Control of Taenia saginata by post-mortem examination

of carcasses
Wanzala W. a* , Onyango-Abuje J.A.b, Kang’ethe E.K.c, K. Hd Zessin, N. Mc,d Kyule,
M.P.O d Baumann, Ochanda Ha, Harrison L.J.S.e

a Division of Parasitology and Immunology, Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197,
Nairobi, Kenya
b National Veterinary Research Centre, Muguga, P.O. Box 32, Kikuyu, Kenya
c Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya
d Department of International Animal Health, Freie University Berlin, FB Veterinärmedizin, Luisenstraße 56, D-
10117 Berlin, Germany.
e Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Roslin Midlothian, EH25 9RG,
Scotland, U.K.

ABSTRACT
Background: A study to curb transmission cycle of a zoonotic Taenia cestodiasis between humans and
cattle is presented.
Objective: To evaluate the reliability of meat inspection procedure in detecting carcasses of cattle with T.
saginata cysticercosis.
Methods: A total of 55 cattle divided into two groups of artificially (n =30) and naturally (n = 25) infested
animals were utilized. Total dissection method was used as a gold standard of validity.
Results: Meat inspection insensitively revealed cysticerci in 12 carcasses in each group compared with 24
and 23 carcasses revealed by total dissection in natural and artificial infestations, respectively. Sites of
oncosphere invasion showed great variations with the two groups of cattle. In the predilection sites, most
cysticerci were found in the heart, Triceps brachii, tongue and head muscles in that order. However, non-
predilection sites (neck and back, hind limbs, chest, pelvic and lumbar regions, lungs and liver) consider-
ably harboured high numbers of cysticerci. Observations indicated that except for the dead, degenerate
or calcified cysticerci a careless meat inspector will most likely miss out quite a number of viable cysticerci,
which blend the pinkish-red colour of the meat and be passed on for human consumption, becoming the
source of bovine cysticercosis.
Conclusions: The results confirmed that in spite of the time and efforts taken by meat inspectors looking
for cysticerci at specified predilection sites of carcasses, this method is insensitive and inaccurate. To
effectively improve meat inspection procedures, there is need to increase the area and number of predi-
lection sites observed during inspection and vary them according to the nature of the animals, their
husbandry history and the target human population for consumption. In addition, other control ap-
proaches such as vaccination, chemotherapy and immunodiagnosis should be developed and imple-
mented to complement meat inspection procedures.
Key words: meat inspection; post-mortem; zoonosis; bovine cysticercosis; taenia saginata
African Health Sciences 2003 3(2): 68 - 76

INTRODUCTION million cases of infestation worldwide with 50,000 people

Taenia saginata is a worldwide zoonotic cestode dying from this problem annually1. Both adult and larvae
whose epidemiology is ethnically and culturally forms hazardously affect health of their respective hosts,
determined with estimates of approximately 50 either directly or indirectly accompanied with severe
secondary infections, particularly in human hosts2. The
* Corresponding Author. occurrence of the larvae (Cysticercus bovis) in cattle
Division of Parasitology and Immunology, musculature cause bovine cysticercosis while the adult
Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, worms in human small intestines cause taeniasis2. In
P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya humans, the infestation is accompanied with mild
Telefax: 254-02-445763; symptoms ranging from nausea, abdominal discomfort,
E-mail: wwanzala@hotmail.com epigastric pain, diarrhea, vitamin deficiency, excessive

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 68

appetite or loss of appetite, weakness and loss of parasite occur most commonly in environments
weight to digestive disturbances and intestinal characterized by poor sanitation, primitive livestock
blockage2. However, in cattle, heavy infestation by husbandry practices, and inadequate meat inspection,
the larvae may cause myocarditis or heart failure3. management and control policies4.
The life cycle (Figure 1) and transmission of the
Figure 1. The life cycle of T. saginata.

