Aircraft General Knowledge PPL (H) - Bristol Fujaa

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE –
HELICOPTER (PPL)
Aircraft general knowledge
PPL(H) - Contents
Stress, Fatigue and Airframe Design 01
Hydraulics 02
Landing Gear 03
Pneumatic Systems 04
Air Conditioning 05
Fuel Systems 06
Ice and Rain Protection 07
Basic Electrical Theory 08
Direct Current Electrics 09
Alternating Current Electrics 10
Logic Circuits and Computers 11
Engine Basic Principles 12
Piston Engines 13
Gas Turbine Engines 14

Transmission 15
Rotors 16
Flying Controls 17
Fire and Smoke: Detection and Suppression 18
01
Stress, Fatigue and Airframe Design
Stress. Fatigue and Airframe Design 1
The forces of lift, weight, thrust and drag acting on an aircraft create stresses
in the aircraft structure. Stress is formally defined as the force divided by the
cross-sectional area to which it is applied. Stresses can either be twisting
or torsion stresses, tension, compression or shear. These stresses can act
individually or together. Bending a structure, for instance, creates tension on
the outside and compression on the inside.
High compression loads can cause buck ling of a the structure to fail catastrophically at a stress
structure. level well below ultimate stress . The cumulative
damage and wea kening of the structure is called
Fatigue is the progressive and localised structural metal fatigue.
damage that occurs when a material is subject to
cyclical loading. Composite structures also suffer from fatigue
damage , but react in a different way.
When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or
other structural material it will change shape. In metal structures failures usually occur under
This change in shape is called deformation. A tensile stress, for example on the bottom surface
temporary shape change that is self-reversing of a wing that is being bent upwards. The
after the force is removed is called elastic failures usually start as cracks at the points
deformation . When the stress is sufficient to of concentrated stress, such as rivet holes,
permanent ly deform the metal it is called plastic machining marks, sharp corners and screw
deformat ion. threads.
Composites "soft fa il" as the fibres break ,

Stress and Fatigue and failure can usually be detected before a
catastrop hic loss of strength occurs.
Combat aircraft are designed to have a safe

life. Fatigue calculat ions are made to assess
at what point the structure will fail, and the
TENSION
aircraft is taken out of service before this point is
COMPRESSION reached. The aircraft is then scrapped , or critical
components such as wing spars are replaced - if
it is economically justif ied.
SHEAR Civil airliners are designed to be fail safe . In
Tension outside a fail safe design the structural components
•
of bend
of an aeroplane are designed such that 'an
evaluation of the strength , detail, design and
fabrication must show that catastro phic failure
due to fatigue, corrosion , manufacturing defects
or accidental damage will be avoided throughout
Figure 1.1 the operational life of the aeroplane'. In a fail safe
design:
Stress and System Failure • where components are load bearing , there
must be more than one; and
The stress at which the structure fails is called
the ultimate stress, this is the fail point for a • the design must be based on the principal of
single application of a static load. In flight the 'redundancy of components'.
structure is loaded and unloaded many times at
levels below the ultimate stress. In metals, this
causes cumulative damage which in turn allows
Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 1.1

1 Stress. Fatigue and Airframe Design
As with combat aircraft , fail safe components in If the aircraft is then operated in an entirely
civil aircraft have a 'safe life', defined in either different manner from the original design, i.e.
numbers of flight hours or 'cycles'. For example, short haul instead of long haul, then this will affect
a fail safe landing gear component might have a the life of the aircraft and the planned servicing
safe life defined in number of landing gear cycles. and spares holdings.
Modern airliners are also designed to be damage

tolerant. A damage tolerant evaluation of a Reducing Fatigue
structure ensures that, should serious fatigue, It should be clear f rom a ll this that an aircraft's
corrosion or accidental damage occur within fatigue life can be greatly extended if stress levels
the design service goal of the aeroplane , the are kept low. This means smooth flying, avoiding
remaining structure can withstand reasonable high g, avoiding turbulence and going easy on
loads without failure or excessive structural the power. Weight is critical factor . Increasing
deformation until the damage is detected . By aircraft all-up weight by 1% can increase fatigue
incorporating redundancy, crack-arrest features life consumption by 5%.
and parallel load paths the structure can be
allowed to fail in some degree but continue in
operation until a periodic inspection reveals the Certificat ion Requirements
failures and components can be replaced.
The design requirements for helicopters are set
out in:
The 5/N Curve
CS29 Applicable to large rotorcraft
The relationship between repeated applications
of stress and the gradual degradation of the safe CS27 applicabl e to small rotorcraft with
stress level is given by the S/ N Curve , figure 1.2. maximum weights of 3175 kg
This is a plot of the number of times and degrees (7000 lb) or less, and nine or less
of stress applied, and shows what percentage of passenger seats
the original ultimate stress will cause catastrophic
failure for a given fatigue history.
c 80
"'
"'
. 50
"'
E
30
'iO
20
0:.
a.
<(
N 102 103 104 107
Number of cycles to failure
Figure 1.2
The designers now assess the stress and the S/ N

forecast for the aircraft - taken from the forecast
flight profiles, weights and loading - and design
a structure that should be safe for the life of the
aircraft.
1.2 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Materials operating above the speed of sound where

surface temperatures can rise above this level.
The ideal material for aircraft structures would Although restricted by operating temperatures
have the following properties: Duralumin has good thermal conductivity, and
being metal also conducts electricity.
'" low density
Duralumin has poor resistance to corrosion. To
'" high strength overcome this, a thin layer of pure aluminium
or a corrosion-resistant aluminium alloy is used
'" high stiffness
to cover the Duralumin core. These special
11 good corrosion resistance laminated sheets are called alclad and it is in
this form that duralumin is most used for aircraft
11 good fatigue performance construction.
11 high operating temperature In summary, the advantages of Duralumin are:

• ease of fabrication • low density
• low cost • high strength
No one material has all these properties. In the • high stiffness
construction of an aircraft a variety of materials
may be used to meet the requirements of a • fatigue tolerant
particular structure. Early aircraft used wood with
• ease of fabrication
fabric covering for the main structure with metal
fittings at critical points. In the 1920s and '30s • good thermal conductivity
steel and aluminium replaced the wooden frame
but the fabric covering remained. Advances in • low cost
metallurgy eventually led to aluminium alloys
that were light yet had similar properties to steel. the disadvantages are
Engine design advanced in parallel and, as more • poor corrosion resistance
thrust became available, all-metal aircraft were
eventually built. • low operating temperature
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys Magnesium Alloys

Aluminium is less dense than steel, has good Magnesium alloys are less dense than aluminium
corrosion resistance but is relatively weak. but have very low operating temperatures and
Aluminium alloys are stronger but have worse a high susceptibility to corrosion. Magnesium
corrosion resistance. alloys should only be used where they can be
easily inspected.
Duralumin is a common aluminium alloy in aircraft
structures which was invented in Germany in the
1930's. It may contain about 3% or 4% copper, Y, Titanium Alloys
to 1% manganese, Y,% to 1Y,% magnesium, and,
Titanium alloys are expensive and difficult to
in some formulations, a little silicon.
work but are extremely strong and will sustain
Duralumin alloys are relatively soft and workable operating temperatures up to 400°C. Titanium
in the normal state. They may be rolled, forged, is used for engine fire-walls and other critical
extruded, or drawn into a variety of shapes and components such as helicopter rotor heads.
products. After heat treatment and ageing, these Titanium can be welded with electron beams.
alloys are comparable to soft steel in strength
and hardness. Once manufactured duralumin is
sensitive to temperature and should not be heated
above 120°C. This makes Duralumin unsuitable
for welding and restricts its use for aircraft

Monel Corrosion
Monel is an alloy of copper and nickel with small
amounts of iron and manganese. Monel alloy's Corrosion results from the fact that most metals
high resistance to corrosion, its low coefficient of will try to revert to their natural and more stable
expansion and its high strength make it useful for state. Although there are a large number of
certain applications like the exhaust system for reactions that may occur between metals and
aircraft engines. their environments, the reactions may be broadly
divided into two categor ies, oxidat ion and
electrolytical.
Honeycomb Mater ials
The conventional method of fixing metal
structures is riveting or bolting. In the 1940's
epoxy adhesive metal-to-metal bonding came
into use, and is still widely used in aircraft
construction. A spin-off from this was the
development of "honeycomb" materials, where
a cellular fill is bonded between two sheets of
metal to give a light but stiff structure. The core
itself is weak but stabilises the outer skins and
produces a light yet st rong torsional structure.; t he
main function of the core material is to stabilise
the covering sheets. A honeycomb or sandwich
Figure 1.4
structure is unsuitable for absorbing concentrated
loads, and extra protection is required if the
structure is to be subjected to such loads. Oxidation , or dry corrosion, is the reaction
between a metal and its environment without the
Composites intervention of an electrolyte.
Electrolytical, or wet corrosion, requires an

One of the latest materials is a composite of fibres
re-inforced with a polymer matrix (also known as electrolyte such as impure water, or some
resin or filler ).The fibres can be glass or kevlar, other electrically conducting liquid. A potential
difference exists between dissimilar metals of two
for example, but the most used are carbon fibres ,
which have the best tens ile strength to weight surfaces, or two areas within the same surface.
One of the areas becomes anodic(+) and the
ratio. The fibres can be laid in a random pattern,
other becomes cathodic(-). The anodic area
which gives a material with t he same bending
usually corrodes while the cathodic area has
strength in any direction, or in one particular
materia l added to it. The electrolyte provides the
direction to give great bending strength along
the fibre run but a much lower strength across current path.
the run. In this way the bending response of the If a structure is subjected to corrosion and fatigue,
material can be tailored exactly to the designers ' then stress corrosion, or stress corrosion cracking
needs, a fact which becomes important when we can occur.
deal with the wing bending response of swept
wing aircraft.

Helicopter Configuration Box airframe construct ion
The structure of the conventional helicopter

can be broken down into three major sub-
sections. The fuselage carries the crew, cargo
and passengers, the rotors provide lift and the
empennage (the fin and the tailplane) provide
stabi lisation.
Figure 1.6
Later versions of the braced fuselage used steel

rather than wood . The structure was bolted
together in the early years rather than welded
as welding reduced the strength of the joint. As
lighter and more easily welded steel became
available in the late 1930s welded structures
became the norm.
Figure 1.5
The Monocoque Fuselage
A monocoque structure relies on the shape of
The Fuselage the outer skin of the aircraft for strength. The
Early aircraft were built of a fabric covered ideal cross section is circular and the shape is
wooden frame. Three or four long wooden struts maintained by circular formers and longitudinal
called longerons ran the length of the fuselag e. stringers. This stressed skin structure can only
The longerons were held apart by compression be built from light, strong and easily worked
struts or bracing struts forming individual 'bays' materials. Early aircraft used plywood, later
which were in turn cross braced with tie-bars or aircraft either use alloys of aluminium, magnesium
wire. This is also known as truss construction. and titanium or compos ite materials.
The frame of a structure like this carries the
The disadvantage of pure monocoque structures
entire structural load, the fabric skin is purely for
is that they depend too heavily on their shape for
aerodynamic efficiency.
strength. Any damage or deformat ion weakens
the structure and can eventua lly lead to fa ilure.
The Semi-Monocoque Fuselage

Including some of the features of the frame
structure with some of the features of a pure
monocoque structure gives a design where
the skin only takes part of the load and allows
fuselages to be other than circular in cross
section.

Monocoque The Reinforced Shell Fuselage

The final development of the semi-monocoque
structur es is called the reinforced shell. The
basic structure is stressed skin with skin shape
being defined by frames, bulkheads and stringers
but now reinforced with longerons . Where
openings are made for windows and doors a
frame is fitted around the hole which is bolted,
riveted or welded to the frame.
Bounded
Figure 1.7 doublers
Load bearing
aircraft skin
The semi-monocoque structure uses bulkheads
and formers to support the load bearing skin and
the longitudinal stringers are more robust to take
some of the tensile and compression load. Frame Frame
structures like the cabins of light aircraft can be
included in the design
As the skin carries more of the load in

monocoque and semi-monocoque structures it
becomes necessary to move away from a simple Figure 1.9
uniform sheet skin, early semi-monocoque
aircraft like the Ju52 used corrugated skins for Where weak points such as window openings
extra strength. In more modern aircraft large occur, the structure around them is strengthened
areas of skin are machined on the underside in with additional straps called doublers . Doublers
complex patterns to carry the varying loads. For can be either riveted or bonded to the main
some very convoluted patterns chemical etching structure.
has replaced milling to form the internal skin
profile. The floor panels are normally made from
aluminium, Kevlar, or a nomex honeycomb
sandwich, and are suspended on crossbeams.
Machined inner skin
Figure 1.8
Figure1.10

Helicopters often use sliding doors for the cabin,

as they give a large opening for passengers and
freight.
The different rotor types are described later in a

dedicated chapter.
Empennage
The tailplane and fin assembly provides
stabilisation. The horizontal stabiliser (tailplane)
provides pitch stability, whereas the vertical
stabiliser (fin) provides yaw stability.
The tail plane is designed to give down lift to

provide the correct pitch attitude in forward flight.
It is possible to have a variable incidence tailplane
(stabilator), which provides desirable handling
qualities throughout the flight envelope.
The vertical fin can be designed as an

asymmetric aerofoil, so that very little tail rotor
thrust is required in forward flight, therefore
reducing the required engine power.
This also means that the loss of the tail rotor may
not be critical, as with sufficient forward speed
the sideways thrust from the fin can be enough to
maintain control of the helicopter.
Maintenance
Aircraft maintenance can utilise two different
methods. Hard time, where a component is
replaced after a set amount of hours, cycles or
operations, or, on condition when a component
is only replaced when it is deemed to be
unserviceable or out of limits.

