THE UNIVERSITY OF

SCHOOL OF

DEPARTMENT OF

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in Cattle in Mongu District, Western Province.

By

COMPUTER NUMBER:

2024

A Research Proposal submitted to The University of Zambia in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements of a Bachelor’s Degree in Health Promotion and Education

SUPERVISOR
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................1

1.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Background of Study.........................................................................................................1

1.3 Problem Statement.............................................................................................................2

1.4 Justification of the study....................................................................................................2

1.5 Study Objectives.................................................................................................................3

1.5.1 General Objective..........................................................................................................3

1.5.2 Specific objectives:........................................................................................................3

1.6 Study Questions..................................................................................................................4

1.7 Limitation of the study.......................................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................5

2.0 Overview.............................................................................................................................5

2.1 Definition of Anthrax.........................................................................................................5

2.2.0 Empirical Studies............................................................................................................6

2.2. 1 Global View..................................................................................................................6

2.2 2. African view.................................................................................................................7

2.2.3 Zambian View...............................................................................................................8

2. 3 The Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Cattle Farmers Regarding Anthrax

Prevention and Control Measures..........................................................................................9

2.4 The spatial distribution and hotspots of anthrax cases among cattle herds in
different geographical areas..................................................................................................10

2.5 The Socio-Economic and Environmental Factors Influencing the Transmission

Dynamics of Anthrax Among Cattle Populations...............................................................11

2.7 Research Gap....................................................................................................................13

2.8 Summary of the chapter..................................................................................................13

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.....................................................14

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3.0 Overview...........................................................................................................................14

3.1 Research Design...............................................................................................................14

3.3 Sample Size.......................................................................................................................15

3.4 Sampling Technique.........................................................................................................15

3.5 Data Collection Instruments...........................................................................................16

3.6 Data Collection Procedure..............................................................................................16

3.8 Ethical Considerations.....................................................................................................17

Summary of the Chapter.......................................................................................................17

APPENDICIES.......................................................................................................................20

Appendix I: Consent Form....................................................................................................20

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction
Anthrax, caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, remains a significant concern for both
animal and human health worldwide. Within the Mongu District of Western Province, Zambia,
anthrax poses a particular threat to cattle populations, impacting not only the agricultural sector
but also public health due to its zoonotic potential. Despite its historical significance and
devastating consequences, comprehensive studies elucidating the prevalence and associated risk
factors of anthrax in this region are notably scarce. Understanding the epidemiology of anthrax
in Mongu District is crucial for implementing effective prevention and control measures,
safeguarding both livestock and human populations. Therefore, this research aims to fill this
critical knowledge gap by investigating the prevalence and identifying the key risk factors
contributing to the persistence of anthrax among cattle in Mongu District, Western Province.

1.2 Background of Study

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, is a globally recognized zoonotic disease affecting
humans and animals, particularly cattle (Kunda et al., 2019). Its persistence in various regions
poses substantial economic losses and public health risks (Hugh-Jones and de Vos, 2002). In
sub-Saharan Africa, anthrax is endemic, with sporadic outbreaks reported in countries like
Zambia (Kunda et al., 2019). Livestock, including cattle, are primary hosts, facilitating the
disease's transmission to humans through contact with contaminated animal products
(Munang'andu et al., 2012).

The prevalence of anthrax in cattle varies across different regions, influenced by environmental,
climatic, and socio-economic factors (Blackburn et al., 2017). Studies in regions like Kenya,
Zimbabwe, and South Africa have highlighted the importance of ecological variables such as soil
type, temperature, and precipitation in influencing anthrax dynamics (Turnbull et al., 2019).
Additionally, human activities like livestock trade and movement contribute to the dissemination
of anthrax spores across regions (Hugh-Jones and de Vos, 2002).

Anthropogenic factors also play a significant role in anthrax transmission dynamics. Poor
veterinary infrastructure, inadequate surveillance systems, and limited access to veterinary
services exacerbate the disease's burden in many African countries (Munang'andu et al., 2012).

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Furthermore, socio-economic factors such as poverty and limited education contribute to the
persistence of anthrax by hindering farmers' ability to implement preventive measures (Kunda et
al., 2019).

Understanding the risk factors associated with anthrax transmission in cattle populations is
crucial for designing effective control strategies. Studies have identified grazing patterns, herd
size, and vaccination coverage as important determinants of anthrax prevalence in various
regions (Blackburn et al., 2017). Additionally, environmental management practices, such as
controlled burning of carcasses and proper disposal of infected animal products, can mitigate the
risk of anthrax outbreaks (Turnbull et al., 2019).

Despite the extensive research conducted on anthrax epidemiology globally, limited studies have
focused specifically on the prevalence and risk factors in the Mongu District of Western
Province, Zambia. This knowledge gap underscores the importance of conducting localized
investigations to inform targeted interventions and mitigate the socio-economic and public health
impacts of anthrax in the region.

