QUINTIN SHIRILELE

2726239
BAND GAP OF GERMANIUM

INTRODUCTION

In this experiment, we focus on investigating the band gap of

germanium (Ge), a semiconductor with significant historical
importance and continued relevance in modern electronics.
Germanium, a group IV element in the periodic table, possesses
semiconductor properties due to its unique crystalline structure. It
was one of the first materials used in the development of
semiconductor devices, predating silicon in early electronic
applications. Despite silicon's dominance in the semiconductor
industry, germanium remains important for its compatibility with
certain applications and its unique electronic properties.

The band gap of a semiconductor refers to the energy difference

between its valence band, where electrons are bound to atoms, and
its conduction band, where electrons are free to move and
contribute to electrical conductivity. In the case of germanium, its
relatively narrow band gap places it in the category of
"semiconductors," allowing it to conduct electricity at room
temperature while exhibiting properties of both conductors and
insulators.
Measuring the band gap of germanium involves experimental
techniques such as optical absorption spectroscopy, electrical
conductivity measurements, or photoluminescence spectroscopy.
These methods provide valuable insights into the energy levels
within the material and help characterize its electronic structure.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

In semiconductor materials like germanium, the electronic

structure is described by energy bands formed by the interaction of
atomic orbitals. The most relevant bands for semiconductor
behavior are the valence band (VB) and the conduction band (CB).
The valence band is populated by electrons tightly bound to atoms,
while the conduction band contains vacant energy states where
electrons can move freely under the influence of an electric field.

The energy difference between the valence band and the

conduction band is known as the band gap (Eg). It represents the
minimum energy required to promote an electron from the valence
band to the conduction band, thereby enabling electrical
conduction. The band gap of a semiconductor determines its
electrical and optical properties, including conductivity, absorption,
and emission of light
Electrical resistance (R) is a fundamental property of materials that
quantifies their ability to impede the flow of electric current. It is
defined as the ratio of voltage (V) across a material to the current (I)
𝑉
passing through it, according to Ohm's law: R=
𝐼
Resistance depends on various factors including the material's
dimensions, temperature, and resistivity (ρ). Resistivity (ρ) is an
intrinsic property of a material that quantifies its resistance to
current flow per unit length and cross-sectional area. It is given by
the formula:
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐼
, where
R is resistance,
A is the cross-sectional area, and
L is the length of the material.

Combining this equation with ohm’s law we get

𝑉⋅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐼⋅𝑙

Electrical conductivity (σ) is the inverse of resistivity and measures a

material's ability to conduct electric current. It is defined as the
conductance per unit length and cross-sectional area of the
material and is related to resistivity by the equation:
1
𝜎=
𝜌
The electrical conductivity of a material is often temperature-
dependent, particularly in semiconductors and conductors. This
dependence arises from changes in the carrier concentration and
mobility with temperature. In semiconductors, as temperature
increases, more electrons are thermally excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, increasing the carrier concentration
and conductivity. Conversely, in conductors, increased temperature
leads to greater lattice vibrations, which scatter electrons, thereby
increasing resistivity and reducing conductivity
Mathematically, the temperature dependence of electrical
conductivity in semiconductors can be described by the following
empirical relationship known as the Arrhenius equation:

𝐸𝑔
−
𝜎 = 𝜎0 ⅇ 2𝑘𝑏 𝑇

σ is the electrical conductivity at temperature T

𝜎0 is a pre-exponential factor.
Eg is the activation energy, which represents the energy barrier for
carrier generation.(the band gap)
Kb is Boltzmann's constant.
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin.

This equation illustrates the exponential relationship between

electrical conductivity and temperature in semiconductors. As
temperature increases, the exponential term decreases, leading to
an increase in conductivity. The activation energy(Eg) Characterizes
the energy required for carriers to transition from the valence band
to the conduction band and plays a crucial role in determining the
temperature dependence of conductivity.

The above equation can be linearized in order to plot a straight line

graph of ln(𝜎) vs 1/T . the linearized equation is given by
 𝐸𝑔
𝑙𝑛(𝜎) = 𝑙𝑛(𝜎0 ) −
2𝑘𝑏 𝑇

APPARATUS

In the experiment the following apparatus were used

(a).PHYWE power supply

(b)PHYWE tripod stand
(c)connecting cords
(d)right angle clamp expert with fulcrum screw
(e) PHYWE hall-effect unit HU 2
(f)Intrinsic conductivity Ge .carrier board
(g).support rod, stainless steel ,different length(250mm)
(h)PHYWE Digital multimeter

The following was the set up for the experiment with the labbeled
parts
PHYWE tripod base PHYWE hall effect unit

Methodologies
when conducting the experiment
the first thing we did is to insert the board holding the specimen into
the Hall-effect-module through the guide groove.
we then linked the module directly to the 12V output of the power
unit through the AC
after that we used the two lower sockets on the front side of the
module to read the current and temperature on the display so that
we can be able to measure the voltage across the sample
we then pressed the display knob so that it is set to temperature
mode during the experiment
we then set the current to 6mA which was constant throughout the
experiment
with the display on temperature mode we turned on the heating coil
with the “on/off” knob and after that we started measuring the
voltage corresponding to the temperature.