Intentionally blank

02
Hydraulics
Hydraulics 2
Hydraulic systems use fluid in a pipe to transmit and multiply force or to

transmit power. In aircraft , hydraulic systems are used as servos so the pilot
can operate controls and systems remotely and at loads far beyond their
bare physical capacity. These will include operation of the flying cont rols,
raising and lowering the undercarriage and operation of the wheel brakes.
Except in the braking systems of light a ircraft the The shape of the container does not matter; a
hydraulic system will be a powered syste m. A column of fluid will exert a static pressure at its
pump will provide t he operating power and the base. This pressure will be the same regardless
pilot's function will be to control the system. A of the shape of the container, providing the height
powered system is correctly called an active of the top of the fluid remains the same. If the
system, and those simple hydraulic systems outlet at the bottom is opened, this energy can
without a pump are called passive systems. be released in a fluid flow, which has dyna mic
energy. The hydraulic power generated depends
Hydraulic systems are used to transmit on the pressure and the volume of the flow.
and increase forces Hydraulic pressures in aircraft systems range
from low pressure at 1000 pounds per square
In a modern helicopter hydraulic power is inch, to very high pressure at 5000 pounds per
essential for safe efficient operation, so square inch. The standard high-pressure system
helicopters are fitted with multiple systems to operates at 3000 pounds per square inch, and the
provide system redundancy. standard low pressure system operates at 2000
pounds per square inch.
Static Pressure
Static or hydrostatic pressure is a form of
Pascal's Law
potential energy. Water in a reservoir on a hill Pascal's law states that, in an enclosed container,
has potential energy because of its height. the pressure is equal throughout the fluid and
acts in every direction and at right angles to the
container wal ls.
Figure 2.1
The shape of the container does not

matter
Figure 2.2

2 Hydraulics
Force. Area and Pressure the fluid acts upon the larger piston of 20 in2 area
this will give an output force of 200 lb. Ten times
Force acts either as an input or an output. the area means ten times the force .
Pressure is the energy raised in the fluid, and by
acting on an area produces a force. Ten times the area means ten times the
This is normally expressed as F=AxP force
but by altering the formula A=F+P
we can find each part P=F+A There will , however, be no piston movement
unless there is a flow of fluid . In this case the
While Sl units are used on occasions , the use of small piston being pushed in will displace a
the Imperial system is more common . So: volume equal to its area multiplied by the distance
it moved - its stroke . The fluid is transferred into
• Force is expressed in pounds (lb) the larger cylinder where it will spread out, so the
• Area in square inches (sq in or in2 ) larger piston will not move the same distance .
• Pressure is pounds per square inch (psi) i

201b t 200 lb
This means an input force of 100 lb applied to an

area of 10 in2 will raise a pressure of 10 psi. Input Ouput
Force Force
Obviously if we use two pistons of equal size
interconnected by a pipe, an input force at one
end will produce an equal output force at the
other end. To gain the mechanical advantage that
levers and pulley blocks would give in hydraulics
we use a small input piston and a larger output
piston, figure 2.3.
Force is increased by using a small input Input Force x Input Distance = Output Force x Output Distance
piston and a large output piston
Figure 2.4
Finding the Input or Output Distance

To find this distance we can use two methods,
2001bs --+ both will give the same answer.
1. Using the formula :

Input Force x Input Distance
= Output Force x Output Distance
Example:
An input force of 100 lb is acting on a piston of

2 in2 with a stroke of 3 in. What will the output
distance be for a piston area of 10 in2?
Figure 2.3
Solution:
In the example in figure 2.4 an input force of First find the output force using F = A x P
20 lb acting on a piston of 2 in2 area will raise transposed toP= F +A,
a pressure of 10 psi. This will be felt equa lly
throughout the fluid in the enclosing container and 100 + 2 = 50 psi
acts at right angles to the container walls, so as 50 psi x 10 = 500 lb

Hydraulics 2
Substitute the known figures into the formula The Passive Hydraulic System
above
100 lb x 3 in = 500 lb x output distance A passive hydraulic system has no hydraulic
pump, the pressure is ultimately produced by the
So output distance pilot.
= (100 X 3) + 500
A light aircraft braking system is a typical passive
= 0.6 in system, figure 2.5. As the pilot presses the brake
Remember the output distance for a larger piston pedal a small piston is forced into a cylinder,
will always be less than the input distance for a called the master cylinder. The pressure is
small piston. transmitted through pipes to the brake caliper
located at the wheel.
2. Using the formula ,
Vented plugs
Vo lume = Area x Length Master cylinders
Brake fluid reservoir
For the same example:
For the input piston
Volume = area x length

= 2 in2 x 3 in stroke
= 6 in3
For the output piston

1-- Parking brake lever
Length = volume + area
= 6 in3 + 10in2 Pressure
plate
= 0.6 in Brake caliper Brake plate
If the force is required, use F = A x P Figure 2.5
Although imperial units have been used in the

examples above, use what ever units of pressure, Inside the caliper is a larger cylinder, called the
distance, area and force are provided in the brake cylinder or slave cylinder, which multiplies
questions. the original force. The resulting pressure acts on
a brake pad which is forced against either a drum
This concept only wor ks if the hydraulic fluid is or a disc attached to the wheel.
a perfect fluid, and incompressible. In reality,
though, there is no such thing as a perfect fluid As the pilot removes the input, system pressure is
and we have to accept a little compressibility . For released. By fitting a valve that will trap hydraulic
our purposes a fluid is considered incompressible pressure in the system a parking brake facility can
so long as it will only compress by 10% of its be provided.
volume when a force of 32 tons per square inch is
applied. This is about 70 000 pounds per square
inch, well above the maximum operating pressure
of aircraft systems .
A perfect fluid cannot be compressed

2 Hydraulics
Components of an Active A modern aircraft hydraulic system is designed

to produce high pressure and large flow rates.
(Powered) Hydraulic System Hydraulic power can be used for operation of:
• Flight controls
The simplest of active hydraulic systems wi ll, by
definition, need a pump as a source of power. It • Brakes
will need something to control where the power
goes, a selecto r valve, non-return valves to • Steering
ensure flow in the correct direction and something
to convert the fluid energy into rotary or linear • Cargo doors and ramps
motion, an actuator or jack .
• Undercarriage extension and retraction
The simplest system has a pump, a The system will have seals to prevent leaks,
selector and an actuator and a whole collection of valves to control fluid
flow and pressure. The fluid used will be able to
More complex systems will need a reservoir of work at high temperature and pressure and have
fluid, and an accumulator to act as a store of protection by a filter system.
energy for emergencies and to smooth out the
These components will now be introduced as we
power delivery.
work through typical hydraulic systems .
These components must be fitted in the correct
order for the hydraulic system to operate correct ly.
Figure 2.6 shows the layout of a simple system.
Actuator
Figure 2.6

Hydraulics 2
Pumps Actuators
The main hydraulic pumps are usually driven
from the accessory gearbox of the engine and Linear Actuators
therefore known as engine driven pumps (EDPs). Actuators turn the hydraulic pressure into
The pumps supply the flow to hydraulic fluid and movement. There are three types of linear
resistance to that flow produces pressure in the actuator:
system.
• Single acting
Spur gear and rotor type pumps are generally
used in lower pressure systems of light aircraft, • Double acting balanced
piston pumps are used in larger aircraft. Because
there are two types of piston pumps they need to • Double acting unbalanced
be considered in context and we will look at them
later. Figure 2.7 shows a spur gea r pump. Single Acting Actuators
Single acting actuators use hydraulic pressure to
Pumps are usually engine driven
move t hem in one direction only. Another force,
. ;- ·
..
such as a spring, is used to move them in the
opposite direction, figure 2.8.
•
Spur gear Single acting actuators act in one
• . '.
direction against spring force
;
·._; ,.. :
-·-·- · .
Piston area= 4 sq. in
·.
' I
•
Force = 4000 lb
Figure 2.7
Spur gear pumps force fluid between the

gear teeth and the housing 1000 PSI
Electrically driven pumps are used as backup Figure 2.8

pumps on big aircraft and, sometimes, as the
main pumps on smaller aircraft. A ir driven pumps
(ADPs) feature as backup pumps on many large Double Acting Balanced Actuators
aircraft including the 8747. Hand operated pumps
A double acting actuator uses hydraulic pressure
are used on smaller aircraft in emergency , for
to move it in both directions. A double acting
ground operation and for maintenance.
balanced or compensated actuator has ram rods
of equal area on both sides of the piston, so for a
given pressure the actuator will give equal force
for extension and retraction, figure 2.9.

2 Hydraulics
Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic Motors)

Balanced actuators give the same force in
both directions If rotary rather than linear motion is required for a
system it can be achieved by directing hydraulic
Double acting pressure to a hydraulic motor. The speed of the
balanced actuator Piston area= 4 sq. in motor is dependant on the rate of flow of the
Rod area= 1sq. in fluid . A selector valve can be used to change the
Rod area = 1sq. in
direction of the flow and so change the direction
of the motor.
In addition to driving ramp and undercarriage

systems hydraulic motors are sometimes also
used to drive back up electrical generators .
Force = 3000 lb
Cylinder block
1000 PSI
Force = 3000 lb 1000 PSI
Figure 2.9
Double Acting Unbalanced Actuators

A double acting unbalanced or uncompensated
actuator works hydraulically in both directions .
The difference is that as the piston has the ram
attached to one side only; the pressure has a Figure 2.11
reduced area on which to act and will exert a
smaller force in that direction. This means an
actuator can be simply designed to produce Hydraulic Seals
different forces on retraction and extension for the
same supply pressure .
Hydraulic components have to be sealed to
prevent both internal and external leakage. Seals
Double acting unbalanced actuators
that are fitted between moving surfaces are
give different forces on retraction and
termed dynamic , those between two fixed parts
extension
are termed static, and as shown below, seals get
their names from their cross section, figure 2.12.
Balanced actuator Rod area = 4 sq.in
Rod area = 1sq.in Rod area = 1sq. in
Round or
torroldal ring V-section
.- 7
Force = 3000 lb
1000 PSI
Force = 3000 lb 1000 PSI
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.10

Hydraulics 2
Friction in dynamic seals can result in the seal A two port rotary selector has one fluid path and
'rolling out'. To prevent this happening backing is used with a single acting actuator.
rings are fitted for support.
Spool Valves
Backing rings prevent the seal rolling out Spool valves are also known as pilot valves . The
valve is cylindrical in shape and forms a sliding
Leaks but leak-tight fit in its housing. Movement of the
valve allows fluid to flow or is blocked of by the
An external leak will result in a loss of system cylindrical 'lands' of the valve.
pressure, loss of fluid, a rise in the temperature
of the remaining fluid and cause a possible fire
risk. An internal leak, from high pressure to low,
causes a drop in system pressure, more activity
Spool valves
of pressure regulating or cut-out valves and a rise
in system temperature .
Internal leaks cause a rise in fluid

temperature
Selector Valves
Selector valves direct the hydraulic fluid to and
from the actuators to control the direction of Figure 2.14
their movement. The valves can be either be of
the rotary or spool type, they can be operated
mechanically or electrica lly. Hydraulic Lock
If the selector is placed so no fluid can flow,
Rotary Selectors neither in nor out of the actuator, then the actuator
A four port rotary selector has two fluid paths piston wil l be locked in position, unable to move.
and is used with a double acting actuator. A four This is called a hydraulic lock. Hydraulic locks
port selector allows one path for fluid flow into the are used deliberately to lock actuators in position.
actuator and the other path simultaneously makes
the return flow to the reservoir, figure 2.13.
Actuator
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.13

2 Hydraulics
The Open Centred System Valves

The open centred system is a low pressure
system fitted on older light aircraft. It is used
Pressure and Thermal Relief Valve
to operate flaps and undercarriage. Only one
actuator can be operated at a time . The system Pressure relief valves (PRV) are used to protect
uses a spur gear type of engine driven pump hydraulic systems from over pressurisation in the
(EDP). The fluid is pumped continuously around event of failure of the normal pressure control
the system through the centre of the open of the pumps. A common design , consisting of
centred selectors . The pressure will be low until of a ball valve held onto a valve seat by spring
a selection is made. This reduces the load on the pressure, is shown in figure 2.17. The area of the
pump, which reduces the engine power required, ball exposed to the fluid is very small, thus the
while the system is not operating. spring's force is relatively low.
At normal working pressure the valve remains

Only one actuator can be operated at a
time firmly seated. A rise in pressure will unseat the
ball, allowing the fluid to return to the reservoir.
The pressure at which the ball first lifts is called
the cracking pressure. Any further increase in
pressure will lift the ball higher, allowing more
fluid to return. If the valve can relieve the total
l output of the pump it is called a full flow relief

valve (FFRV).
The valve opens at the cracking pressure
As the pressure drops the valve will start to close.