While ill-health caused by the adult worms meat in 25% salt solution for 5 days and buying only
in humans give rise to high medical costs5, the officially inspected meat10,2,11, have not been able to
economic losses accruing from the condemned and eliminate the parasite and even control it12. Other new
downgraded carcasses due to treatment of potential approaches such as vaccination, chemotherapy
carcasses before human consumption are and immunodiagnosis, have not been well developed for
substantial6,7. For instance, in Kenya, Botswana and use and investigation still continues13,14,15,16,17. A promising
Great Britain, such losses were estimated at, £1.0 Antigen-ELISA continues to be evaluated using diagnostic
million, £0.5 million8 and £1.2 million9 annually, test evaluation tables17,18. Meat inspection method is
respectively. For the African continent, an annual therefore still the most important public health measure
loss was reported to be US$ 1.8 billion4 under an practised in controlling the transmission cycle of the
overall infestation rate of 7%. In South America, parasite. The Kenya Meat Control Act19 regulations focus
where an overall infestation rate was estimated at on the incision and examination for the presence of C.
2.0%, bovine together with porcine cysticercosis bovis only in the so-called predilection sites (cheek muscles
caused an annual loss of US$ 428 million5. of the head, tongue, heart and Triceps brachii). However,
Various control measures in practice such predilection sites, may not be the only sites in the carcass
as carcasses irradiation, public hygiene and with the highest number of cysticerci as there could be
education, mass chemotherapy (using praziquantel great variations in terms of distribution of cysticerci
and/or albendazole and with praziquantel or between preferred sites20,21,22. Since meat inspection
niclosamide), cooking of meat at 57oC, deep method is still the method of choice deployed in the
freezing of meat at -10oC for 10 days, pickling control of human taeniasis at all the slaughterhouses, it

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 69

was very necessary to re-evaluate it so as to assess initially and later on calf weaner pellets and hay. Only one
its state of reliability, and hence the current study. technician dressed in apron, gumboots and hand gloves
to avoid man to animal infestation attended to them. The
METHODS calves were divided into 4 groups (group 1(n=6) received
Collection of the parasite eggs sterile distilled water without any eggs (control), group 2
Taenia saginata proglottids were collected from (n=8) received 2500 eggs each, group 3(n=8) received
human excrement in Mathare Valley Slums of 5000 eggs each and group 4(n=8) received 10,000 eggs
Nairobi, Kenya. The proglottids were collected in each) and infested when 2½ months old, after confirming
physiological saline (0.15M NaCl) containing 200 their bovine cysticercosis-free state.
units/ml of Crystapen benzylpencillin (Glaxo
Laboratories, U.K.); 0.2mg/ml Streptomycin Post - mortem examination
Sulphate (Glaxo Lab., U.K.) as antibiotics, and All experiments were performed in compliance with
5ug/ml fungizone (Squibb and Sons, Inc., New guidelines published by Kenya Veterinary Association
Jersey), as a fungicidal drug. While in the laboratory (KVA) and Kenya Laboratory Animal Technician
at the National Veterinary Research Centre Association23.
(NVRC), Muguga, Kenya, the eggs were teased
from the proglottids and washed through a tier Meat inspection
of three sieves with 250nm, 150nm and 30nm Meat inspection was done in accordance with the Kenya
apertures, respectively. The 30nm aperture sieve Meat Control Act19 which stipulates that the cheek muscles
retained the eggs, which were then transferred into (masseter-external muscles and pterygoid-internal muscles
a universal bottle containing physiological saline of the head), tongue, heart and Triceps brachii must be
and the antibiotics and stored at 4 oC until required. deeply incised only once with a sharp knife and make three
The viability of the eggs was tested 7 before calves’ adjacent cuttings into the muscle to be examined for the
infestation and eggs counted using McMaster slide. presence of C. bovis before the blood covers the
corresponding surfaces if at all the carcass was not well
Naturally infested cattle bled. For cheek muscles, two deep linear incisions were
Naturally infested Zebu herds were identified made parallel to the mandible from its upper muscular
through animal husbandry history and bovine insertion. The tongue (also examined by palpation) was
cysticercosis reports from the District Veterinary incised lengthwise on the lower surface from base to root
Officer in Samburu District, Kenya. Ninety-six while the heart was split from base to the apex and further
cattle were bled for serum, and tested for C. bovis incisions made into the muscles. Three deep, adjacent and
circulating antigens by a sandwich Antigen-ELISA parallel transverse incisions were made above the point
(Ag-ELISA)7,12,17. Based on the Optical Density of the elbow in the Triceps brachii. The Act further
(OD) readings, 25 steers about 1½ years old were recommends that carcasses with 0 cysts should be passed
selected. Sixteen of these were strong seropositive on directly for human consumption, 1-5 cysts should be
while nine were strong seronegative. The cattle retained, frozen at -10oC for at least 10 days and released
were faecal sampled for nematode and fluke “unconditionally”, 6-20 cysts should be similarly treated
infestations using modified McMaster egg as above but released conditionally to schools/institutions
counting and Boray sedimentation techniques, where proper cooking is expected to be done, over 20
respectively and dewormed accordingly. After cysts should be totally condemned.
three months, the cattle were slaughtered and In rural areas where the disease is more prevalent
carcasses examined for C. bovis using meat and electricity is unavailable, the carcasses should be sliced
inspection procedures19 and total dissection (cutting and boiled for 2 hours at 77oC under the supervision of
the musculature into very thin and transparent slices the inspecting officer.
for the sake of recovering the parasite’s larvae)21,22.
Total dissection
Artificially infested calves At slaughter the cattle were examined for cysticerci first
Thirty neonatal calves, 3 to 34 days old, were by routine meat inspection procedures as stated above,
bought from a Ranch at Kapiti Plains, Machakos followed by total dissection of the carcass. This was done
District. They were bled and the serum tested for by thinly slicing the entire musculature of the carcasses in
circulating C. bovis antigens. The calves were kept order to recover the cysticerci. The number of cysticerci
worm/cysticercosis free in pens and fed on milk obtained in one half was noted and doubled to get the