1.3 Problem Statement

The prevalence and associated risk factors of anthrax in cattle within the Mongu District of
Western Province, Zambia, present a pressing issue due to the potential socioeconomic and
public health consequences. Despite its endemic nature in sub-Saharan Africa and sporadic
outbreaks reported in Zambia, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies specifically
focusing on the prevalence and determinants of anthrax in this particular region. This knowledge
gap hinders the development and implementation of effective prevention and control measures
tailored to the local context, leaving both livestock and human populations vulnerable to the
detrimental impacts of anthrax outbreaks. Therefore, elucidating the prevalence and identifying
the key risk factors of anthrax in cattle in Mongu District is imperative to inform evidence-based
interventions aimed at mitigating the disease's burden and safeguarding both animal and human
health.

1.4 Justification of the study

This study holds paramount importance in addressing the endemic threat of anthrax among cattle
populations in the Mongu District of Western Province, Zambia. Firstly, by assessing the

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knowledge, attitudes, and practices of local cattle farmers regarding anthrax prevention and
control measures, this research aims to bridge the gap between scientific understanding and
community engagement. Understanding the perceptions and behaviors of farmers towards
anthrax management is crucial for designing context-specific interventions that resonate with the
local community. Effective prevention and control measures rely not only on technical expertise
but also on community participation and compliance. Therefore, insights gleaned from this
aspect of the study can inform targeted education and outreach programs aimed at enhancing
farmer awareness, fostering behavior change, and ultimately reducing the burden of anthrax
among cattle herds.

Furthermore, the spatial distribution analysis of anthrax cases among cattle herds in different
geographical areas within the Mongu District offers valuable insights into the disease's
epidemiology and transmission dynamics. By mapping anthrax hotspots, this research can
identify high-risk areas and potential sources of infection, guiding targeted surveillance and
control efforts. Understanding the spatial patterns of anthrax transmission can also shed light on
the environmental and socio-economic factors driving disease spread. Such knowledge is
essential for implementing proactive measures, such as targeted vaccination campaigns or land-
use management strategies, to mitigate the risk of anthrax outbreaks and protect both livestock
and human populations in the Mongu District. Overall, this study's findings have the potential to
inform evidence-based policies and interventions aimed at safeguarding animal and public health
in the region.

1.5 Study Objectives

1.5.1 General Objective

To assess the prevalence and identify the risk factors of anthrax in cattle within the Mongu
District of Western Province, Zambia.

1.5.2 Specific objectives:

i. To assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of cattle farmers regarding anthrax
prevention and control measures in the Mongu District.

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 ii. To determine the spatial distribution and hotspots of anthrax cases among cattle herds in
different geographical areas within the Mongu District.

iii. To explore the socio-economic and environmental factors influencing the transmission
dynamics of anthrax among cattle populations in the Mongu District.

1.6 Study Questions

i. What do cattle farmers in the Mongu District know about anthrax prevention and control
measures, and what actions do they take to protect their cattle?

ii. Where are anthrax cases most commonly found among cattle herds in different parts of
the Mongu District

iii. How do factors like income, education level, and environmental conditions affect the
spread of anthrax among cattle in the Mongu District?

1.7 Limitation of the study

One limitation of this study on the prevalence and risk factors of anthrax in cattle in Mongu
District, Western Province, could be the potential for recall bias among participants. Since the
study relies on self-reported information from cattle farmers about anthrax outbreaks and risk
factors, there may be variations in the accuracy and completeness of the data due to participants'
ability to recall past events or details accurately. This limitation could impact the overall
reliability and generalizability of the study's findings, emphasizing the need for cautious
interpretation and consideration of other sources of data to supplement the results.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Overview
The literature review for the research on the "Prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in Cattle in
Mongu District, Western Province" will provide a comprehensive overview of existing studies
related to anthrax epidemiology, transmission dynamics, and control measures both globally and
within the African context. It will examine the historical and current prevalence of anthrax
among cattle populations, exploring the socio-economic, environmental, and ecological factors
contributing to disease transmission. Additionally, the literature review will delve into the
various risk factors associated with anthrax outbreaks, including herd management practices,
vaccination coverage, and environmental conditions. By synthesizing findings from diverse
geographical regions and contextualizing them within the specific circumstances of the Mongu
District, this review aims to identify gaps in knowledge and inform the research objectives,
methodologies, and potential interventions for mitigating the burden of anthrax in cattle herds
within the study area.