The pressure at which the valve seats is called
the reseating pressure, this is always below the
cracking pressure
Figure 2.16 The valve closes at a lower pressure, the

reseating pressure
When off load the fluid passes through the

centre of the selectors Adjustable screw
Selecting the service will divert all the pump's Spring

output into the selected actuator. When the
Ball
pressure reaches a set level the selector Pump limits
automatically returns to the open position, pressure
(3000 PSI)
hydraulically locking the actuator. To protect the Valve seat
system should the selector fail to return to the Relief pressure
reached
open position a pressure relief valve (PRV)- see (3300 PSI}
below- is fitted .
When the actuator has moved a hydraulic

lock is formed
Figure 2.17

Hydraulics 2
The pressure relief valve can also act as a Shuttle Valves

thermal relief valve (TRV), tapping off system
pressure caused by therma l expansion. This A shuttle valve is used to allow one service to
condition may occur when a hydraulic lock is be operated by two independent supplies at
formed and there is very little fluid flow. When it different times for instance a normal and an
is used as a TRV it typica lly operates at higher emergency supply. If the primary supply fails,
pressures than it would when used as a PRV. the secondary supply will push the shuttle across
automat ically, both connecting the service to
Non Return Va lves (NRVs) the most appropriate pressure and isolating the
primary port.
Non return valves only allow fluid flow in one
direction, they are also known as check valves. Service
Figure 2.19
Non-return valve
Shuttle valves allow an actuator to be

Figure 2.18 supplied by a secondary system
The common design for an NRV is a ball valve Shuttle valves are fitted in the supply lines of
held onto a seat by the force of a spring. Fluid critical services like primary flying controls or
pressure in one direction 'unseats' the ball, wheel brakes. A sticking shuttle valve can
allowing flow. When the pressure falls and flow prevent a service operating from the emergency
stops the ball will reseat under spring pressure. supply.
Pressure in the opposite direction will seal the
ball more firmly onto its seating. To guard against Restrictor Valves or Chokes
incorrect installation of an NRV, an arrow is
stamped or moulded into the outside showing the Restrictors valves or chokes are used to reduce
direction of flow. the flow of fluid in order to reduce the speed of
operation of a serv ices that would otherwise
Non return valves only allow fluid flow in move too quickly.
one direction A one way restrictor opens to allow full flow in
one direction but closes to reduce the flow in the
return direction. To show the direction of full flow
a bold arrow is stamped on the case, with an
arrow made of dots showing the restricted flow.
One way restrictors slow services that

would otherwise move too quickly

2 Hydraulics
Flow Control Valves

Flow control valves are used upstream of
hydraulic motors to ensure an even flow rate to
Full maintain constant speed. They react to fluid flow,
Flow
increased flow closes the valve down. A damper
slows the closing action and prevents damage.
Figure 2.20
Typical applications of one-way restrictors would Out In

be to slow the rate of gear extension to prevent it
falling too fast with gravity.
The two way restrictor slows the flow of fluid in

both directions .
Figure 2.23
l Pressure Reducing Valves

Pressure reducing valves reduce the operating
pressure supplied to sub-systems such as brakes.
Figure 2.21
Main system supply enters the inlet port, flows
down through the valve and into the sub system.
Throttling Valves As the pressure rises the valve is forced up

against the spring , reducing the size of the
Throttling valves are a more sophisticated form of inlet until the combination of flow and inlet size
restrictors. They ensure that the fluid flow rate to produces the required sub system pressure.
and from a component , and therefore the speed
of operation , is correct. As the supply flow rate Any large increase in sub system pressure will
increases the valve closes down throttling , or completely close the inlet and open the outlet to
reducing, the output. return , allowing the excess pressure to dissipate.
Figure 2.22 Figure 2.24
A ircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 2.10

Hydraulics 2
Sequence Valves
Sequence valves are used to ensure that one enter the second service. In figure 2.25 the door
operation is completed before another one starts, actuator operates first then, when it reaches
for examp le ensuring that the landing gear doors the end of its stroke, the pressure builds up and
open before the landing gear extends. moves the sequence valve across allowing fluid
into the gear down line, figure 2.26. Mechanical
Hydraulic sequence valves work by directing sequence valves also ex ist, figure 2.26. On
system fluid into one service ensuring its retraction this will prevent the door from closing
complete operation before the fluid is able to before the gear is up.
UP
DOWN
uoor
actuator
Figure 2.25
UP
DOWN
Door
actuator
Figure 2.26

2 Hydraulics
Hydraulic Fuses Priority Valve or Pressure Maintaining

Hydraulic fuses are fitted upstream of
Valve
compone nts to shut off flow and prevent total loss The priority of a hydraulic system is to supply
of system fluid if there is a leak. pressure (flow) to the primary flying controls and
whee l brakes. The priority valve (PMV) achieves
this by closing and isolating non-essential
Leak causes
pressure to reduce services , if the pressure drops below a set limit,
any remaining pressure will then go to these
primary services .
The priority valve isolates non-essential

services if pressure falls
Constant pressure
causes valve to close
Figure 2.27
Hydraulic fuses are fitted upstream of

components to shut off flow if there Is a
leak
The fuse is designed to sense flow rate, if it

increases above the normal rate the piston will
move across to stop t he flow completely . The
service will be inoperative but the rest of the
system will function as normal.
Figure 2.28

Hydraulics 2
Hydraulic Fluids less probability of cavitation. These fluids must

be used with butyl rubber, ethylene propylene
or teflon seals and hoses. Skydrol meets all the
At this point we should look at the requirements requirements for aircraft hydraulic fluids.
for the fluids in use. Hydraulic fluids are subject
to extremes of temperature and pressure and
Skydrol 500A is a purple high quality fluid
have to meet stringent specifications. Ideally a
used in modern aircraft
hydraulic fluid should have these properties:
• Low viscosity The different types of hydraulic fluid must not be

used together as the vegetable, mineral and
,. Resistance to foaming (Low emulsifying) phosphate based fluids will not mix. Seals may
also be damaged if the wrong fluid is used.
11 High lubricity and corrosion resistance
It should be appreciated that the colours specified
11 Resistance to heat (thermal stability)
for the fluids are for when the fluid is new. In use
• Chemical stability the colour of the fluids darken and may eventually
all appear the same colour.
11 Low freezing point, high boiling point.
Very old hydraulic systems using leather seals
11 Non flammable work satisfactorily with all the fluids listed above.
The two types of fluid in common use are:

Health and Handling of Hydraulic
,. Mineral based Fluids
• Synthetic based Hydraulic fluids used as recommended do not
present any particular health hazards but are
Mineral Based Fluid - DTD 585 an irritant if they come in contact to the skin and
eyes. First aid treatment is to wash off with large
volumes of water.
Most helicopters use mineral based fluid
Fluid Temperature
Mineral based fluid is made from kerosene and is
coloured red for identification. This fluid must be During operation of the hydraulic system the fluid
used with synthetic rubber seals and hoses only. temperature increases.
It is suitable for use in high-pressure systems.
Because it has a kerosene base it is flammable, The system's fluid temperature is displayed on
but has high boiling and flash point temperatures, the flight deck; overheat indicators are installed
is chemically stable to a high temperature and at the pumps. Over heated fluid will discolour by
has good resistance to foaming. Most helicopters darkening and becoming more viscous.
use mineral based fluid.
Overheated fluid is dark and viscous
DTD 585 is red and can only be used with
synthetic seals
Synthetic Base - Skydrol

Modern transport aircraft use synthetic based
fluid. The base is phosphate ester and the
fluid is generically known as Skydrol. It comes
in three grades; the common grade is 500A,
which is coloured purple. These fluids are fire
resistant and do not support combustion. The
lower viscosity of Skydrol means that there is

2 Hydraulics
Filtration and Hydraulic Circuit Bypass relief valve
Protection In Out
Hydraulic systems need to be kept free of any

contamination. The hydraulic fluid is filtered to
remove any debris greater than 25 microns that
Body
could cause damage to the system . As the pump
is a likely source of contamination it is standard Filter element
procedure to fit a filter downstream of the pump,
which is referred to as a full flow micronic
pressure filter (FFMPF). Some systems fit a filter Filter bowl
unit into the return line before the reservoir as well
as or instead of the FFMPF.
Figure 2.29
A micronic filter is fitted downstream of
the pump
It should be noted that not all filters are of the full
flow type, operation of the indicator button warns
The filter consists of a bowl, head and element. of impending operation of the by-pass on some
Fluid enters the head and flows into the bowl filters.
around the outside of the element. As it passes
through the element any particles of more than 25
microns are deposited on the filter, the fluid then A red button can also be used to show
flows up and out through the head. As the debris that the filter is blocked
builds up on the element (known as clogging) a
differential pressure will occur across the The security of the hydraulic system also includes
element. This actuates a filter light on the flight shut off valves which will prevent hydraulic fluid
deck , warning that the element is in the process being delivered to and out of the pumps. These
of becoming blocked. shut off valves are operated in the event of pump
failure or engine fire. Also in the system are the
pressure relief valves which have already been
The filter light indicates the filter is
discussed . In summary the security of the
becoming blocked
hydraulic system comprises:
At a set level the differential will operate the • Filters
bypass valve opening a direct route, allowing
unfiltered fluid to flow through the system at the • Pressure relief valves
same rate as before . On some filters a red button
• By-pass valves
will show when the bypass has activated, this is
referred to as 'filter popping'. • Fire shut-off valves

Hydraulics 2
Fixed Volume or Constant Constant displacement pumps must be

Displacement Pumps used with an ACOV and an accumulator
Fixed volume pumps are high-pressure engine Fluid is normally supplied to the pump under a
driven pumps (EDP) and move a constant slight pressure to avoid cav itation. It passes in
volume of fluid into the system for each revolution and out through two kidney shaped ports in the
regardless of the system pressure. To regulate valve plate. The pistons move down their
the system pressure and reduce wear on the cylinders as they pass the inlet valve, drawing in
pump, an automatic cut out valve (ACOV) and its fluid, and move back up their cylinders to expel
associated accumulator must be used. the fluid as they pass the outlet va lve. This
process ensures a constant output volume .
The output from the pump does not vary
Cooling and lubrication is by fluid leakage
Fixed volume pumps are sometimes referred to
as constant displacement or axial piston pumps, To cool and lubricate the moving parts in the
these are driven by the engine via the ancillary pump a leakage of system fluid is allowed. This
gearbox and the constant speed unit at a fixed fluid exits through the case dra in and returns to
speed. The reciprocating action of the pistons is the reservoir via a case drain filter or the low-
achieved by angling the body of the pump. There pressure filter. An overheat sensor is fitted at the
are normally 7 or 9 pistons in the pump, each pump and the pump outlet pressure is monitored
piston moves in its own cylinder in the rotating and displayed to the pilot.
cylinder block. The output from the pump does
not vary.
Cylinder block
Piston
Drive shaft
Inward stroke
Universal joint
Case drain
Figure 2.30

2 Hydraulics
Automatic Cut-Out Valve If this form of pressure regulation fails then a

FFRV will control the system at a higher setting .
To prevent the ACOV cutting in and out rapidly,
which can be referred to as ACOV or hydraulic
hammering , an accumulator is always used in
conjunction with the ACOV.
A leak can cause hydraulic hammering

Piston
From pump -_.. Accumulators

Non-return valve
Accumulators are fitted to:
Figure 2.31
• Store fluid under pressure (energy)
The automatic cut-out valve (ACOV) is used to • Provide a limited supply of pressure in an
regulate the pressure in the system between a emergency
high setting and a low setting when a constant
volume pump is used to power the hydraulic • Dampen out pressure fluctuations
system.
• A llow for thermal expansion
When system pressure builds up it is felt on the
piston and the poppet valve. As the piston is • Cater for small internal leaks
larger than the poppet valve the force produced in
the piston will overcome the combined forces of
the spring and the poppet valve when the upper Charging valve
pressure is achieved. The opening of the poppet
valve allows the fluid to flow to the reservoir. The Diaphragm
resulting drop in pressure causes the NRV to
Gas
close, locking the pressure in the system and the
poppet valve to open fully. This now provides an
idling circuit for the pumps total output and the
ACOV is said to be 'kicked out'.
The poppet valve opens to create an idling

circuit
(a) (b) (c)
When the poppet valve opens the ACOV is
'kicked out' Figure 2.32
Operation of any service will cause a drop in the Accumulators come in four styles
system pressure, when it falls to the value of the
lower setting the spring snaps the poppet valve • A cylindrica l container without separator - an
closed and the pump output is directed back into old system , figure 2.32
the system . This is referred to as the 'kick in'
pressure. • A cylindr ical container with a separator or free
floating piston, figure 2.32
The 'kick in' pressure is lower than the • A spherical container with a flexible
'kick out' pressure diaphragm, figure 2.32
• A spherical container with a bladder inside it -

an even older system and not illustrated.

Hydraulics 2
Whatever the design, one side of the container is is slack and the fluid pressure when the system is
connected to the hydraulic system and the other operating .
is charged with nitrogen gas.
With the hydraulic system de-pressurised , or Too high or too low charge pressure will
slack, a pre-charge of nitrogen is put into the gas cause hydraulic hammering
chamber of the accumulator. This gas pressure
must be equal to the minimum working pressure
of the system : usually approximately half the
Variable Volume or Constant
maximum working pressure. As hydraulic fluid Pressure Pumps
is pumped into the system raising pressure , the
accumulator will charge with fluid, compressing In systems using a variable volume pump the
the gas until the fluid pressure and gas pressure ACOV and its associated accumulator are not
are equal. Any demand on the system will result required, although system accumulators may be
in a drop in the system pressure, so the gas installed for other reasons.
expels the fluid into the system and maintains the
system at a slightly lower operating pressure - this
ensures smooth operation of components and An ACOV is not required
services .
The variable volume pump operates in a similar
Accumulators are fitted into hydraulic sub way to the fixed volume pump except , its output is
systems, like the brake system. The accumulator not dependant on pump speed as the volume of
acts as a limited pressure reservoir in emergency the pistons can be altered . This means the pump
and dampens pressure fluctuations . self regulates and only supplies the fluid needed
to maintain the constant working pressure within
The accumulator acts as a limited the system.
pressure reservoir and dampens pressure
fluctuations Cylinder block
Sliding shoe
Fluid from reservoir Piston
If the EDP fails then the NRV upstream of the
accumulator will close and the accumulator will
provide a limited number of reversals before
exhausting .
The gas in the accumulator , which is

compressib le where the hydraulic fluid is not , will
dampen out pressure fluctuations in the system
The accumulator will cope with small internal

..
Valve plate
Outlet
Case drain
leakages by maintaining the system pressure and Pressure
output Control piston
will absorb any increase in fluid pressure created
by an increase of fluid temperature downstream Figure 2.33
of a NRV.
An accumulator must be used in conjunction with