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 70

total number of cysticerci in the whole animal. The the carcasses of 25 naturally infested cattle is shown in
doubling method was adopted in accordance with Table 1. All sites except the rumen had varying numbers
statistically approved previous records based on of both live and dead cysticerci, with skeletal muscles
long-term Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) set carrying the highest (as high as 24.74%) while visceral organs
in NVRC laboratory, Muguga, Kenya on recovery carrying the least (as low as 0.15%). All the 25 animals
of C. bovis from bovine carcasses7,21. However, were found infested (96%) except one. More live cysticerci
visceral organs were not halved. In experimental (53.80%) were recovered in skeletal muscles than the dead
calves, the whole carcass was examined for ones (46.20%) in visceral organs (Table 1). By physical
cysticerci because the cattle were small in size. Total appearance, dead, degenerate or calcified cysticerci clearly
dissection method was taken as a gold standard formed identifiable spots of white and fibrotic lesions,
method of validity (a method that gives the true while the viable cysticerci were pinkish-red in colour.
status of bovine cysticercosis infestation in cattle), However, cysticerci, which evinced true viability and could
against which post-mortem meat inspection therefore be counted as live, evaginated upon staying in
method was compared. cattle bile overnight, while the dead ones remained intact
albeit pinkish colouration. This therefore stopped further
RESULTS histopathological confirmation of dead cysticerci following
Distribution of T. saginata cysticerci in their morphological confirmation of their originality and
carcasses of naturally infested cattle true identity from the voucher specimens stored in NVRC
The distribution of cysticerci in various sites of laboratory.

Table 1
The distribution of C. bovis in the various sites of carcasses naturally infested with T. saginata eggs as
revealed by total dissection at slaughter (n=25).

Cysts’ record Cattle record

Sites on the Number of % Number of Number of % Number o f
Carcass cysts per site cysts found cattle infested cattle found
per site by the site infested

Head 10(5) 1.49(0.75) 3 5(4) 20(16)

Tongue 22(20) 3.28(2.98) 7(6) 28(24)
Fore limbs 166(104) 24.74(15.50) 18(11) 72(44)
Neck & back 16(2) 2.38(0.30) 6(2) 24(8)
Pelvis 24(10) 3.58(1.49) 4(3) 16(12)
Hind limbs 160(108) 23.85(16.10) 15(13) 60(52)
Chest 62(30) 9.24(4.47) 5(5) 20(20)
Lumbar 44(25) 6.56(3.73) 9(5) 36(20)
Rumen 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
Lungs 20(14) 2.98(2.09) 11(8) 44(32)
Heart 59(24) 8.79(3.58) 15(8) 60(32)
Liver 82(14) 12.22(2.09) 19(3) 76(12)
Kidney 1(1) 0.15(0.15) 1(1) 4(4)
Diaphragm 5(4) 0.75(0.60) 2(2) 8(8)
Grand Total 671(361) 100.00(53.80) 24(20) 96(80)