RESULTS
 L=20mm
A=10mm2 I=6mA
T(oC) T(K)±0.1K 1
±0.1(K- U1±0.01V U2±0.01V 𝑈
̅±0.01V 𝜎=
𝐼⋅𝑙
𝐴𝑈̅ 𝑙𝑛(𝜎)
𝑇
±0.1 Co 1
( ) ±1.27
1
)×10-3 𝛺𝑚

145 418.15 2.39 0.08 0.08 0.08 150 5.01

140 413.15 2.42 0.09 0.09 0.09 133.33 4.89
135 408.15 2.45 0.10 0.10 0.10 120 4.79
130 403.15 2.48 0.12 0.12 0.12 100 4.60
125 398.15 2.52 0.14 0.13 0.14 85.71 4.45
120 393.15 2.54 0.16 0.16 0.16 75 4.32
115 388.15 2.57 0.18 0.18 0.18 66.67 4.20
110 383.15 2.61 0.21 0.21 0.21 57.14 4.05
105 378.15 2.64 0.24 0.24 0.24 50 3.91
100 373.15 2.68 0.28 0.28 0.28 42.86 3.76
95 368.15 2.72 0.34 0.33 0.34 35.29 3.56
90 363.15 2.75 0.40 0.40 0.40 30 3.40
85 358.15 2.79 0.46 0.46 0.46 26.09 3.26
80 353.15 2.83 0.55 0.56 0.56 21.43 3.06
75 348.15 2.87 0.66 0.65 0.66 18.18 2.90
70 343.15 2.92 0.81 0.80 0.81 14.81 2.70
65 338.15 2.96 0.96 0.98 0.97 12.37 2.52
60 333.15 3.00 1.17 1.19 1.18 10.17 2.32
55 328.15 3.05 1.42 1.44 1.43 8.39 2.13
50 323.15 3.10 1.75 1.77 1.76 6.81 1.92
45 318.15 3.15 2.25 2.18 2.22 5.40 1.67
40 308.15 3.19 2.74 2.74 2.74 4.38 1.48
35 303.15 3.25 3.40 3.35 3.38 3.55 1.27
30 298.15 3.30 3.91 3.87 3.89 3.08 1.12

Below is the exponential graph of U(V) vs T(K)

below is the linear graph for the linearized equation:

−𝐸𝑔
ln(𝜎) = 2𝑘 + 𝑙𝑛(𝜎0 )
𝑏𝑇
which is in the form y=mx+c where
−𝐸𝑔
m(the gradient)= 2𝑘 and the y intercept c is 𝑙𝑛(𝜎0 )
𝑏
 calculations for gradient end energy

(4.60−4.45)
gradient = (2.48×10−3 −2.52×10−3 )

= -3750 ± 250

−𝐸𝑔
gradient = 2𝑘
𝑏

−𝐸𝑔
-3750=
2(1.38×10−23)
𝐸𝑔 =1.036×10-19J

calculations for ln𝜎𝑜

we pick any point on the graph and substitute into the equation
say (4.60,2.48) then
 −𝐸𝑔
𝑙𝑛 𝜎 = + 𝑙𝑛 𝜎0 at (4.60,2.48×10-3)
2𝑘𝑏 𝑇

2.48 = - (1.036×10-19)(2.48× 10−3 )(0.5)(1.38×10-23)-1 + 𝑙𝑛(𝜎0 )

𝑙𝑛( 𝜎0 ) =11.78898551

𝜎0 =exp(11.78898551)

𝜎0 = 131792.70

ERROR ANALYSIS

Error in temperature

- The error in the temperature is half the increment on a

thermometor which is 0.1oC
also in kelvins the error is 0.1K

Error in conductivity
The error in the conductivity is the standard diviation of the data
𝑛
1
𝑠=√ ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑛−1
𝑖=1

using a calculator I find that the standard deviation for the

conductivity data is =1.27

Error in the gradient

calculated slope
m=-3750
slope from two other points from the graph

5.01−4.89
m1=
2.39×10−3 −2.42×10−3
m1=-4000
slope from two other points from the graph
1.27−1.12
m2= =-3000
3.25×10−3 −3.30×10−3