The output volume varies to maintain the
an ACOV. If the gas charge of an accumulator
pressure
is incorrect, either too high or too low, this will
cause the ACOV to operate more frequently . This
can lead to hydraulic hammering , which must be The variable volume pump is driven by the engine
investigated as soon as possible. Another effect via the ancillary gearbox. Unlike the fixed volume
is a rise in the fluid temperature. pump the drive and cylinder block are directly in
line.
Most modern aircraft have a pressure gauge
fitted in the gas charging line, this gauge will A movable 'swash plate' controls the piston
show the pre-charge pressure when the system travel. Altering the swash plate's datum wi ll alter

2 Hydraulics
the distance of the piston pumping action. At Back Up Hydraulic Power

maximum deflection or maximum stroke the
pistons will move the most fluid, at neutral the
pistons will not pump any fluid as they do not
AC Pumps
move in or out. This provides an idle condition for
the pump. Back up hydraulic pumps can also be driven by
electric motors. The output from these pumps is
The pump delivers most fluid at maximum considerably less than would be obtained from
stroke the main engine driven pumps.
The swash plate is connected to a control piston Hand Pumps

or hanger piston. This has two forces acting on it,
spring pressure to move towards maximum Some aircraft are fitted with hand operated
deflection, or 'on stroke' and system pressure to pumps. These pumps are generally fitted to
move towards neutral or 'off stroke'. provide hydraulic operations on the ground
during maintenance, they can also be used in
On start up of the engine the pump will be at emergency.
maximum stroke, this will cause the pump to try
and pressurise the whole system on starter motor Pressure Gauges
power. To offioad the starter motor a blocking
valve, described below, is used.
The pump is lubricated and cooled again by Direct Reading Gauges

internal fluid leakage to the case drain. A
overheat sensor is fitted at the pump and the In older aircraft the system pressure is displayed
pump outlet pressure is monitored and displayed using direct reading gauges. These have a
to the pilot. curved "Bourdon" tube inside them, which is
filled with hydraulic fluid. Any increase in the
system pressure will also increase the pressure
Lubrication is by fluid leakage in the tube, causing it to try and straighten; this
movement is translated into a reading. To prevent
a leakage from the gauge at high-pressure, a
pressure relay is fitted. This isolates the system
fluid from the gauge fluid. It is the outlet pressure
from the pump that is sensed and displayed.
Pressure Transmitters
Modern aircraft make use of pressure
transducers, which sense pressure and convert
the signal into an electrical output. The electrical
signal is then transmitted to remote gauges in the
cockpit. The overall system is called a pressure
transmitter. As well as deriving a signal of pump
output pressure, the transmitters can also be
used to actuate overpressure or low pressure
warnings of pump output and operate warning
lamps or annunciators.
A ircraft general knowledge v6 .1.2 2.18

Hydraulics 2
Reservoirs alters during operation as jacks are displaced and

the fluid expands with temperature. Fluid levels
can only be checked with the system at rest and
Reservoirs provide: the accumulators correctly charged.
• A reserve of system fluid that can cater for
small external leakage Fluid levels will drop as the hydraulic
systems operate
• An air space to cater for jack ram
displacement The main system supply is taken v ia a stack or
standpipe. The purpose of this is to ensure an
• An airspace that allows for fluid expansion
emergency supply of hydraulic fluid. If a leak
• The normal supply of fluid to the EDP occurs in the reservoir or in the return line, the
reservoir will only empty to the top of the
• A limited emergency reserve of fluid standpipe, allowing a reserve of fluid within the
pipe for emergency use.
• A positive head of pressurised fluid into the
inlet of the EDP
The standpipe preserves a reserve supply
• A means to bleed air and dissolved gases for emergency use
from the fluid
The emergency (hand pump) supply is taken from
• A means of checking the system fluid quantity the bottom of the reservoir. To keep fluid at the
mouth of the stack pipe, fins and baffles are fitted
Reservoirs hold a reserve of fluid and to prevent swirling due to turbulence.
allow it to be de-aerated
The low pressure fluid returning to the reservoir
Connection for flows over a de-aerator tray, which can be either a
Filler neck,cap
and fastener
vent line or series of steps or a flat tray with small holes
pressurising line
through it. The de-aerator tray allows any air
bubbles and dissolved gas to leave the fluid
Finger strainer ensuring that only liquid collects around the
Glass sight
gauge
Connection for mouth of the stack pipe.
return line
Working fluid level The de-aerator removes bubbles from the

De-aerator tray baffle fluid
Reservoirs can be vented to atmosphere or

Connection Connection for pressurised. If they are vented to atmosphere,
for emergency main system there is a danger that the fluid in the system could
system pump pump
boil at high altitude, leading to pump cavitation
Figure 2.34 and even the possibility of gas trapped in the
lines and actuators. For this reason pressurised
reservoirs are now the norm.
Reservoirs are designed to provide storage for
the system fluid. A sight glass allows for the
visual reading of the fluid level, normally having Air in the system leads to pump cavitation
an upper horizontal line marked max and a lower
line marked min. These are accepted levels for
normal operat ion. In modern aircraft a quantity
gauge or low level warning is incorporated on the
flight deck. The filler cap is fitted with a finger
screen filter to strain incoming fluid. Remember,
only the correct hydraulic fluid can be used,
mixing of fluid is not allowed. The level of the fluid
2.48 v6.i.2 Aircraft general knowledge

2 Hydraulics
The Pressurised Reservoir The Light Aircraft Power Pack

Pressurised systems prevent fluid boiling at
altitude and provide a positive pressure at the A modern system for light aircraft with retractable
inlet to the EDPs to prevent cavitation. Engine undercarriages is the self contained hydraulic
bleed air is used to pressurise the reservoir. It power pack. This consists of a reservoir, a
also allows for design of systems where the reversible DC electric motor, along with flow and
reservoir is below the level of the pump or pressure control valves. Figure 2.39 shows a
components. If the air pressure is lost then there typical power pack system.
will be a rise in the reservoir quantity. However, it
The salient points of its operation are:
is a design requirement that if this should happen
then the EDP must be able to draw the fluid and 11 The up or down movement is initiated by
supply more than 70% of its normal pressure. starting the pump motor in one direct'1on or the
other.
Other methods of achieving a positive pressure in
the inlet of the high-pressure engine driven pump • The fluid is only filtered on the up selection.
are the use of:
• Fluid pressure opens the gear up check valve
• A boot strapped reservoir on "up" selection.
• Electric booster pumps • The spring moves the shuttle back on up
selection, opening the down line to the
To prevent leakage and to isolate the system from
reservoir.
the reservoir an isolation or on/off supply valve is
fitted. This is electrically activated and operation • When the gear is up a pressure switch
of the fire handle will close the valve. removes the electrical power and the gear up
check valve closes, forming a hydraulic lock to
Pressurised systems prevent fluid boiling keep the gear fully retracted.
at altitude and provide a positive pressure
at the pump • If the pressure drops in the up line, the pump
automatically restarts to restore the pressure.
• A higher pressure is required to raise the

undercarriage than lower it, so the up line has
a higher relief valve setting than the down line.
11 When the gear is up, a thermal relief valve

protects the up line and actuators from over
pressurisation caused by thermal expansion.
• On down selection the piston allows the fluid

to return to the pump and reservoir by moving
across and opening the gear up check valve.
• On down selection the pressure moves the

shuttle, closing off the reservoir.
• When the gear is down and locked

mechanically, and requires no more pressure,
the electrical supply to the pump is switched
off.

Hydraulics 2
'" Restrictors slow the operation of the nose The power pack system is protected against
gear. overpressure by the fact that the pump only runs
on demand, it is switched off by pressure or limit
111 The drop valve or free-fall valve opens the up switches when the gear is up or down, by the
line to the return so the gear can fall by gravity PRVs and finally by the TRV.
in case of power failure.
The pump is only on while an actuator is

travelling
(§"
Right main gear Left main gear

hydraulic cylinder hydraulic cylinder
Up Up ;.
Down Down v
0 0
Nose gear ,-------- Pressure

switch
hydraulic ' '
cylinder COM NC
Restrictor
lJJJ
'
y
0
L>\1
Free fall valve
.
Lv
Free fall
control
<:=:>
High
pressure
"control
Reservoir
,,
/
,----
/- Thermal
relief
Low
pressure ----
·--f
control
c;r- Gear up
check
valve
Shuttle valve
Down
Gear
•Up
Figure 2.35

2 Hydraulics
Large Helicopter Systems The LH system supplies hydraulic pressure for the
following:
Large helicopters place greater requirements on a
hydraulic system, these are: II Main rotor servo controls (upper body).
• The need to operate multiple services at the • Tail rotor servo controls (outer body).
same time
'" Landing gear lowering and retraction (normal
• Instant response operation).
• Duplicated or triplicated primary systems • Autopilot unit.
'" Emergency back-up systems The RH system supplies hydraulic pressure for
the following:
11 Priority to the flying controls and wheel brakes
• Main rotor servo controls (lower body).
11 Storage of a limited reserve of pressure
energy for emergency use • Tail rotor servo controls (inner body).
'" Greater output force, to overcome heavier The ancillaries/emergency system supplies
operating loads hydraulic pressure for the following:
These requirements are achieved using closed '" Wheel brakes.

centred systems where the working pressure
• Rotor brake.
is available all the time and there is the instant
response needed for the operation of the flying '" Winch (if fitted)
controls.
II Landing gear lowering and retraction (hand
Figure 2.36 shows a typical system, where three pump operation).
hydraulic systems provide the hydraulic power for
the aircraft on the ground and in flight. 11 Landing gear emergency lowering (hand
pump operation).
These systems are defined as follows:
During normal operation (both engines running)
1. The left hand (LH) generating system. two pumps driven by the LH and RH accessory
gear trains of the main gearbox supply the
2. The right hand (RH) generating system.
hydraulic systems. The systems can also be
3. The ancillaries/emergency generating system. pressurised by using a ground test rig. For
this purpose two ground test connections are
The LH and RH systems are completely separate. provided in the LH system and two self-sealing
couplings in the RH system.
The ancillaries/emergency system is simply an
extension of the LH system. On helicopters fitted with hydraulically actuated
vibration control, the vibration tuner will operate
from one of the main hydraulic systems.

Hydraulics 2
Hoist
Auto-Pi lot
Normal
Tailrotor
isolation valve
(Energised
Return from U/C closed)
Main
Servo-units
(Lower-CYL)
250 Bar
Auto-pilot return
Figure 2.36
High system pressures allow smaller actuators to

be used. As these will have a smaller volume to
fill, the pressure supply pipes can be reduced in
diameter.
The small bore piping has four benefits:
• The pipes are easier to route around the

aircraft 's structure.
• There is less internal surface area for the

pressure to act on.
• Reduced fluid quantity is required.
• System weight is less.
In closed centred systems there must be strict

regulation of the system pressure to prevent
over-pressurisa tion and damage. This pressure
regulation can be achieved by one of two
methods.
• Use of a fixed volume pump with an idling

circuit, an automatic cut-out valve and its
associated accumulato r.
• Use of a variable volume pump.

2 Hydraulics
Hydraulic Controls and Indicators 4. Two low-pressure warning lights on the

warning panel captioned correspondingly
Most modern helicopters only permit limited "HYD.1" and "HYD.2". These lights illuminate
pilot contro l of the hydraulic system with many when pressure in the relevant system falls
functions being automatic . Figure 2.37 shows below 80 bar.
the following monitoring devices for a typical
hydraulic system . 5. A low level warning light for the RH reservoir.
This is also located on the warning panel and
1. The reservoir sight level gauges . Viewing is captioned "HLEV.2". The light illuminates
holes in the sliding cowling allow the levels to should the fluid level drop below 3 litres.
be checked on the ground while the cowling is
closed. 6. An autopilot hydraulic system warning light,
located on the warning panel, and captioned
2. A dual hydraulic pressure indicator mounted "HYD.AP". The light illuminates when the
on the cockpit upper console. Two pressure pressure in the autopilot system drops to 60
transmitters supply the indicator, one each in bar.
the LH and RH systems .
3. An ancillary 's system pressure gauge mounted

on the cockpit floor to the right of the hand
pump.
8 ± 0.5 litres
7.0 litres
4
6 ± 0.5 litres
Figure 2.37

Hydraulics 2
03
Landing Gear, Wheels, Tyres and Brakes

Landing Gear. Wheels. Tyres and Brakes 3
There are three designs of undercarriage layout: skids (figure 3.1), tricycles
(figure 3.2) and tail whee ls (figure 3.3). The tricycle gear has the stabilising
auxiliary whee l at the front, while the tail wheel's is at the back.
The function of landing gear is:
• To absorb the landing loads and dam pen

vibrations.
• To support the helicopter o n the ground .
• To allow ground manoeuvring.
• To withstand side loads.
• To wit hstand aerodynamic loads/flight air

loads.
• To give the minimum friction between the

Figure 3.1 ground and the helicopter.
The landing gear is, of course, only required

when the helicopter is on the ground . In flight
it adds unnecessary we ight to the helicopter
and, if fixed, increases the parasite drag. Fixed
undercarriages are simple to make, but the
reduction in flight performance restricts its use to
low performance helicopters.
Retractable gear reduces the drag
For larger and high performa nce helicopters , the

undercarriages are retracted into the fuselage
Figure 3.2 during flight. Hydraulic power is normally used for
retraction and extension of underca rriage; some
smaller helicopters do use electrical power.
In the event of a fa ilure of the normal power

source, an alternative means of lowering the gear
is prov ided.
Figure 3.3

3 Landing Gear. Wheels. Tyres and Brakes
Landing Gear Configuration Retractable Landing Gear

Larger helicopters with retractable undercarriage
There are four patterns of landing gear are usually fitted with oleo pneumatic
configuration, shown in figure 3.4. The strongest undercarriage struts. The oleo pneumatic shock
is the dual whee l layout. absorber can only absorb vertical loads .
Landing gear types

Shock Absorption
Oleo Pneumatic Shock Absorber Strut
•
Oleo pneumatic struts consist of a piston rod
that moves up and down within a cylinder. The
Cantilever
\ cylinder is fixed to the helicopter's structure
and an axle is connected to the lower end of
the piston rod. The cylinder is charged with
gas - nitrogen is preferred as it is inert - and oil.
Fork Mineral hydraulic oil DTD 585 is standard.
Half fork
Dual wheel The function of the gas is to support the weight of
the helicopter at rest, acting as a spring to absorb
Figure 3.4 the landing and taxiing loads. The oil is used to
control the speed of compressio n and expansion,
referred to as dampening of landing load and
Fixed Undercarriages recoil action.
Fixed undercarriages are normally fitted to only to Nitrogen and DTD 585 are used. The oil
light helicopters for weight saving and simplicity. damps the landing load and recoil action
A few large older helicopters have fixed landing
gear. The Ml-8 is a good example of this:
Figure 3.5
Skids are the most common type of fixed

undercarriage , although wheels are more suitable
for landing in rocky terrain , and on sloped ground.
Skids are normally made from aluminium alloy,

and can be fitted with steel shoes to prevent
excessive wear when landing on hard surfaces .