1
The percentages were based on the total number of cysticerci recovered in 25 cattle - 671(361)
2
The percentages were based on 25 animals selected from the field.
3
Figures in parentheses represent live cysticerci and cattle found with live cysticerci during total dissection at
slaughter, respectively. Live cysticerci present health hazard to man and are the causative mechanism of taeniasis
in man when ingested and later becomes the source of bovine cysticercosis.

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 71

Distribution of T. saginata cysticerci in infested (95.83%) except one. Total dissection, like in
carcasses of artificially infested calves natural infestations, revealed cysticerci in all the 30
The results of the distribution of cysticerci between experimental calves except in one of the 24 treated calves
parts of the carcasses of calves are shown in and one of the 6 control calves (Table 2 and 5). More live
Tables 2. All sites except the Kidneys had varying cysticerci (52.01%) were recovered in skeletal muscles than
numbers of both live and dead cysticerci, with the dead ones (47.99%) in visceral organs (Table 2).
the visceral organs carrying the highest (as high as However, egg doses administered to calves did not have
22.00% for liver) while the skeletal muscles influence on the recovery of cysticerci at autopsy (Table
generally carrying the least (as low as 4.09% for 3).
Lumbar). All the 24 treated calves were found

Table 2: The distribution of C. bovis in the various sites of carcasses artificially infested with T.
saginata eggs as revealed by total dissection (n=30).

Cysts’ record Cattle record

Sites on the Number of % Number of Number of % Number o f
Carcass cysts per site cysts found calves infested cattle found
per site by the site infested
3 3
Head 40(11) 2.40 (0.66) 9 (5) 37.5(20.83)
Tongue 42(27) 2.52(1.62) 10 (7) 41.67(29.17)
Fore limbs 222(164) 13.35(9.86) 15 (10) 62.50(41.67)
Neck and back 100(59) 6.01(3.55) 14 (10) 58.33(41.67)
Pelvis 73(55) 4.39(3.31) 13 (9) 54.17(37.50)
Hind limbs 250(168) 15.02(10.10) 14 (10) 58.33(41.67)
Chest 108 (75) 6.49(4.51) 13 (10) 54.17(41.67)
Lumbar 68 (37) 4.09(2.22) 11 (8) 45.83(33.33)
Rumen 9 (3) 0.54 (0.18) 6 (2) 25.00(8.33)
Lungs 65 (37) 3.91 (2.22) 12 (8) 50.00(33.33)
Heart 285(116) 17.13(6.97) 12 (8) 50.00(33.33)
Liver 366(93) 22.00(5.59) 21(10) 87.50(41.67)
Kidneys 0(0) 0.00(0.00) 0(0) 0.00(0.00)
Diaphragm 35 (20) 2.10 (1.20) 8 (5) 33.33(20.83)
Grand total 1664(866) 100.00(52.01) 23(16) 95.83(66.67)
1
The percentages were based on the total number of cysts recovered including one cyst recovered from one
of the control calves = 1664(866) 3
2
The percentages were based on the 24 experimentally infested calves.
3
Figures in parentheses represent live cysticerci and cattle found with live cysticerci during total dissection at
slaughter, respectively. Live cysticerci present health hazard to man and are the causative mechanism of taeniasis
in man when ingested and later becomes the source of bovine cysticercosis.

Table 3
Mean number of C. bovis recovered from different groups of calves artificially infested with
different doses of T. saginata eggs.