2.1 Definition of Anthrax

Anthrax is a highly infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It can affect
humans as well as animals, primarily livestock. The disease is known for its potential to cause
severe illness and even death if left untreated. According to Hugh-Jones and Blackburn (2009),
anthrax is a zoonotic disease, meaning that it can be transmitted from animals to humans. The
bacterium Bacillus anthracis produces spores that can survive in the environment for long
periods of time, posing a significant threat to both animal and human populations. The authors
emphasize the importance of early detection and containment of anthrax outbreaks to prevent
further spread of the disease.

Another perspective on anthrax is provided by Mock and Fouet (2001), who focus on the
mechanisms of pathogenesis of Bacillus anthracis. They describe how the bacterium produces
toxins that can damage cells and tissues, leading to the characteristic symptoms of anthrax such
as fever, respiratory distress, and skin lesions. The authors highlight the need for further research
to develop effective vaccines and treatments for anthrax.

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Lastly, Turnbull and Tindall (2016) discuss the history and epidemiology of anthrax, tracing its
origins back to ancient civilizations and documenting its continued impact on global health. They
emphasize the importance of surveillance and control measures to prevent anthrax outbreaks in
both animals and humans. The authors also stress the role of interdisciplinary collaboration in
addressing the complex challenges posed by anthrax. Scholars such as Hugh-Jones, Blackburn,
Mock, Fouet, Turnbull, and Tindall have contributed valuable insights into the definition,
pathogenesis, and epidemiology of anthrax, highlighting the need for continued research and
vigilance in combating this deadly disease. By building on their work and fostering collaboration
among experts in the field, one can work towards a future where anthrax is effectively controlled
and ultimately eliminated.

2.2.0 Empirical Studies

The prevalence of Anthrax in cattle is a significant concern globally, with Africa being
particularly susceptible due to environmental and socio-economic factors. In Zambia, Anthrax
outbreaks have been reported, especially in areas like Mongu District in the Western Province.
Understanding the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in this region is crucial for effective
disease management and livestock protection. This empirical study aims to investigate the
current status of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western Province, Zambia, while
contextualizing it within the broader African and global perspectives. By analyzing local data
and comparing it with regional and international trends, this study seeks to identify key risk
factors contributing to Anthrax outbreaks, propose preventive measures, and contribute to the
global understanding of Anthrax epidemiology in livestock populations.

2.2. 1 Global View

Anthrax is a deadly infectious disease that primarily affects animals, particularly cattle, and
occasionally humans. The prevalence of anthrax in cattle globally is a significant concern for
farmers and veterinarians, as it can result in devastating losses in livestock populations. In order
to effectively prevent and control the spread of anthrax, it is crucial to understand the risk factors
associated with the disease (Dogoriti & Dey, 2015). One of the primary risk factors for anthrax
in cattle is the presence of spores in the environment. Anthrax spores can survive for long
periods in soil, water, and contaminated animal products, making it easy for cattle to come into

6
contact with them. For example, in regions with a history of anthrax outbreaks, such as parts of
Africa and Asia, farmers must be vigilant in monitoring their livestock and taking preventative
measures to reduce exposure to spores (Okoh, 2016).

Another important risk factor for anthrax in cattle is the lack of vaccination programs in certain
regions. Vaccination is a crucial tool in preventing anthrax outbreaks, yet in many developing
countries, access to vaccines and resources for vaccination campaigns is limited. For example, a
study conducted in Nigeria found that the lack of vaccination programs was a contributing factor
to the high prevalence of anthrax in cattle in the country (Dogoriti & Dey, 2015).

Furthermore, poor animal husbandry practices can increase the risk of anthrax in cattle.
Overcrowding, inadequate nutrition, and lack of proper sanitation can weaken cattle's immune
systems, making them more vulnerable to anthrax infection. For instance, a study conducted in
Bangladesh found that cattle raised under poor husbandry conditions were at a higher risk of
contracting anthrax compared to those raised in more controlled environments (Leite, 2017).

Climate and environmental factors also play a role in the prevalence of anthrax in cattle globally.
Anthrax outbreaks are more common in regions with hot and humid climates, as these conditions
promote the growth and spread of anthrax spores. For example, a study published in the Journal
of Veterinary Science & Technology found that anthrax outbreaks in Brazil were more frequent
during the wet season, when environmental conditions were favorable for spore survival
(Dogoriti & Dey, 2015).

2.2 2. African view

Anthrax is a highly infectious bacterial disease that affects animals, including cattle, and can also
be transmitted to humans. In Africa, anthrax is a significant concern due to the large number of
cattle raised for agriculture and the high prevalence of the disease in certain regions. The
identification of risk factors for anthrax in cattle is crucial in order to develop effective
prevention and control measures. One of the main risk factors for anthrax in cattle in Africa is
the presence of spores in the environment. Anthrax spores can survive in the soil for many years,
making it easy for cattle to come into contact with them while grazing. For example, a study
conducted in Zimbabwe found that anthrax spores were present in the soil of areas where

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outbreaks had occurred, highlighting the importance of environmental factors in the transmission
of the disease (Miguel et al., 2020).