Oleo Pneumatic Shock Absorber without the orifice in the fixed piston as the volume
Separator reduces. The metering rod that is connected
to the bottom of the piston and passes though
Older light helicopters normally use a metering the orifice controls the rate at which the strut
valve and orifice in an un-separated shock compresses.
absorber, figure 3.6.
During landing load and recoil action the rod and
Combined filler plug orifice act as a variable restrictor, reducing t he
and inflation valve flow of oil from one side of the fixed piston to the
0
other. The control of the oil flowing back during
............. ..... the recoil action helps to prevent the helicopter
Oil level
0 from being sprung back into the air.
0
FRONT SIDE
Oleo Pneumatic Shock Absorber with
Separator
Steering collar
In large helicopters the oleo uses a free-floating
separator to ensure that the gas and fluid cannot
Metering rod mix. The speed of compression and recoil is
controlled via fixed orifices, figure 3.7. During
Nosewheel fork
recoil some of the orifices are closed by valves to
slow the recoil action.
Figure 3.6
As the oleo strut is compressed on landing the

gas pressure increases as the length of the strut
is reduced and the oil is forced to flow up through
No load Landing load Recoil load Static load
Figure 3.7

When a helicopter is stationary the pressure in Torque Link (Scissor Link)

the gas equals the weight of the helicopter. Any
additional load will cause the oleo to compress To prevent the inner piston rod rotating inside the
further. This must be taken into account when cylinder and to ensure that the wheels align with
equipment is placed around or underneath the the centre line of the helicopter, a torque link is
helicopter. fitted; see figure 3.6.
A heavy landing can result in the oleo strut The torque link is attached to the cylinder at one
bottoming out. This occurs when the piston rod end and the piston rod at the other. A joint in the
travel exceeds the distance available , and can middle of the torque link allows the oleo to move
cause damage as the castings meet. up and down. If the torque link is worn it can
cause rotary movement of the piston within the
Each oleo will have a correct extension at a given cylinder, which manifests itself as a sinusoidal
weight, figure 3.8 The extension is adjusted by motion of the nose wheel when the helicopter is
adjusting the gas pressure in the oleo strut. Oil taxing on the ground, this is called wheel shimmy.
levels must also be correct. If the oil has been
leaking the gas pressure can be topped up to
restore the extension, but there will be more Worn torque links cause shimmy
gas than normal and the oil contents will be
lower, therefore the strut will be less damped , Shimmy Damper
too bouncy. Conversely, but less likely, a strut
overfilled with oil but at the correct extension, A shimmy damper is either a spring or a hydraulic
will have too little gas in it and will be excessively damper which acts like an accumulator, it is used
rigid. to prevent or dampen these oscillations with an
opposing force . Spring systems are used on
light helicopters and hydraulic systems for larger
helicopters, figure 3.8. They can be incorporated
as part of the nose wheel steering system .
Retraction and Extension
Bracing of Retractable Landing Gear

The hydraulically operated retractable landing
gears have to be braced to prevent collapse,
figures 3.9 and 3.10.
Main gears that retract sideways have side stays

to withstand the side loads and prevent collapse.
Figure 3.8
They also require fore stays or drag stays
which brace the lower leg and stop it collapsing
rearwards.
Nose gear and main gears that retract fore or

aft require only fore and aft bracing. Drag stays
brace forward retracting legs and push stays
brace rearward retracting legs.
Stays have to be articulated to allow the gear

to retract, and be stowed in the smallest space
possible.

Landing Gear. Wheels. lyres and Brakes 3
Retraction extension
Upper actuator
sldestay
Door retraction
actuator
Lock actuator
Shock strut
Inner door
Door
up-lock
Figure 3.9
Upper forestay
Uplock
Lower forestay
Retraction actuator
Downlock actuator
Figure 3.10

Undercarriage Locks Landing Gear Position Indications

A retractable undercarriage has to be locked Micro switches or proximity switches are fitted
when in the up (retracted) and down (extended) to the undercarriage to relay an indication of the
positions. The locks prevent the undercarriage gear position. These are linked to indicator lights
from un-commanded extension or collapse. on the flight deck.
Geometric Locks '" Green lights indicate that the gear is locked
down.
The geometric or over centre lock is used as an
up lock or down lock. It requires mechanical '" Red lights indicate that the gear is unlocked
force to unlock it; these locks can be formed by or the gear position disagrees with the lever
using the stays bracing the struts. position.
'" No lights indicate that the gear is locked up.

Hook Locks
Hook locks engage without hydraulic pressure but Ground Locks
require hydraulic pressure to release. Hook locks
Ground locks are fitted to the door and leg
are normally used as up-locks, with a geometric
actuators or linkages to prevent them from moving
lock for the down lock.
and allowing the undercarriage to collapse. For
If hydraulic pressure fails to properly release the ease of spotting them, as some are only small
lock, hook locks can sometimes be persuaded pins, they are painted red and have a red or red
to let go by manoeuvring the helicopter sharply, and white flag attached to them. Ground locks
obviously within limits, to use the weight of the are always fitted before a helicopter is towed or
gear to assist. moved without its main engines running, each
helicopter has a set of ground locks; these are
carried in the helicopter in a clear or open fronted
Hook lock
container where the Captain can check that they
are stowed prior to take off.
Air/Ground Logic
To ensure the landing gear operates at the
correct stage, an air/ground logic system is
Locked used. This system can use micro switches or
pressure switches to determine whether the
landing gear is in contact with the ground and
bearing the helicopter's weight. The micro
switches note physical compression of the gear,
Pin attached to UIC leg
the pressure switches note increase in pressure
in the oleos. These are referred to as weight on
Figure 3.11 wheels (WoW), weight on ground (WaG) or squat
switches.
Some light helicopters use a hydraulic lock to lock
the landing gear both up and down. Gear Selector
The gear selector has a wheel shaped knob for
tactile recognition. To prevent an inadvertent
wheels up landing, a warning horn is operated if
the helicopter descends below a pre-determined
altitude. The GPWS mode 4A alert provides an
additional warning in larger helicopters.

Landing Gear. Wheels. lyres and Brakes 3
Retraction and Extension Sequence

The gear selector is shaped like a wheel
In helicopters the selecto r has two positions- up
To prevent inadvertent up selectio n of the landing for gear retraction and down for gear extension.
gear when on the ground, some helicopters are The nose wheel must be straight or the nose
fitted with a safety latch to physically prevent the gear will not retract; this is to prevent the nose
gear selector lever from being moved. As a back whee l damaging the narrow bay. A self-centring
up, the air/ground logic system prevents the gear mechanism can be used to achieve this. One
from operating when on the ground and, if the way restrictor valves are fitted in the return line on
down lock is of geometric over centre type , this extension to prevent the gear lowering too quickly,
will also prevent retraction. These safety devices under both gravity and hydraulic pressure. On
are not fitted to all helicopters, especially some of some helicopters, automatic braking occurs
the older types. during gear retraction.
A squat switch prevents the gear lever Emergency Lowering

being moved on the ground
The helicopter's main hydraulic system is the
normal source of power for raising and lowering
the gear. In the event of loss of main hydraulic
power an emergency method of extending the
landing gear must be provided. The following are
some of the methods provided.
• Emergency Hydraulics
• Compressed nitrogen gas (blow down)
• Mechanical extension
• Gravity free fall
Steering
Modern helicopters can provide steer ing from the
landing gear on the ground for tax iing. These
helicopters have fully castoring nose wheels and
are steered by the use of differential braking and
the anti-torque pedals. To reduce shimmy, this
system makes use of a twin contact tyre called a
Marstrand tyre in addition to a shimmy dampe r.
Large Helicopters Nose Wheel

Steering
Larger helicopters such as the Merlin have a
dedicated hydraulically powered nose wheel
steering system. With the weight on wheels
(WoW) switch made , the pilot operates a rocker
Figure 3.12 switch on the cyclic stick to turn the nose wheel to
the left or right.

Wheel Brakes Brake Wear

Any use of the brakes will result in wear of both
On light helicopters passive hydraulically the friction material of the pads and the disc; this
operated single discs brakes are normally used wear must be checked after every flight with the
to convert the kinetic energy of the helicopter brakes applied. A measurement is taken between
into heat energy, through friction. On larger the disc and the brake housing, using a rule, a
helicopters hydraulic powered multi-plate disc gauge or special tool, figure 3.14.
brakes are used.
A single disc brake consists of a disc rotating with Measuring brake wear
the main wheel and a caliper unit attached to the Brake unit housing Measure lining wear here
main gear leg, figure 3.13.
Single disc brake Disc Piston Disc
Brake unit housing Operating pad Fixed pad

Operating pad
Fixed pad
Torque plate
Operating piston
Disc
Figure 3.14
As the disc wears down in thickness the amount

of heat energy that it is able to absorb is reduced,
Figure 3.13 thus reducing the ability of the brakes to stop the
helicopter.
Each brake unit is connected to a master cylinder
attached to the toe brake pedal on the pilot's Overheated brakes fade
rudder bar. The pilot pressing down on the toe
brake pedal creates hydraulic pressure; this is Unless you are using carbon fibre discs braking
transmitted to the caliper unit where a piston action is most effective when the brakes are cold,
squeezes the disc between two friction pads. On as a steel disc warms up its efficiency decreases .
releasing the brakes a small spring returns the
piston to its former position. Brakes with steel discs work best when
cold, carbon fibre brakes work best when
For light helicopters the rate of braking is
hot
controlled totally by the pilot. The ideal condition
is where the wheels are turning slightly slower
than the helicopter 's forward speed. If the pilot If the brake disc becomes so hot that it is unable
slows the wheels to a point where they are to absorb further heat the braking action ceases.
turning too slowly then a skid can develop. This This is called brake fade . Overheated brakes
may lead to loss of braking efficiency, loss of make chattering and squealing noises. Should
directional control, a flat spot in the affected tyre the brake disc and pads fail to separate after the
and ultimately a burst tyre. brakes are released , the brake is said to be
dragging or binding. Dragging will increase brake
temperatures.

Multi Disc Brakes as its name suggests, is designed to withstand

the to rque reaction of braking. Attached to the
Large air transport helicopters use multi disc and torque plate via the torque tube is the thrust ring.
multi piston brakes as these are able to absorb The torque plate houses a series of interlinked
more kinetic energy. They use the helicopter single acting actuators and wear adjusters. The
main hydraulic system for normal power supply ; actuator pistons act on a pressure plate.
on occasions the main system pressure is Between the pressure plate and the thrust ring is
reduced by means of a pressure reducing valve the disc pack; this consists of alternate brake
downstream of the brake accumulator. discs and fr iction plates. The discs have external
lugs known as tenons and these locate into drive
Under manual braking the pilot operates the blocks located on the wheel. The friction plates
brake master cylinders with the toe pedals. The have lugs located on the inner circumference;
low hydraulic pressures created by the brake these locate over t he castellation of the torque
master cylinders operate a brake control valve tube. The discs are referred to as rotors, the
that determines how much system pressure friction plates as stators.
should be applied to the wheel brakes.
In operation the pressure plate pushes the whole
The pressure reducing valve is pack across onto the thrust ring. Because the
downstream of the brake accumulator heat energy absorbed by the multi disc brake is
so great, the discs are made up of segments to
allow for expans ion and prevent warping. These
The body of a multi disc unit is made up by a
are linked together; the jigsaw is a common
torque plate, a torque tube and thrust ring. The
system of linking.
torque plate is attached to the main gear leg and,
Pressure plate
Adjuster assembly Disc pack

and wear indicator
Mounting
Operating piston
and cylinder Torque tube
Double stator Single stator
assembly assembly
Rotor segment
Multi-disc brake
Figure 3.15