Group Number of calves Mean egg doses Mean number of

per group C.bovis recoverd
1 6 0000 00±00
2 8 2 500 46±11
3 8 5 000 83±21
4 8 10 000 83±19
African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 72
Meat inspection findings in naturally and cysticerci but most were found in the heart (5.29%), Masculus
artificially infested cattle triceps brachii muscles (1.80%), masseter and pterygoid
Meat inspection detected cysticerci in 12 out of 24 muscles (0.60%) and tongue (0.54%) in that order (Table
animals (50%) in artificially infested calves. Of these 4). In animals with natural infestations, meat inspection
calves, 10 (41.67%) had cysticerci in the heart, revealed a prevalence rate of 48% (12 out of 25 animals)
6(25.00%) in the cheek muscles (masseter-external with a considerably varied detection rate of cysticerci in
muscles and Pterygoid-internal muscles), 5 different carcasses and predilection sites (Table 4). Of these
(20.83%) in the Masculus triceps brachii (shoulder animals, 9 (36%) had cysticerci in the heart, 4 (16%) in the
muscles) and 4 (16.67%) in the tongue (Table 4). Masculus triceps brachii (shoulder muscles) and 3 (12%) in
The six control calves were not found with any the tongue. In natural infestations, most cysticerci were
cysticerci. All the predilection sites of the carcasses found in the heart (2.98%), tongue (1.79%) and Masculus
of artificially infested calves were found with triceps brachii muscles (1.04%), in that order (Table 4).

Table 4: Distribution and detection of C. bovis in the predilection sites during meat inspection as
specified in Kenya Meat Control Act – 1977.

Naturally infested cattle (n=25) Artificially infested cattle (n=24)

Predilection sites Number of cysticerci The number Number of The number of
according to Kenya per site(s) for all the of cattle found per site(s) for cattle found
Meat Control Act 25 cattle (%)a infested by the all the 24 infested by the
-1977 site(s) examined infested cattle site(s) examined
(%) (%) (%)

Heart 20(2.98) 9 (36) 88 (5.29) 10 (41.67)

Triceps brachii of the fore limbs 7(1.04) 4 (16) 30 (1.80) 5 (20.84)
Tongue 12(1.79) 3 (12) 9 (0.54) 4 (16.67)
Masseter and pterygoid of the 0 (0) 0 (0) 11 (0.66) 6 (25.00)
head
Grand total 39 (5.81) 12 (48) 138(8.30) 12(50)

a
= percentage of total cysts found in 25 carcasses per predilection site.
b
= percentage of total cysts found in 24 carcasses per predilection site.
*Evaluation was based on 24 infested calves only, not the 6 control calves
Figures in parentheses represent percentages of total cysticerci recovered (1664 cysts for calves and 671 cysts for
field steers) and animals infested by the predilection site examined during meat inspection, respectively.

A comparative analysis of meat inspection and consumption by meat inspection under the current Kenya
total dissection in detecting C. bovis in Meat Control Act-1977, thus, enhancing a continued
carcasses from economic loss and transmission cycle of the parasite between humans and
enhancement of transmission cycle point of cattle. By total dissection, 40% and 53.28% of the animals
views. from natural and artificial infections, respectively, would
Detection of C. bovis by the two methods (meat be totally condemned, a great loss to the farmer and
inspection and total dissection) was often in an butcher business. While meat inspection method never
inverse proportion (Table 5). From the results condemned any animal from natural infections but only
shown in Table 5, total dissection showed that a 6.66% from artificial infections, thus, allowing a lot of
lot of infested animals are passed on for human infested carcasses to enter the transmission cycle.

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 73

Table 5: A comparison of losses by total dissection and meat inspection in accordance with the
Kenya Meat Control Act – 1977 in identifying cysticerci from 55 carcasses.
Meat Inspection Total dissection
Animal groups Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses Carcasses
with with with with with with with with
cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci cysticerci
0 1-5 6-20 more 0 1-5 6-20 more
than 20 than 20

Naturally infested cattle (n=25) 13 10 2 0 1 3 11 10

(52%) (40%) (8%) (0) (4%) (12%) (44%) (40%)
Artificially infested cattle (n= 30)* 18 7 3 2 6 2 6 16
(69.94%) (23.31%) (9.99) (6.66%) (19.98%) (6.66%) (19.98%) (53.28%)

*One out of 6 control calves was found with one live cysticerci during total dissection and of the 24 calves
exposed to T. saginata eggs, only one calf was found negative by total dissection.