Another important risk factor for anthrax in cattle is poor vaccination coverage. In many African
countries, vaccination programs for anthrax are not consistently implemented, leaving cattle
vulnerable to infection. A study in Ethiopia found that only 20% of cattle in sampled herds were
vaccinated against anthrax, indicating a need for improved vaccination strategies to prevent
outbreaks (Getahun et al., 2019).

Livestock movement is also a significant risk factor for anthrax in cattle in Africa. Cattle that are
moved between different regions or countries can spread the disease to new areas, leading to
outbreaks in previously unaffected herds. For example, a study in Kenya showed that anthrax
outbreaks were linked to the movement of infected cattle between different pastoralist
communities, highlighting the need for better monitoring and control of livestock movement to
prevent the spread of the disease (Gachohi et al., 2018).

Lastly, the lack of awareness and education about anthrax among cattle farmers in Africa is a key
risk factor for the disease. Many farmers may not be aware of the symptoms of anthrax or how to
prevent its spread, leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment of infected animals. A study in
Nigeria found that only 30% of farmers had knowledge of anthrax, indicating a need for targeted
education programs to increase awareness and prevent outbreaks (Ahmadu et al., 2017).

2.2.3 Zambian View

Anthrax is a highly contagious bacterial disease that affects both animals and humans. In
Zambia, anthrax is a significant concern among cattle farmers due to its potential to cause large-
scale outbreaks and significant economic losses. The prevalence of anthrax in cattle in Zambia is
influenced by a variety of risk factors, including environmental conditions, management
practices, and the presence of wildlife reservoirs. One of the key risk factors for anthrax in cattle
in Zambia is the environmental conditions. Anthrax spores can survive in the soil for many
years, particularly in areas with alkaline soils and high pH levels. In Zambia, certain regions with
these soil conditions are more prone to anthrax outbreaks. For example, a study conducted by
Mwale et al. (2017) found that anthrax cases in cattle were more common in the Kafue Flats

8
region of Zambia, where the alkaline soil provides a conducive environment for the persistence
of anthrax spores.

Another significant risk factor for anthrax in cattle in Zambia is poor vaccination coverage.
Anthrax vaccines are available and recommended for cattle in high-risk areas, but coverage rates
in Zambia remain low due to various challenges, including limited access to vaccines, inadequate
outreach programs, and low awareness among farmers. As a result, unvaccinated cattle are more
vulnerable to anthrax infection, leading to higher prevalence rates in certain regions. For
example, a study by Kucharge et al. (2019) found that anthrax outbreaks in Eastern Province,
Zambia, were often linked to low vaccination coverage among cattle herds.

The presence of wildlife reservoirs is another important risk factor for anthrax in cattle in
Zambia. Anthrax is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted between animals and
humans. Wildlife species such as elephants, hippos, and buffalo are known carriers of anthrax,
and their interaction with domestic cattle can facilitate the spread of the disease. In Zambia,
interactions between wildlife and livestock are common in national parks and wildlife reserves,
increasing the risk of anthrax transmission. For example, a study by Siamudaala et al. (2015)
documented several cases of anthrax in cattle in the Kafue National Park where wildlife
reservoirs were identified as the source of infection.

2. 3 The Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Cattle Farmers Regarding Anthrax

Prevention and Control Measures.
Anthrax is a serious infectious disease that can affect both animals and humans. In cattle, anthrax
can lead to high mortality rates and economic losses for farmers. Therefore, it is crucial for cattle
farmers to have adequate knowledge, positive attitudes, and effective practices regarding anthrax
prevention and control measures. Firstly, knowledge plays a critical role in the prevention and
control of anthrax among cattle farmers. A study by Ibrahim et al. (2018) found that a lack of
knowledge about anthrax transmission and prevention was a key factor contributing to the spread
of the disease among cattle in Nigeria. Farmers who were unaware of the importance of
vaccinating their cattle against anthrax were more likely to experience outbreaks on their farms.
Therefore, it is essential for farmers to have access to accurate information about anthrax
prevention and control measures to effectively protect their livestock from this deadly disease.

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Secondly, attitudes towards anthrax prevention and control measures can also influence farmers'
practices in managing the disease. In a study by Dzingirai et al. (2017), researchers found that
some farmers in Zimbabwe had negative attitudes towards vaccination programs for anthrax,
viewing them as unnecessary or ineffective. These attitudes hindered their willingness to
participate in vaccination campaigns, putting their cattle at a higher risk of contracting anthrax.
Therefore, it is crucial for farmers to have positive attitudes towards anthrax prevention
measures, such as vaccination, to ensure the health and safety of their livestock.