3 Landing Gear, Wheels, Tyres and Brakes
Automatic Brake Wear Adjuster The brake wear can be measured using the
distance between the retraction pin and the
Automatic brake wear adjusters are used to make housing. Some pins have a mark around them,
sure that there is adequate clearance between when this is proud of the housing the brake
the rotors and the stators when the brakes are wear is acceptable . Whatever method is used,
off. These consist of a housing, a guide, a spring , specia l tool, gauge , rule or indication, the actual
a retraction pin and a friction bush. The housing measurement is being taken between the torque
is attached to the torque plate, located inside plate and the pressure plate.
the housing is the guide which incorporates the
friction bush and the spring . The head of the Parking Brake
retraction pin is held by the pressure plate, the pin
passes through the torque plate and friction bush Wheeled helicopters have a parking brake
to protrude out of the end of the housing. system that locks hydraulic pressure into the
wheel brakes. The pressure is maintained
The distance between the torque plate and the by an accumulator. The parking brake will
pressure plate is indicated by how much the apply full system pressure to all of the brakes
retraction pin sticks out. When the brakes are simultaneously, therefore differential braking will
applied the pressure plate pulls the pin with it, not be possible.
the friction in the bush holds the guide onto the
pin, so the guide moves with the pin which in
turn compresses the spring. When the brakes Emergency Braking Systems
are released the spring 's force pulls the pressure
If the hydraulics completely fail the accumulator in
plate back , allowing the disc pack to separate .
the brake circuit will provide a limited number of
As the pack wears , the guide will bottom before braking applications (about 6).
the pressure plate stops moving, so the pin is
The wheel brake accumulators can be
pulled through the friction bush. On release
pressurised from dedicated electrical pumps or
the guide returns to its original position so the
hand pumps. This system also allows operation
pressure plate will be pulled back the same
of brakes when the helicopter is towed on the
distance.
ground without having to start the main engines .
Brake pads
Wheels and Tyres
Spring housing
Helicopter wheels and tyres are designed to
Retraction withstand landing impact loads and to cater
pin for manoeuvring over both smooth and rough
surfaces .
Guide
Wheels
Adjuster
spring There are three different types of wheels which
are also referred to as hubs, these are:
Torque plate Pressure plate • Well based
Figure3.16 • Detachable flange
• Split hub
The distance between the torque plate
and the pressure plate is indicated by how Well based wheels are used for motor cars .
much the retraction pin sticks out Helicopter tyres are so stiff they cannot be fitted
by stretching them over the rim of a well based
wheel. The construction of the wheels varies

slightly depending on if the tyre fitted is tube or contact between the helico pter and the ground
tubeless. and dissipate any static charge of the helicopter.
Inflation valve Two types of ty re are used, they can be either

tubed or tubeless. As with motor vehic les,
helicopter tyres have a maximum speed rating.
SPLIT HUB
Tyre Construction
Tyres are not fabricated just from rubber ; they
Sealing ring for tubeless tyres would be too weak and flexible. Within the rubber
are a series of plies of cord and steel that acts as
reinforcement.
DETACHABLE
FLANGE
Wheelcasting Removable flange Lock ring Casing

Figure 3.17 plies
The detachab le flange wheel, as its name

suggests, has a flange that can be removed.
W hen a tyre has been fitted the flange is held in
place by a lock ing ring, the pressure in the tyre
forces the flange onto the locking ring making it
secure.
The split hub wheel is the common commercial

helicopter wheel. The hub is designed to split in Figure 3.18
two parts and these are cross-bolted together .
The tyre construct ion starts with the bead, wh ich
The wheels used with tubeless tyres need to form
is formed around a series of steel wires rings
gas tight seals. Detachable flange and split hub laid side by side, around which strands of nylon
wheels will have seals fitted between their mating
or rayon are layered; each strand is coated in
surfaces to prevent leakage. The cast alloy used rubber. These are built up in layers, collect ively
for the constr uction of the wheels may not be air referred to as the carcass; these give t he tyre its
tight. This requires the wheels to be coated with strength.
a lacquer to seal them.
Wheels for use with tube tyres have knurled The ply rating indicates the strength of the
flanges , this is to assist in preventing the tyre tyre
slippi ng around the whee l.
The tyre's strength is indicated by its ply rating, an
Tyres 8 ply tyre being stronger than a 6 ply, the higher
the number the stronger the tyre. If the layers of
Pneumatic tyres are used on helicopters to the carcass are laid across each other at an angle
support the helicopter on the ground and assist the tyre is called a cross ply. If the carcass is
in absorb ing shock loads. Modern transpo rt made up orientated in the direction of travel the
helicopters are inflated with nitrogen gas as it is tyre is called a radial ply tyre. To add further
inert and wi ll not support combustion in the event strength additional belts of steel or Kevlar are
of a blow out or wheel fire. added to the radial tyres, this outer belt also helps
the tyre to resist punctures.
The tyres provide the necessary friction between
the helicopters and the surface for braking and
steering, and can be designed to make electr ical
Aircraft general knowledge v6 .1.2 3.11

Helicopter tyres can be remoulded several times To monitor the creep, a bar is painted across the
when they are worn by bonding new rubber to the wheel flange and tyre called a creep mark . The
carcasses. maximum permissible creep is indicated when
the edge of the tyre mark aligns with the opposite
A tyre is divided into four zones, figure 3.19. edge of the wheel mark, figure 3.18. This range
limits the stress on the inflation valve of the inner
These are:
tube.
• The crown - the area with the tread pattern
designed to take the wear.
• The shoulder- where the cross section of the

tyre thins from the crown to the sidewall.
• The sidewall - which has the thinnest walls

and is not designed to take any wear.
• The bead - the strong part of the tyre

designed to grip the rim of the wheel.
Crown
Shoulder
Sidewall
Bead
Figure 3.19
Tube Tyres
Figure 3.20
Tube tyres use an inner tube of gas resistant
rubber as a bladder to hold the inflation medium ,
usually nitrogen for transport helicopters. The
inner tube has a thin inflation tube and valve that
protrudes through a hole in the wheel.
Helicopter tyres are inflated with nitrogen
When a new tyre is fitted to a wheel it takes up to

five landings for the bead to bed in against the
knurled wheel flange properly. During this time
the friction on landing can cause circumferential
movement of the tyre in relation to the wheel
flange , this is called tyre "creep".

Tubeless Tyres
A red spot indicates the lightest point of
In the construction of tubeless tyres a layer of gas the tyre
resistant rubber like butyl is applied to the inner
surface of the tyre. The side wall has a radial Tread Patterns
construction which makes the tyre more flexible,
and a chamfered bead provides a better fit to the Tread patterns are designed to clear surface
wheel. This design has many advantages over water, and provide longitudinal stability, or
the tube tyre. They are: directional grip. There are two main tread
patterns, figure 3.21:
'" The tyre is lighter (no tube)
ro Circumferential grooves provide excellent
11 The tyre runs cooler (no friction between tube longitudinal stability and water clearance.
and tyre) They are the standard tread pattern for
helicopters using concrete/tarmac runways.
11 Lower risk of bursting (when punctured)
11 There is no inflation tube to rip out

ro Block tread, sometimes called all weather
tyres. They are normally used for helicopters
11 Better adjustment to the wheels (no knurled that are likely to land on rough or unmade
flange required) strips.
11 The tyre is more flexible
It must be remembered that tubeless tyres need

to be fitted to wheels designed for their use.
Tyre Markings
Moulded into the rubber of the sidewall are:
11 The maximum ground speed
'" The ply rating
11 The manufacturers recommended operating

Ribbed tread tyre Block tread tyres
pressure
Figure 3.21
Around the bead of a tubeless tyre are a series of
small green or grey paint marks, these are called
awl marks. Awl marks indicate where small holes
Marstrand Tyre and Chined Tyres
were made during manufacture to let entrapped
gasses out. A tyre must have these marks. The marstrand tyre is a single tyre used on
castoring nose wheels. It has two contact areas,
Awl marks are normal and occur in this double contact, helps to eliminate shimmy as
manufacture each area will resist the oscillation. These tyres
can be used until the centre section starts to
Painted on the sidewall will be a red spot, this contact the ground.
indicates the light spot of the tyre which will be
placed against the inflation adapter in the wheel, Marstrand tyres reduce shimmy on
which is the wheel's heavy spot unless otherwise castoring nose wheels
marked with a B. There will of course be creep
marks on the tyre as well.

Minimum tread is 2 mm on a grooved tyre
Block tread lyres can be used until the pattern of

the tread is just discernible.
There must be visible tread on a blocked

tyre
Tyre Damage
Tyre damage can be caused by high taxy speed,
Marstrand tyre Chined tyre
low lyre pressure, hard landings, excessive load,
Figure 3.22 runway surface faults, contamination and ageing.
When the carcass of the lyre is damaged, a

A chined lyre has a strip of rubber that is moulded blister on a sidewall indicates that the plies of
onto one or both sides of the lyre. These chine's the carcass are delaminating. The lyre must be
deflect the water displaced by the tread back onto replaced.
the runway, they can be used on either the nose
or the main wheels. Too low a lyre pressure will cause excessive wear
on the shoulders. Too high a lyre pressure will
cause excessive wear on the crown. Figure 3.24
Chined tyres deflect water and spray illustrates excessive shoulder wear caused by low
inflation pressure.
Tyre Wear
Tyre pressures that are too high cause
For a grooved lyre the minimum tread allowed is
wear on the crown, pressures that are too
2 mm measured from the bottom of the groove.
low cause wear on the shoulder
Some lyres have reinforced treads. Tyres of
this type have a rubber block in the grooves that
indicates the 2 mm depth; these blocks are called
marker tie bars.
Wear Indicating groove
<'
Marker tie bar
Wear indicating grooves
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.23
Rough runway surfaces will score and cut the
lyres. If these are deep enough to sever the plies
the lyre is said to be cut to cords and must be
changed. If these cuts are not as deep as the
cords, the cut can be filled with lyre putty. Heavy

braking on a cross-grooved runway when it is dry

causes a series of chevron shaped cuts. Any
object that penetrates the tyre should be left in
situ and expert advice taken.
Oil or solvents spilt on a tyre can damage the

rubber causing it to become soft and spongy; the
contaminants must be removed immediately and
the affected area washed.
Tyres age due to exposure to sunlight and ozone;

this causes small radial cracks in the surface
of the sidewa lls, which are also referred to as
weathering cracks , these are acceptable unless
the cords are shown. Another indication of
ageing is black carbon dust coming from the tyre. Figure 3.25
Aquaplaning or Hydroplaning From these formulae it can be seen that the

higher the tyre pressure the higher the speed
Either of these terms can be used to refer to for the onset of aquaplaning. This can become
a condition where the tyre's tread is unable to a limiting factor when working out take off and
clear all the surface water from under the wheel. landing speeds. Beware that these formula
Water is then pushed ahead of the tyre and forms only apply to one form of aquaplan ing, there are
a wedge that lifts the tyre off the runway. This several. Reverted rubber aquaplaning can occur
results in a loss of braking and directional control. at very low speeds.
The tyre can become scalded and blister as
friction causes the water to heat up and eventually
boil as it is pushed along the runway. The aquaplaning speed on a rotating
wheel is 9..Jp in psi
The speed at which aquaplaning occurs on a
rotating wheel (on take-off) can be calculated
using the formula:
9..J(tyre pressure in psi) = The speed of

aquaplan ing in KT
The aquaplaning speed on a non-rotating wheel

is less
7.7..J(tyre pressure in psi) = The speed of

aquaplaning in KT

Flotation Devices
Flotation devices can be fitted to helicopters
operating over water.
On some helicopters the flotation devices cannot

be operated in flight. The system is armed when
flying over water, and deployed on ditching by
water sensors on the underside of the helicopter,
or manually by the pilot using a guarded switch .
(.) F ARMED ·:-)

l E
0
A
T
8 M
E
Figure 3.27
The flotation devices are inflated with

(\ s )
OFF
8 compressed gas, usually helium.
Figure 3.26
Other helicopters can deploy the flotation

devices in flight. There will be lAS limitations
for deployment , as the devices could detach if
operated at too high a speed. Also , if all of the
floats do not inflate fully, this can give asymmetric
handling problems.

04
Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic Systems 4
Air driven or pneumatic systems are all systems driven by air or compressed
gas. Pneumatic systems operate much like hydraulic systems and will
employ controlling valves, filters and selector valves. They fall into two main
categories.
The first category contains systems that are The Advantages of Pneumatic
driven by a constant supply of compressed air,
Systems
usually derived from engine driven compressor
pumps or from gas turbine engine compressor The principle advantage of pneumatic systems
bleeds. Into this category fall: is that air is readily available. Piston engines
can be used to drive air compressors and gas
• Heating turbine engines always have a ready supply of
• Instruments clean pressurised air for use. One subsidiary
advantage is that although air supports
• Hot air anti-icing combustion, an air-driven system presents much
less of a fire risk than a hydraulic system and can
• De-icing be used in high temperature areas. Another is
that because gas is compressible, pressurised
• Air starting systems
gas can be used as a shock absorber. A third is
• Hydraulic reservoir pressurisation that compressed gas occupies a relatively small
volume at minimal mass, yet can expand to fill a
The second category contains systems that use large area.
bottled nitrogen or some other relatively inert gas
as their main operating mechanism. Into this
category fall:
The Disadvantages of Pneumatic
Systems
• Fire extinguishers
Pneumatic systems have three main
• Life jackets disadvantages:
• Flotation equipment • Because gas is compressible it is not usable

in systems that require precise and rapid
• Life rafts responses like flying controls.
Certain pneumatic systems use the air once, then • Because gas is much less viscous than
dump it overboard. These are called total loss fluid it is very difficult to seal high pressure
systems. pneumatic components.
• Because gas is colourless and odourless,

leaks in pneumatic systems are difficult and
time consuming to trace.

