response such that the readings
are not affected by vibration within a reasonably high range of
frequency.
❖ Consistency: It should work desirably over a long period.

69
Construction and working principle of dynamometers

◼ The dynamometers being commonly used nowadays for measuring

machining forces accurately and precisely (both static and dynamic
characteristics) are either strain gauge type or piezoelectric type.
Strain gauge:
❖ type dynamometers are inexpensive but less accurate & consistent.

Piezoelectric:
❖ type are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very expensive
for high material cost and rigid construction.
❖ lower cost and ability to provide almost all the desired force values.

70