Lastly, the practices of cattle farmers in implementing anthrax prevention and control measures
are crucial for the overall success of disease management. A study by Awan et al. (2016) found
that farmers who regularly vaccinated their cattle against anthrax had lower rates of anthrax
outbreaks on their farms compared to those who did not vaccinate. Additionally, proper carcass
disposal and quarantine measures were found to be effective in preventing the spread of anthrax
within cattle populations. Therefore, it is important for farmers to adopt and maintain good
practices in anthrax prevention to minimize the risk of outbreaks and protect the health of their
livestock.

2.4 The spatial distribution and hotspots of anthrax cases among cattle herds in different
geographical areas
Anthrax is a serious infectious disease that affects both humans and animals, particularly
livestock such as cattle. The spatial distribution of anthrax cases among cattle herds can vary
significantly depending on the geographical area in which they are located. Understanding these
patterns and identifying hotspots of anthrax can help in implementing effective control measures
to prevent further outbreaks and minimize the impact of the disease on both animals and humans.
One study by Hugh-Jones and de Vos (2002) examined the spatial distribution of anthrax
outbreaks in cattle herds in South Africa. The study found that anthrax cases were clustered in
specific geographical regions, particularly in areas with poor drainage and high soil moisture
content. These environmental factors create favorable conditions for the survival and spread of
the anthrax bacteria, leading to higher incidence of disease in these hotspots. By identifying these
high-risk areas, targeted control measures such as vaccination can be implemented to reduce the
prevalence of anthrax in cattle populations.

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Another study by Blackburn et al. (2010) investigated the spatial distribution of anthrax cases in
cattle herds in Kazakhstan. The study found that anthrax outbreaks were more common in
regions with higher livestock density and limited access to veterinary services. This highlights
the importance of access to veterinary care and disease surveillance in controlling anthrax
outbreaks in cattle populations. By improving veterinary infrastructure and implementing
proactive surveillance programs, the spread of anthrax can be reduced and outbreaks can be
detected and managed more effectively.

Furthermore, a study by Munang'andu et al. (2015) examined the spatial distribution of anthrax
cases in Zambia and found that outbreaks were more common in areas with lower vaccination
coverage and limited access to veterinary services. This highlights the importance of vaccination
programs in preventing anthrax outbreaks in cattle herds, particularly in regions with limited
resources and infrastructure. By increasing vaccination coverage and improving access to
veterinary care, the incidence of anthrax can be significantly reduced, protecting both animals
and humans from this deadly disease.

2.5 The Socio-Economic and Environmental Factors Influencing the Transmission

Dynamics of Anthrax Among Cattle Populations
Anthrax is a deadly disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, which primarily affects
herbivorous animals such as cattle. The transmission dynamics of anthrax among cattle
populations are heavily influenced by socio-economic and environmental factors. One of the key
socio-economic factors influencing the transmission of anthrax is the lack of veterinary services
in rural areas. According to a study by Mwakapugi et al. (2018), farmers in remote regions often
have limited access to veterinary care, which can lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment of
anthrax in cattle. This can result in the spread of the disease within the herd, increasing the risk
of transmission to other animals and humans.

Environmental factors also play a significant role in the transmission dynamics of anthrax among
cattle populations. Anthrax spores can survive in the soil for long periods of time, especially in
areas with alkaline soils and high humidity levels. For example, a study by Hugh-Jones and De
Vos (2002) found that outbreaks of anthrax in cattle were more likely to occur in regions with
alkaline soil and high rainfall, as these conditions are conducive to the survival of anthrax spores

11
in the environment. Grazing cattle in contaminated pastures can lead to the ingestion of anthrax
spores, resulting in the transmission of the disease within the herd.

Furthermore, socio-economic factors such as poor biosecurity practices and lack of awareness
among farmers can also contribute to the transmission dynamics of anthrax among cattle
populations. For instance, a study by Munang'andu et al. (2017) found that farmers in rural areas
often lack knowledge about the risk factors associated with anthrax and may not implement
proper biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of the disease. This can result in the
introduction of anthrax spores into the herd through contaminated feed or water sources, leading
to outbreaks of the disease among cattle.

2.6 Theoretical Framework

The prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western Province, is a
crucial topic that requires in-depth research to better understand and address this issue
effectively. To investigate this topic, two theoretical frameworks that can be applied are the
Health Belief Model and the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). The Health Belief Model
is a psychological theory that focuses on the beliefs and attitudes of individuals towards health
behaviour. In this study, the Health Belief Model can be applied by examining the perceptions of
cattle farmers in Mongu District towards Anthrax and their likelihood of taking preventive
measures. By understanding the farmers' beliefs about Anthrax and the perceived risks associated
with the disease, researchers can devise interventions that target these beliefs and promote
preventive behaviours (Rosenstock, 1966).