4 Pneumatic Systems
Constant Supply Systems Compressor Air Supplies

Some older turbi ne engine aircraft did not have
sufficient bleed air available for the pneumatics,
Gas Turbine Engine Bleed Air therefore a dedicated compressor, usually
Supplies centrifugal, was driven from the auxiliary gearbox
The most common source of a constant air on the engine.
supply is engine bleed air from the LP or HP Piston engine aircraft use a single cylinder air
compressor of gas turbine engine. Engine bleed cooled compressor driven by the engine , either
air is regarded as being at a comparatively low by belts or from the gearbox , or use pressurised
pressure and being available in high volume. air from the supercharger system. If the air is
The control valves , called engine bleed isolation/ supplied by the supercharger , engine power will
shut off valves, can be selected by the crew in be reduced.
normal operation and are closed automatically
when the appropriate engine fire handle is pulled.
Taking bleed air from the engines reduces the
power output, so engine bleeds are often selected
off for take-off.
Bleed air is not only available from the main

engines but may also be supplied by the auxiliary
power unit (APU), either in the air or on the
ground. It is not unusual to use an electrical
starter motor to start the APU, then use engine
bleed air from the APU to start the other engines.
Bleed air supply from

high pressure compressor
Engine bleed air
control switch
Figure 4.1
Bleed air is ducted into a gallery of pipes called

the bleed air manifold, further isolation valves
control its delivery to the various services. While
on the ground , helicopters can be supplied
from ground sources via ground pneumatic
connections .
4.2 v6.1. 2 Aircraft general knowledge

Pneumatic Systems 4
Applications Cockpit Controls. Indications and

System Failures
The most common applications of pneumatics The pneumatic system is remotely controlled
are in heating and air-conditioning. These will from the cockpit by the operation of shut off and
be considered in detail in the next section. The selector valves to the various services. System
following systems may also use pneumatics: indications may include pressure and temperature
gauges.
Fixed Fire Extinguisher Bottles
High pressures and temperatures can cause
On all modern transport aircraft, the engine and failure of the dueling and possible damage to
APU fire extinguisher bottles are pressurised the surrounding airframe and engine structures,
by nitrogen to deliver the extinguishant where it whereas low pressure could be an indication of
is required. The portable fire extinguishers are a supply malfunction, or a leak in the system.
pressurised with various mediums depending on Overheat sensors are normally located by the
their use. bleed air take off points and within the dueling,
providing warning indications to the pilots.
Carbon Dioxide
,...---COND/HEATBI--, ,-VENT--,
Life vests and life rafts, are normally inflated by r COND, rHTRI TfMPCONTR r-CREW--,
individual, self-contained, C0 2 bottles.
RECYCLE .I MAN "- --•OFF
Anti-Icing and De-Icing Systems NORM OFF AUT O Mlo }_ ""'

HIGH
FAN LOW
ON
rsov---, . .. MaX
to provide ice protection. £NORMAl. I PAX-=-CR. I

Hydraulic Systems t! :'H
h\NlOW
ON
PAX
\_CLOSE_/
Hydraulic systems usually contain a pneumatic
accumulator containing nitrogen pressurised Figure 4.2
to system pressure. The accumulator damps
out fluid pressure fluctuations in the system,
maintaining system pressure ensuring it is
instantly available when a service is selected.
Oleo Legs
Pneumatics are used, together with oil, to absorb
shocks in undercarriage systems on landing.
Air Starters
Whilst most helicopters use electrical starter
motors, some gas turbine engines are started
by directing bleed air onto an air driven starter
motor, also known as a low pressure air starter
(LPAS). The bleed air can be obtained from the
APU, a ground air supply or from an engine that is
already running.

4 Pneumatic Systems
Intentionally blank

Pneumatic Systems 4
05
Air Conditioning

Air Conditioning 5
This section looks at how cabin temperature is regulated. 'Conditioned air'

is defined as air that has been controlled in respect to temperature, pressure
and purity.
The Need for Temperature Control Light Helicopter Heating Systems

The outside air temperature at height can be very
low, whereas the temperature on the ground can
Ram Air System
be very high, as much as +45° in some parts of
the world. The helicopter temperature control Ambient ram air is ducted directly to the cabin to
systems need to be able to cope with such large provide cold air and hot air is prov ided by ram air
extremes and still maintain a comfortable cabin fed to a heat exchanger around the exhaust pipe.
temperature. The pilot either allows some or all of the hot air
into the cabin or it is dumped overboard.
Light helicopter temperature control systems are
essentially heaters. There is no air conditioning On the ground the flow of air is limited as there is
in high temperatures, you just open the window. no ram air, this makes the system inefficient and
really cold air in hot climates is not available.
On some large and/or V IP helicopters, hot
engine bleed air is separated into two streams. A possible danger exists with this type of system
One stream is cooled, one is not and the two of carbon monoxide poisoning if exhaust gases
are mixed to achieve the correct temperature leak into the cabin air supply.
whatever is happening outside.
Ram
Fire
ambient
bulkhead
air
Heater
muff
Cabin
-------L---, ."(r
distribution
IJ===- Lo-w-er -ski-n
Waste heat
To overboard
atmosphere
Figure 5.1

5 Air Conditioning
Ram Air Combustion Heater

Some piston helicopters use combustion heaters
which burn aircraft fuel, approximately half a
When a combust ion heater is used on the ground
gallon an hour, to heat the cabin air.
an electrically driven blower fan ensures that
Air for combustion is taken from a static source there is sufficient through flow of air to cool the
and pressurised by a combustion blower before heater. In flight the blower fan is shut down and
being mixed with the fuel and ignited with a spark air intakes in the airframe direct ram air to the
plug. The air temperature is controlled by the rate heater.
at which it is able to flow through the unit.
The blower fan can be used without the heater to
If the heater temperature exceeds a pre-set limit draw cooling air into the aircraft on the ground.
the unit will automatically switch off by cutting The blower fans are also known as gaspers, the
the fuel supply and illuminate a red warning light. vents are sometimes called punkah louvres.
The unit can only be reset on the ground .
Ram air combustion heater
OVERHEAT
Static air
Sensor
Ram air
shutoff Combustion
Temperature
blower control
Ram air inlet Warm air supply
Combustion heater
Fuel supply
--------------------------------------------- 1
Fuel shut off solenoid
Exhaust
Figure 5.2
Advantages Disadvantages
• They 're efficient • They have a limited maximum operating
altitude
• They use the same fuel as the aircraft engines
• Their use reduces the range
• There is a danger of carbon monoxide

poisoning
Combustion heaters use helicopter fuel:

there is a danger of carbon monoxide
poisoning
5.2 v6 .1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Air Conditioning 5
Turbo Charged Piston Engines Air Cooling Systems

Larger turbo charged piston engine helicopters
can make use of some of the 'deck' pressure Air can be cooled by:
air (outlet pressure) from the turbo-compressor
" Passing warm air over a cooler surface, a
for cabin heating. This is warmer than ambient
heat exchanger- heat exchangers are most
because increasing the pressure of the air
efficient when there is a large temperature
increases its temperature. This use is limited to
difference between the hot and cold sides.
lower operating altitudes as the engine will require
the full deck pressure to maintain power output as 11 Making it do work. The more work done, the
it climbs. more cooling that takes place.
Dedicated Displacement Blowers • Allowing the air to expand - the more

expansion the more cooling.
Engine driven Roots blowers compress air to heat
it. There is a performance penalty. Air is cooled by expanding it or making it
do work
Some helicopters use a dedicated engine
driven compressor, either a displacement
blower or centrifugal compressor, to ensure an Air conditioning packs use some or all of the three
adequate supply of hot air to the cabin. Blowers, cooling methods in different proportions. They
generically known as 'Roots blowers', and are either air cycle or vapour cycle systems. The
compressors force the air into a restricted pipe, system on which the examinations are based is
called a duct, as the pressure is increased the the bootstrap or turbo compressor system and the
temperature rises. The hot air from the Roots vapour cycle.
blower is usually mixed with cold ambient air to
get the right cabin temperature. Bootstrap Systems
Operation of Roots blowers and compressors The bootstrap system can be used with either a
incurs a performance penalty, they are engine mechanical blower or a turbine engine. It is an
driven. air cycle system which relies on compression,
expansion and work done by the air itself to
reduce the temperature of the charge air.
The core of the bootstrap system is a compressor

driven by a turbine which, in turn, is driven by
the charge air, figure 5.3. The cooling is by heat
exchange with ram air and by making the charge
air do work across a compressor and turbine
assembly. The compressor and turbine assembly
is used in the other air cycle systems and is
referred to as a "cold air unit' or an "air cycle
machine".
Function and Operation

The flow control valve reacts to the charge air
density to ensure the correct mass of air enters
the system.
The bypass valves are also referred to as, and

effectively are, temperature control valves. They
are connected to temperature sensors either
in the cabin or in the outlet duct, leading to the
cabin, reacting automatically to maintain the

5 Air Conditioning
selected temperatur e by splitting and mixing hot

and cold air. A second bypass valve opens to allow
some air to bypass the second cooling
Bypass valves control cabin temperature stage
The air entering the cooling unit of the system The CAU consists of a centrifugal compressor
passes through the primary heat exchanger (also driven by a turbine . The compressor pressurises
referred to as a pre-cooler) where , in the cruise, it the air, and so heats it. It then passes over a
gives up temperature to ram ambient air without secondary heat exchanger or intercooler, it is then
effective loss of pressure. On the ground and directed onto the edge of the turbine . The
during slow flight the cooling flow is provided by intercooler produces a large drop in charge air
pack fans. These fans can be electrically driven temperature but only reduces the charge pressure
or driven via gears from the CAU. slightly.
The primary heat exchanger cools the air The CAU heats the air then cools it again
The stream of cooler air from the primary heat As the air passes through the turbine it loses
exchanger enters a second bypass valve, where it energy in two ways, firstly by doing work to rotate
is mixed with a little of the charge air that the turbine which , in turn, has to drive the
bypassed the pre-cooler. The output of the compressor and secondly as it expands across
second bypass valve is directed into the eye of the turbine .
the centrifugal compressor of the cold air unit
(CAU).
Flow control valve
Ice
Cold air Turbine

unit
42
30
psi 17
·c ' r
_L_I_ s 2 Bootstrap system
Figure 5.3

Air Conditioning 5
As it leaves the turbine the air pressure has Vapour Cycle Cooling
been reduced again and the temperatures will
be very low, close to freezing. The major part The vapour cycle cooling system differs from
of the cooling, however, took place across the the previous systems in that the cooling of the
secondary heat exchanger. charge air is mainly achieved by a refrigerant.
The system can be compared with a domestic
Because the air flowing from the cold air unit can refrigerator. Freon is used as the refrigerant, as it
be below the dew point, an ice screen is fitted has a low boiling point and low toxicity.
to prevent ice impacting in the water extractor.
Alternative systems add some of the hot air to this The freon is stored as a liquid in the liquid
flow to prevent any moisture freezing. receiver which acts as a system reservoir. When
it is operating a low-pressure flow of liquid
The Bootstrap freon passes from the liquid receiver through
an expansion valve into the evaporator. Most
The bootstrap or the turbo-compressor element is of the cooling of the charge air takes place here
the primary heat exchanger, the compressor, the as the freon evaporates and draws latent heat
secondary heat exchanger and the turbine or, if of evaporation from the charge air. As it does it
you like, the CAU and the heat exchangers. changes from a liquid into a low-pressure vapour.
The low-pressure vapour flows into the eye of
Water Extractor the compressor, which it leaves as a hot high-
A water separator is located in the outlet from the pressure vapour.
CAU. The freon enters the condenser as a hot high-
After passing through the turbine the air is still pressure vapour. Ram air cools and condenses
swirling and the heavier molecules of water are the freon and it leaves as a high-pressure liquid
thrown to the outside by centrifugal action. The returning to the liquid receiver. On the ground
water extractor consists of a woollen sock over a the cooling air is forced through the condenser by
metal frame. The water is soaked up by the sock fans.
and the air flows on through to the cabin. The The degree of cooling is partly controlled by the
water is dumped overboard through a drain. If the expansion valve which regulates the amount of
water extractor starts to freeze warm air can be circulating freon and partly by the temperature
directed on to the unit. control valves. Vapour cycle machines are most
often found in helicopters.
Plenum
The freon pumps are driven by the main gearbox.
The streams of air at different temperatures are
mixed in a plenum chamber, or mixing chamber
before entering the cabin. The air temperature
in the plenum chamber will be higher than that
required in the cabin because there will be a
small, final cooling process as the air expands
into the cabin.

5 Air Conditioning
Vapour cycle cooling
HP liquid Freon cycle
Liquid receiver
Main
air Expansion
supply valve ----l
LP
vapour
LP
liquid
Turbine Compressor
Temperature
control valves
Figure 5.4
Temperature Control Ground Operation
The normal setting for temperature control Air and vapour cycle systems will work on the
is in the automatic mode, where the output ground as long as they have a source of charge
temperature from the control valve is compared air. If the main engines are not running, one pack
to the temperature selected by the pilot. If the can be operated using bleed air from the auxiliary
automatic system fails , then the pilot can control power unit (APU).
the temperature by manually operating, or
beeping, the control valve.
RECYCLE., MAN q
EATER--,
TEMPCONTR
r
If the APU is not available it may be possible
to connect the helicopter to an external ground
• OFF
-
I
.-----COND/ H VENT--"! conditioned air which is distributed throughout
rCO ID rH11l I r- CREW-----, the helicopter by the helicopter systems air
conditioning ducts.
--
FAN
HIGH ON
OFF FAN LOI'I
1SOV I • • • Max
;-NORMAL-\
IPAX-,rcc HIGH
--• OFF
\ \ FAll
011
5.6 FAIIL0\'1 v6 .1.2 Aircraft general knowledge
Air Conditioning 5
PAX
\ CLOSE_/
Figure 5.5

5 Air Conditioning
Air Conditioning Ducts Ventilation

The air ducts are made from: On small helicopters, the pilot simply opens the
window for ventilatio n. On larger helicopters ,
• Stainless steel for use with high pressure or ventilation is achieved using ram air intakes, and
high temperature air. ducting the air throughout the cockpit and cabin to
diffuser outlets and directional outlets commonly
• Light alloy for use with intermediate pressure
known as punkah louvers .
or temperature air.
• Plastic or fibreglass for use with low pressure

or temperature air.
If the air pressure in the high-pressure duct drops

an amber warning light will illuminate, as this can
indicate a burst duct.
System Protection
A shut off valve isolates the air conditioning
system from the engine in the event of
contamination or fire. To ensure that the
conditioned air is not delivered to the helicopter at
excessive pressures or temperatures , a pressure
reducing valve and temperature thermostat are
fitted in the inlet manifold to the air conditioning Figure 5.6
ducting.