DISCUSSION
density of both live and dead cysticerci in the hind limbs,
In both naturally and artificially infested cattle, total fore limbs, liver, chest, heart, lumbar, pelvis, tongue, lungs,
dissection revealed cysticerci infestation in 24 out neck and back, head and diaphragm in that order (Table 1
of 25 cattle selected from the field and 23 out of and 2). From these results, all the parts of various carcasses
24 calves exposed to the eggs of T. saginata, giving were equally important as predilection sites for cysticerci
prevalence rates of 96 and 95.8%, respectively and could be equally used during routine meat inspection
(Table 1 and 2). While the corresponding at slaughterhouses except for rumen, fat layers, spleen and
prevalence rates by meat inspection were 48 and skin (the last three sites not included in the results but during
50%, respectively (Table 4). In these 47 infested total dissection, they never had any cysticerci). However,
carcasses, cysticerci were found distributed of the parts examined, hind limbs, ribs, lungs, neck and
between and within carcasses’ sites in varying back, liver, lumbar and pelvis, need to be considered by
numbers and surprisingly, even more in sites not the Act-1977 and larger areas of these predilection sites
specified in the Act-1977 as predilection sites be examined during routine meat inspection.
(Tables 1 and 2). This, together with other factors
The age-dependent immunity26 of an animal had
(light intensity at the inspection points, room
an important role to play in fighting against infestation
ventilation, nature of the knife in use, poor
and re-infestation of cysticerci29 . The re-stimulation of
bleeding of the carcasses, uncoordinated training
animals’ immunity following continuous invasion of
programmes of the officers, pressure of work,
oncospheres, would explain the development of a strong
corruption and poor human eyesight) previously
immunity which did not allow further development of
identified 24,25 completely undermine the sensitivity
more cysticerci from invading oncospheres but spared
of meat inspection. Crucial to this Act, is its
viable cysticerci from the initial infestation26,30,31,32. This
limitations such as, fewer predilection sites and only
phenomenon further helps to explain the occurrence of
a small area within a given predilection site being
both live and dead cysticerci and their corresponding
allowed to be incised and examined so as to avoid
variations in predilection sites examined (Table 1 and 2).
mutilation of the carcass.
In artificial infestations, the intensity of cysticerci was highest
The results of the total dissection were in in the visceral organs (liver - 22.00% and heart - 17.13%)
agreement with the previous studies 3,20,26,28, in followed by the limbs (hind limbs - 15.02%, fore limbs -
terms of distribution of cysticerci in various parts 13.35% and chest - 6.49%) (Table 2) This pattern reversed
of the carcasses and ranking of these parts, albeit in naturally infested cattle with the limbs (fore limbs -
great variations. The variations depend on a 24.74%, hind limbs - 23.85% and chest - 9.24%)
number of factors such as blood kinetics and harbouring the highest number of cysticerci followed by
animals’ daily activities3. Any geographical and visceral organs (liver - 12.22% and heart - 8.79%) (Table
environmental factors affecting blood kinetics in 1). The explanation for this differential location of cysticerci
the animal affect the distribution of oncospheres lies in the animals’ daily activities and blood kinetics28, which
as well and hence the predilection sites during meat determines the distribution of cysticerci within the animal.
inspection28. Total dissection results showed a high

African Health Sciences Vol 3 No 2 August 2003 74

 These results indicated that in either group ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of cattle, total dissection was, in practice, twice as The authors wish to thank Dr. L. Wamae for sampling,
efficient in the detection of bovine cysticercosis as buying and transporting cattle to National Veterinary
routinely used meat inspection (Tables 1, 2 and 4). Research Centre (NVRC) Muguga, members of staff of
While Table 5 shows the insensitivity of meat Helminthology Division, NVRC, for their technical
inspection method. Though robust, total dissection assistance. This work was supported by a financial grant
cannot however, be used in slaughterhouses as meat from European Union (EU). The paper is published with
inspection method because it is such a tedious, time- the kind permission of the director of Kenya Agricultural
consuming method and greatly lowers the quality Research Institute (KARI), Kenya. Besides, l wish to
of meat and its marketability. The routinely used acknowledge the constructive suggestions and criticisms
meat inspection method is disadvantaged by the received from the two reviewers appointed by the Editor,
fact that it is directly dependent on human Journal of African Health Sciences. To all, we are very
judgement by physical observation, identification grateful to their support and permission.
and removal from specified distinct predilection
sites only3,20. This therefore means that an animal
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