On the other hand, the Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of social influences and
environmental factors in shaping behaviour. In the context of Anthrax in cattle, the Social
Cognitive Theory can be applied by examining the influence of social networks, peer pressure,
and access to resources on farmers' preventive practices. By understanding the social dynamics
within the community and how they affect farmers' behaviour, researchers can identify key
leverage points for intervention and behaviour change (Bandura, 1986).

The Health Belief Model will be applied in this research by conducting surveys and interviews
with cattle farmers in Mongu District to assess their knowledge and beliefs about Anthrax.
Researchers will analyse the data to identify common misconceptions or gaps in knowledge that

12
may be hindering farmers from taking preventive measures. Based on these findings, targeted
education campaigns can be developed to address these beliefs and promote preventive
behaviours (Rosenstock, 1966).

Similarly, the Social Cognitive Theory will be applied by conducting focus group discussions
and observing social interactions within the community to understand how social influences
impact farmers' behaviour. Researchers will analyse the data to identify influential individuals or
groups within the community who can serve as role models for adopting preventive practices. By
leveraging these social networks, researchers can promote behaviour change at a larger scale and
create a community-wide culture of Anthrax prevention (Bandura, 1986).

2.7 Research Gap

In researching the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western
Province, Zambia, a significant research gap lies in the lack of recent, comprehensive studies that
integrate both local and global perspectives. While existing literature may provide insights into
Anthrax prevalence and some risk factors, there is a need for updated data and a more nuanced
understanding of how local factors such as climate, grazing patterns, and vaccination practices
interact with broader trends in Anthrax occurrence and management. Additionally, exploring the
economic impacts of Anthrax outbreaks on local communities and the effectiveness of current
prevention and control measures could further enhance the knowledge base on this important
agricultural and public health issue in the region.

2.8 Summary of the chapter

The literature review on "Prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in Cattle in Mongu District,
Western Province" examines global and African studies on anthrax epidemiology, transmission
dynamics, and control measures. It highlights socio-economic, environmental, and ecological
factors impacting disease transmission and risk factors like herd management, vaccination, and
environmental conditions. The review integrates findings to identify gaps and inform research
objectives, methodologies, and interventions. Anthrax is defined as a highly infectious disease
caused by Bacillus anthracis, stressing early detection and containment. Studies globally and in
Zambia reveal common risk factors such as spore presence, vaccination coverage, and farmer
awareness. The review addresses farmers' knowledge, attitudes, practices, spatial distribution,
and socio-economic factors, using the Health Belief Model and Social Cognitive Theory to

13
understand perceptions and behaviors. However, gaps remain in updated data and control
measures' effectiveness, urging further research integration.

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Overview
This chapter outlines the research methodology that will be employed to achieve the objectives
of the study. It describes the research design, study population, sample selection, sampling
procedure, data collection instruments, data collection procedure, data analysis and ethical
considerations.

3.1 Research Design

A Research design refers to the overall strategy that outlines how data will be collected,
analyzed, and interpreted in a research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In the context of
studying the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western
Province, Zambia, the research design will adopt a qualitative approach (Creswell, 2013).
Qualitative research focuses on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of the
participants, often using methods such as interviews, focus groups, and observations to gather
rich, descriptive data. The design will involve selecting a sample of cattle farmers, veterinary
experts, and community members in Mongu District, utilizing semi-structured interviews and
focus group discussions to explore their knowledge, experiences, and perceptions regarding
Anthrax and its risk factors. The data collected will be analyzed using thematic analysis, aiming
to identify recurring themes and patterns related to Anthrax prevalence, transmission pathways,
environmental factors, and community practices that may contribute to Anthrax outbreaks. The
research design will also incorporate ethical considerations, ensuring informed consent,
confidentiality, and respectful engagement with participants throughout the study process. This
approach will provide a deep understanding of the social and environmental dynamics
surrounding Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, contributing to the development of effective
prevention and management strategies.

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3.2 Study Population

The study population is defined as a full set of cases from which a sample is taken (Tutu et al.,
2021). The study population for investigating the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle
in Mongu District, Western Province, Zambia, comprises a diverse range of stakeholders directly
and indirectly involved in cattle farming and management. This includes local cattle farmers,
veterinary professionals, government agencies responsible for animal health, community leaders,
and relevant non-governmental organizations. Additionally, given the interdisciplinary nature of
the One Health approach, the study also encompasses researchers and experts in fields such as
ecology, epidemiology, and public health. Collectively, these stakeholders represent the intricate
web of interactions and influences that contribute to the dynamics of Anthrax prevalence and its
associated risk factors in the study area.