error in slope(𝛥𝑚) is given by

|𝑚 − 𝑚1 | − |𝑚 − 𝑚2 |
𝛥𝑚 =
2
|−3750−(−4000)|−|−3750−(−3000)|
=
2
= ± -250

DISSCUSSIONS

By varying the temperature of the germanium sample and

measuring the voltage output using the Hall effect unit and digital
multimeter, we observed changes in the absorption spectrum. At
higher temperatures, the absorption edge shifted to longer
wavelengths, indicative of thermal excitation effects on electron
transitions across the band gap.
We plotted ln(σ) against 1/T using appropriate software or graphing
tools. The resulting graph displayed a linear trend, indicating the
validity of the Arrhenius equation in describing the conductivity-
temperature relationship
Variations in sample homogeneity and purity can introduce
discrepancies in conductivity measurements, particularly at
different temperatures. Inhomogeneities may lead to non-uniform
charge carrier distributions, influencing the overall conductivity
behavior of the sample.
−𝐸𝑔
The gradient of the linear plot corresponds to . By calculating the
2𝑘𝑏
gradient using regression analysis we determined the value of Eg.
This value represented an experimental estimate of the band gap
energy of germanium based on the conductivity-temperature
relationship
Each data point plotted on the graph represents conductivity values
measured at specific temperatures. Measurement errors, including
instrument limitations, calibration inaccuracies, and random
fluctuations, contribute to uncertainties in the recorded
conductivity values
The process of determining the slope of the linear plot involves
fitting a straight line to the experimental data points. Curve fitting
techniques, such as linear regression, introduce uncertainties in
determining the best-fit line. Different fitting methods or models
may yield slightly different slopes, leading to variations in the
calculated band gap energy.
The linear plot is typically extrapolated to determine the slope
−𝐸𝑔
corresponding to
2𝑘𝑏
Extrapolation introduces additional uncertainty, especially if the
experimental data points do not cover a wide temperature range.
Extrapolating beyond the range of measured data points may lead to
inaccurate estimates of the band gap energy.

CONCLUSION

Through the experimental techniques employed, we were able to

determine the band gap of germanium to be approximately 1.035 eV,
which does not match the true value, This is because of some errors
that have occurred during the experiment .finding is consistent with
the known band gap of germanium, validating the accuracy of our
experimental setup and methodology.
Our experiment revealed the sensitivity of germanium's band gap to
temperature variations. As the temperature increased, we observed
a decrease in the band gap, in accordance with theoretical
expectations. This phenomenon can be attributed to the increased
thermal energy allowing more electrons to transition from the
valence band to the conduction band.
Throughout the experiment, we encountered certain challenges,
particularly in controlling the temperature precisely and minimizing
external factors that could affect the measurements. These
challenges may have introduced some degree of uncertainty into
our results but were mitigated to the best of our ability through
careful calibration and control procedures.
QUESTIONS
1. Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductors without any
intentional impurities added. These materials have their own small
number of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due to thermal
excitation. Examples include pure silicon (Si) and pure germanium
(Ge).
Extrinsic semiconductors are doped semiconductors, meaning
intentional impurities are added to modify their electrical
properties. These impurities create additional charge carriers,
significantly altering the conductivity of the material. Examples
include silicon doped with boron (p-type) or phosphorus (n-type).

2. P-type semiconductors are created by adding trivalent impurities

(such as boron) to intrinsic semiconductors. These impurities create
"holes" in the crystal lattice, which act as positive charge carriers. P-
type semiconductors have an excess of positive charge carriers.

N-type semiconductors are created by adding pentavalent

impurities (such as phosphorus) to intrinsic semiconductors. These
impurities introduce extra electrons into the crystal lattice, which
act as negative charge carriers. N-type semiconductors have an
excess of negative charge carriers.

3 taking the average value of two voltages corresponding to the

same temperature helps to reduce errors caused by fluctuations or
inaccuracies in the measurement setup. Averaging provides a more
reliable and precise result by compensating for any random
variations or noise in the experimental data.

4.

5.

6. As temperature increases, the lattice vibrations in metals also

increase, which leads to more frequent collisions between free
electrons and lattice ions. These collisions impede the flow of
electrons, increasing the resistivity of the material and hence
decreasing its electrical conductivity

7. In semiconductors, as temperature rises, more electrons are

thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating additional charge carriers (electrons and holes). This
increase in charge carriers enhances the conductivity of the
semiconductor, leading to higher electrical conductivity with
increasing temperature. This phenomenon is often referred to as
intrinsic conduction.

REFERENCES

1. Feng Zhang, Vincent H. Crespi, and Peihong Zhang

Phys. Rev. Lett. 102, 156401 – Published 15 April 2009

2. J. L. Hartke and P. J. Regensburger, Phys. Rev. 139, A 970 (1965).

3. H. Richter and G. Breitling, Z. Naturf. 13a, 988 (1958).

4. https://doi.org/10.1002/pssb.19660150224

5. L. Makinistian and E. A. Albanesi

Phys. Rev. B 74, 045206 – Published 13 July 2006

6. https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jap/article-
abstract/113/7/073707/371869/Achieving-direct-band-gap-in-
germanium-through?redirectedFrom=fulltext