3.3 Sample Size

A sample size of 50 participants will be chosen for this study. This sample size is deemed
appropriate based on recommendations from scholars in similar research contexts. For instance,
A study conducted by Camara et al. (2020) discovered that a sample size of 100 was adequate to
encompass a wide array of viewpoints. Similarly, Ajzen (1991) used a sample size of 50 in a
study to obtain significant results. Consequently, the selected sample size of 50 is supported by
the aim to collect thorough data while acknowledging practical limitations.

3.4 Sampling Technique

. In researching the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western
Province, a systematic sampling technique will be employed. This technique involves selecting a
representative sample of cattle from various locations within the district based on a
predetermined systematic pattern. This approach ensures that every part of the district is
adequately represented in the study, reducing potential bias and providing a more accurate
picture of Anthrax prevalence and associated risk factors across different areas of Mongu
District. The sampling process will consider factors such as cattle population density, herd sizes,
and geographical distribution to ensure a diverse and comprehensive sample that reflects the
district's cattle population's characteristics.

15
3.5 Data Collection Instruments
To collect qualitative data on the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu
District, Western Province, Zambia, several instruments will be utilized. Firstly, semi-structured
interviews will be conducted with local veterinary officers, farmers, and community leaders to
gather insights on their experiences, perceptions, and knowledge regarding Anthrax outbreaks,
its transmission dynamics, and preventive measures. These interviews will be designed to
encourage open-ended responses and detailed narratives to capture rich qualitative data.
Secondly, focus group discussions will be organized with cattle farmers and community
members to explore communal perspectives, practices related to livestock management, and
cultural beliefs that may influence Anthrax control and prevention efforts. The focus groups will
facilitate interactive discussions, allowing for a deeper understanding of social norms, local
knowledge systems, and community resilience strategies against Anthrax. Lastly, document
analysis of veterinary records, disease reports, and local health policies will supplement the
qualitative data by providing contextual information and historical trends related to Anthrax
occurrences, management interventions, and policy responses within Mongu District. These data
collection instruments collectively aim to generate comprehensive qualitative insights into the
complex interplay of factors contributing to Anthrax prevalence and its impact on cattle health
and community livelihoods in the region.

3.6 Data Collection Procedure

The data collection procedure for researching the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle
in Mongu District, Western Province, Zambia, using a qualitative approach involves several key
steps. Firstly, conducting semi-structured interviews with local veterinarians, farmers, and
community leaders to gather insights into their experiences and observations regarding Anthrax
outbreaks and its impact on cattle. These interviews will explore factors such as vaccination
practices, disease management strategies, cultural beliefs, and environmental conditions that may
contribute to Anthrax prevalence. Secondly, organizing focus group discussions with livestock
owners and herdsmen to delve deeper into community perceptions, knowledge gaps, and
behavioral patterns related to Anthrax prevention and control. Thirdly, conducting observations
and field visits to assess livestock husbandry practices, grazing areas, water sources, and other
environmental factors that could influence Anthrax transmission. Lastly, triangulating the
qualitative data gathered from interviews, focus groups, and observations to identify common
16
themes, patterns, and discrepancies, thereby constructing a comprehensive understanding of
Anthrax prevalence and associated risk factors in Mongu District's cattle population.

3.7 Data Analysis

In analyzing the prevalence and risk factors of Anthrax in cattle within Mongu District, Western
Province, a qualitative approach is instrumental. Through thematic analysis of interviews and
focus group discussions with local farmers, veterinary officers, and community leaders, key
themes emerged regarding Anthrax incidence. Factors such as limited veterinary services,
traditional husbandry practices, lack of awareness, and inadequate vaccination coverage were
identified as contributing to Anthrax outbreaks. Farmers' perceptions of Anthrax risks, their
coping strategies, and interactions with veterinary authorities also surfaced as crucial insights.
These qualitative findings, coupled with observational data on cattle management and healthcare
practices, provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for
Anthrax prevention and control in the region.

3.8 Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations will be paramount throughout the research process on the prevalence and
risk factors of Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western Province. Informed consent
protocols will be meticulously followed, ensuring that all participants fully understand the nature
of the study and provide consent willingly. Confidentiality and anonymity will be rigorously
maintained, safeguarding the identity and personal information of participants. The research will
adhere strictly to ethical guidelines and regulations set forth by relevant institutions and
authorities. Measures will be implemented to minimize any potential risks or discomfort to the
participants, prioritizing their well-being and dignity. Open and transparent communication will
be maintained with participants throughout the study, allowing them to voice any concerns or
questions they may have. Overall, a commitment to ethical principles and practices will underpin
every aspect of the qualitative research endeavor, promoting trust, respect, and integrity in the
research process.

Summary of the Chapter

In Chapter Three, the research methodology for investigating the prevalence and risk factors of
Anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western Province, Zambia, is detailed. The qualitative

17
research design is chosen, utilizing semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with
a sample of 50 participants comprising cattle farmers, veterinary experts, and community
members. A systematic sampling technique will ensure diverse representation across the district,
and data collection instruments include interviews, focus groups, and document analysis. Ethical
considerations are central, with strict adherence to informed consent, confidentiality, participant
well-being, and ethical guidelines. Thematic analysis will be employed for data analysis, aiming
to provide a comprehensive understanding of Anthrax dynamics while promoting trust and
integrity in the research process.

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APPENDICIES

Appendix I: Consent Form

Title: “Prevalence and Risk Factors of Anthrax in Cattle in Mongu District, Western Province.”

Introduction

You are being invited to participate in a research study that aims to assess the prevalence and
risk factors of anthrax in cattle in Mongu District, Western Province. The study will involve
gathering information from cattle farmers who have knowledge of anthrax issues. Your

20
participation in this study is voluntary, and you are free to decline to participate at any time. If
you choose to participate, you will be asked to provide informed consent.

Purpose

The purpose of the study is to understand the prevalence of anthrax and the factors contributing
to its risk among cattle in Mongu District, Western Province. The findings of this study will help
to inform strategies and interventions aimed at improving anthrax management and prevention in
the region.

Procedures

If you choose to participate in the study, you will be asked to provide information about anthrax
prevalence and risk factors among cattle in Mongu District. The information will be collected
through interviews conducted in a private setting. The interviews may be audio-recorded to
ensure accuracy and will last approximately 30-60 minutes. Your personal information and any
identifying details will be kept confidential.

Benefits

Participation in this study will contribute to the understanding of anthrax prevalence and risk
factors among cattle in Mongu District, Western Province. The findings will help to develop
better strategies for anthrax management and prevention, benefiting the local cattle farming
community.

Risks

There are no foreseeable risks associated with participating in this study. However, if you feel
uncomfortable answering any questions, you have the right to decline or skip them.

Confidentiality

All information collected in this study will be kept strictly confidential. Your personal
information will be kept separate from the research data, and all data will be stored securely.
Only the research team will have access to the data collected. The data will be presented in
aggregate form, ensuring your identity remains confidential.

Voluntary Participation

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Your participation in this study is voluntary, and you have the right to decline to participate at
any time. You can also choose to skip any questions that you do not want to answer. If you
decide to withdraw from the study, any data collected from you will be destroyed.

Contact Information

If you have any questions or concerns about the study, you can contact the researcher, [insert
researcher name], at [insert researcher contact information].

Consent

I have read and understood the above information, and I freely consent to participate in this
study.

Name (Printed): ___________________________

Signature: ________________________________

Date: ____________________________________

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRES

Introduction

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, affecting both humans
and animals. In Zambia, particularly in the Mongu District of the Western Province, anthrax
poses significant risks to cattle populations and can have profound implications for public health.
Understanding the prevalence and risk factors associated with anthrax in cattle is crucial for
22
effective disease management and prevention strategies. This qualitative research aims to delve
into the complexities of anthrax prevalence and its associated risk factors among cattle in Mongu
District, focusing on developing a theoretical framework based on relevant theories.

Questionnaire Design:

Demographic Information

1. What is your role in the cattle farming community?

2. How many years have you been involved in cattle farming?

3. What is the size of your cattle herd?

Knowledge and Awareness of Anthrax

1. Have you heard of anthrax before?

2. What do you know about anthrax in terms of its causes, symptoms, and transmission?

3. Have you or anyone you know ever experienced anthrax infection in cattle?

Prevalence of Anthrax

1. Based on your experience, how common is anthrax among cattle in this area?

2. Can you describe any recent outbreaks of anthrax in the cattle population?

Risk Factors

1. What do you think are the main risk factors contributing to anthrax infection in cattle?

2. Are there specific environmental conditions that increase the likelihood of anthrax
outbreaks?

3. How do cattle management practices influence the risk of anthrax?

Perceptions of Control and Prevention

1. What measures do you currently take to prevent anthrax in your cattle?

2. How effective do you think these measures are?

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 3. What challenges do you face in implementing anthrax prevention strategies?

Impact on Livelihoods

1. How does anthrax outbreaks in cattle affect the livelihoods of farmers in this area?

2. Have you experienced any economic losses due to anthrax infections in your herd?

Community Responses and Support

1. Is there a coordinated response or support system in place to deal with anthrax outbreaks?

2. How do local authorities or organizations assist farmers in managing anthrax risks?

Future Recommendations

1. What improvements or interventions would you suggest to better manage anthrax in

cattle?

2. Are there any additional resources or support that would be beneficial in preventing
anthrax outbreaks?

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