Air Conditioning 5
Intentionally blank

5 Air Conditioning
06
Fuel Systems

0
Fuel Systems 6
This section considers the storage and delivery of fuel up to the engine
high-pressure pump or carburettor, the types of fuel, their grades and
characteristics and the regulations covering refuelling and defuelling.
Fuel Types Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS)

Aviation gasoline is graded according to its
The two types of fuel used in aviation are aviation octane rating; the higher the octane rating the
gasoline (AVGAS) for piston engines and aviation greater the resistance to detonation or knock.
kerosene (AVTUR) for turbine engines. Before
looking in detail at each fuel, it pays to look at Octane rating is expressed as two numbers, e.g.
some of the terms used. 100/130; the lower number corresponds with
the resistance to knock with a weak mixture, the
Volatility The ability of a liquid to change higher number with a rich mixture. The greater
into a vapour, it is affected by the fuel's resistance to detonation, the higher the
temperature, pressure and engine's working pressure can be. The fuel grade
surface area. is normally referred to by the first number, e.g.
100 grade.
Gas Pressure The ambient pressure above the
liquid fuel, which prevents the Gasoline has a high saturation vapour pressure
liquid changing into a vapour. A so is more volatile than jet fuel. It has low
fuel with a high vapour pressure freezing point (-60'C), a low flash point (-45'C),
will boil off at a lower altitude. and a specific gravity of 0.72.
Flash Point The lowest temperature at which Grades

there is sufficient vapour to
support a momentary flame. There are three grades of AVGAS in use, these
are:-
Fire Point The lowest temperature at which
there is sufficient vapour to a 80 grade. This is coloured RED for
support a continuous flame. identification and is used in older low powered
engines.
Auto Ignition The temperature at which the fuel
Temperature will self ignite. • 100 grade. This is coloured GREEN for
(AIT) identification and is used in higher-powered
engines.
Viscosity The resistance to flow, viscosity
increases with a decrease in The colour difference between these fuels
temperature. denotes octane rating.
Waxing Affects kerosene fuels, as the a 100 LL. This is coloured BLUE to identify
temperature drops the fuel takes that it is a low lead fuel, which is used in high
on the consistency of wax. powered engines to reduce fouling. 100 LL
is manufactured to DERD 2485 and has a
Freezing The temperature at which the last freezing point of approximately -60'C
Point crystal of frozen fuel melts.
The lead used in aviation gasoline is Tetra-ethyl
lead.

6 Fuel Systems
MOGAS added to suppress fungal growth and kill off

micro-organisms in the tanks.
Some lower powered piston engines are able
to legally operate on car fuel, motor gasoline - Wide Cut Fuels
MOGAS. It is prohibited for use in commercial
aviation. The general safety considerations that To overcome the ignition problem, older American
apply to helicopters with more than 25% MOGAS fuels used a mixture of 70% gasoline with 30%
in their tanks are: kerosene; this lowers the fire point. These are
referred to as wide cut or wide range distillates.
" Helicopters using MOGAS must not fly above
6000 ft. They must be treated as gasoline for safety
reasons. If a wide cut fuel is used in an engine
" Helicopters using MOGAS must not fly if the that has been set up for pure kerosene, then the
fuel tank temperature is 20'C or above. engine fuel control unit (FCU) must be adjusted
for the change in specific gravity. Wide cut fuels
" Helicopters using MOGAS are more likely to are not approved in EASA operated helicopters.
suffer carburettor icing and vapour locking,
due to increased volatility and water content. Wide cut fuels are:-
• Use of MOGAS can affect seals and " Jet B

hoses, so use of MOGAS is recorded in the
maintenance log. " JP 4
" AVTAG DERD 2486
Aviatiation Kerosene (AVTUR)
Wide cut fuels, being gasoline based, have a
Aviation kerosene has a specific gravity of 0.8. It freezing point of -60'C, so the freezing point
is generically known as AVTUR, aviation turbine for Jet A is at a higher temperature than that for
fuel. Jet B.
Kerosene has a low gas pressure so is less The flash point for Jet A is at a higher temperature
volatile than gasoline, it has a higher flash point than that for Jet B.
(60'C). The comparative disadvantages are that
the kerosene has a higher freezing point and it Gas Turbine Fuel Specifications
becomes viscous and waxy as it cools down.
Two organizations have taken the lead role
In order to lower the freezing point and to prevent in setting and maintaining specifications for
waxing, pure kerosene is mixed with additives to civilian aviation turbine fuel, the American
produce the two common jet fuels: JET A wh·lch Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
has a freezing point of -40'C; and the more the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence (MOD).
widely used JET A1 which has a freezing point of Many other countries issue their own national
-47'C. specifications for jet fuel which are very nearly,
or completely identical to either the ASTM or
Kerosenes range in colour from light straw to
MOD specifications. The two major jet fuel
clear.
specifications are:
Extra Additives " ASTM D 1655 The specification for two
kerosene-type fuels (Jet A and Jet A-1) and a
Most civilian helicopters have mechanisms to
wide-cut fuel (Jet B). Jet A is used for almost
heat the fuel to prevent ice crystals forming and
all domestic commercial aviation flights in the
blocking the filters. Some military helicopters
United States.
require fuel system icing inhibitors (FSII) to be
added to the basic fuel. These combine with " Defence Standard 91-91 The UK MOD
water particles in the fuel and prevent ice crystals specification for Jet A-1, which is used for
from forming. JET A1 with FSII is also used most civil aviation fuels outside the United
in rotor craft operations. Biocides can also be States, Russia and its former satellite states.

Fuel Systems 6
There are only minor differences between the lighter than rigid tanks , their main disadvantages
DEF STAN 91-91 Jet A-1 and ASTM D 1655 Jet are that they are easily punctured, ridges can also
A-1 specifications . form in the bottom trapping water.
Grade Labels Flexible fuel tanks are used in light

helicopters
Grade labels are used to identify equipment that
is used with specific fuels. Grade labels can be
Integral tanks are usual on large modern
painted on the sides of fuel bowsers (tankers) or
helicopters. They are made by sealing the
marked on a sleeve that is fitted around a fuel helicopter's structure to make the tank; this saves
pipe or refuelling hose. weight and allows the use of areas that would
otherwise not be practicable.
Grade Label Pipel ines
1
15 em 10cm10 cm 10cm 10cm 30cm Integral tanks are used in the wings of
II JET A1 I
10cm
-·-·-
JETA1
- large helicopters
Larger integral and rigid tanks incorporate baffles

to prevent the fuel sloshing about too much during
"
1em 0.5cm General pipeline colour manoeuvres .
15cm 10cm10cm 30cm
I AVGAS
-
100 LL
I
10cm
·- -
AVGAS
100 LL
Baffles are fitted in larger fuel tanks
Light Helicopter Systems

......
2.5 em 0.5 em
Figure 6.1 The fuel tanks in light helicopters are normally

located above the engine and use gravity feed to
The Mogas grade label will have a yellow stripe get the fuel to the carburettor.
in place of the blue stripe, the legend Mogas in
white on the red background.
Certification regulations require that helicopter

tanks are clearly marked near the refuelling point
with tank contents and fuel grade.
Fuel Tanks
Airframe fuel tanks can be of the rigid, flexible or
integral type.
Rigid tanks , usually made of aluminium a lloy or

composite materials but not forming part of the
helicopter structure, are used in light helicopters
and in some larger helicopters as fuselage tank s.
Their main disadvantage is the weight penalty.
Rigid fuel tanks are used in the fuselage

of large helicopters
Figure 6.2
Flexible tanks are rubber bags attached to the
helicopter structure by cords or buttons . Though

6 Fuel Systems
Vapour Locking Water drains are located at the lowest point of

the tank ; these allow a sample to be removed for
As helicopters fly higher the ambient pressure inspection before flight. Fitted around the fuel
drops , this allows the fuel to more easily change draw off pipe is a coarse gauze mesh filter or
state from a liquid to a vapour. If fuel changes finger screen to prevent large foreign objects from
into a vapour in a pipe, or if vapour enters a pipe, entering the supply system.
it can create a vapour lock which will reduce or
stop the flow of fuel.
Large Helicopter Systems
In order to prevent vapour locks, light helicopters
can use an auxiliary fuel pump to increase the Large helicopter fuel systems have more
fuel pressure in the pipe. regulatory requirements placed on them; this is
reflected in their design. Provision must be made
Venting to allow the fuel to continue to feed to the engines
in the event of system failures.
The tanks are vented to allow air to replace the
fuel as it is drawn off. A typical system is shown in figure 6.4. The
engines are supplied from their respective pumps
Most light helicopters tanks are vented to by two identical systems . Tank one supplies
atmosphere. Venting pipelines have a float engine one and tank two supplies engine two.
shut-off assembly, and are routed to the opposite The management of this system is automatic, with
side of the helicopter. This prevents post-crash a backup of a manual crossfeed.
spilling after rollover. The height and routing of
the pipeline prevents excessive spilling or fuel The fuel tanks in most modern helicopter are
collection during aircraft manoeuvres . located in the lower fuselage , with the combined
centre of gravity under the main rotor mast.
They are arranged to supp ly each engine whilst
Fuel Feed
maintaining the centre of gravity within limits.
Fuel is drawn off from a point above the bottom
If the tanks are of flexible construction , they will
of the tank to prevent sediment or water entering
be located on top of sump pads. These pads
the engine. This means not all the fuel in the
prevent the aircraft structure from rubbing against
tank can be used, the remainder is referred to as
the flexible material of the tank . The pads also
unusable fuel.
ensure that the tank maintains the correct shape,
therefore minimising unusable fuel.
There may be unusable fuel in the bottom
of a fuel tank
Finger screen
Water drain
Fuel draw off pipe
Figure 6.3

Fuel Systems 6
Pressure Pressure
transducer 1 transducer 2
X-feed valve
Pressure switch 1 Pressure switch 2
Flame
arrestor
Flame
Main Main arrestor
probe probe
Secondary
probe
Tank 1 Tank2
Booster Booster
Pump Pump
Water drain Water drain
valve valve
Figure 6.4
FuelTank Venting
Fuel tanks are vented to prevent excessive
positive or negative pressures damaging the
tanks.
The vents are fitted to the top of the tanks and

then routed out to atmosphere.
Vent lines can be fitted with flame arrestors

(figure 6.5), which prevent lightning travelling up
the vent lines to the fuel tanks.
Figure 6.5

6 Fuel Systems
Low Pressure Fuel Pumps Non-Return or Check Valves

On larger helicopters each fuel tank has two I Non return valves are shown as
I
111!1..
LP pumps, these may also be referred to as LP _... . an arrow in a box. They only allow
booster pumps. Booster pumps are low pressure fuel flow in the direction of the
centrifugal pumps, supplying the fuel at between arrow, so stop fuel flowing back into the tank if the
20 and 100 psi. The system is designed to deliver LP pumps are turned off.
more fuel than the engines require.
The pumps are electrica lly powered from the Suction or Bypass Valves
aircraft 's 115 V AC supply. Each pump in a pair is In normal use, the LP pumps ensure that the fuel
supplied from a different AC bus bar, so a single is pressurised up to the engine's high pressure
generator failure will only affect one pump in each pump (HP) in order to prevent vapour locks. If the
tank . Some helicopters operate DC fuel pumps. LP pumps fail suction or bypass valves allow the
LP fuel pumps are located in feeder boxes at HP pump to draw the fuel from the tank . This can
the bottom of the fuel tanks . The feeder boxes limit the power available from the engine .
have flapper valves that allow fuel into the box
but prevent the fuel flowing out as the aircraft is Bypass valves allow fuel to flow if the LP
manoeuvred. This ensures the pump is always pumps fail
submerged in fuel, even when the tank is nearly
empty, and prevents cavitation. A pressure sensor is fitted just before the engine
HP pump and activates a warning light in the flight
The fuel also cools and lubricates the pumps deck if inlet pressure to the pump is reduced.
during operation .
A water drain valve will be fitted in the sump,

From To engine
which is the lowest part of the tank.
HP pump
Flapper
valve To engine
(NRV) HP pump
LP pump
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.6
The Low Fuel Pressure Light

The LP fuel light indicates low
fuel pressure at the output of
each LP fuel pump, effectively
indicating the pump has been turned off or has
failed . The sensors are transducers or bellows,
depending on type.

Fuel Systems 6
Jet Pumps Crossfeed Valve

Jet pumps can be used to move large volumes of The crossfeed valve is used is to rectify a fuel
fuel within the fuel tank system from tank to tank imbalance between the tanks by feeding both
or to keep a booster pump box full of fuel. engines from the same tank, or to feed the
remaining engine from both tanks following an
They make use of the venturi principle, where engine failure.
a small volume of fuel ejected under pressure
passing through a venturi will draw with it a large It must be closed for take-off and is normally
volume of the fuel surrounding it. closed in flight. If it is necessary to correct a fuel
imbalance the crossfeed valve is opened by a
To booster pump box select ion on the fuel panel and the LP pumps in
the tank with less fuel are turned off.
I Fuel under pressure
Fuel sucked into pipe by From booster pump

pressurised jet of fuel
Figure 6.8
Helicopters tend to hover wit h one side lower than

the other, dependant on the direction of rotation of
the rotor. This means that at low fuel states, quite
a large percentage of the useable fuel can be in
the corner of the tank and therefore unusable.
A jet pump can be located at this section of the Figure 6.9
tank , moving this fuel to the collector box.
Engine Fuel Shutoff Valve Fuel Heating

One of the problems with jet fuels is that at
l
The engine fuel shutoff valve
'# •'filii'"" is DC operated from the hot temperatures below -40°C solid wax-like part icles
battery busbar. It shuts off LP begin to form. To counter both wax ing and the
fuel supply to the engine when either: possibility that water in the fuel could form ice
crystals that might block the low-pressure filters,
• The appropriate engine fire handle is pulled or jet aircraft systems usually heat the fuel at the
engines just before the fuel filters .
• The engine start lever is placed to CUTOFF.
Heating can be from oil/fuel heat exchangers that
When shut the associated indication on the fuel
use hot engine lubricating oil or from air/fuel heat
panel comes on.
exchangers which use hot engine bleed air. The
oil/fuel heat exchangers are called fuel cooled oil
coolers (FCOCs), they heat the fuel and cool the
oil.

6 Fuel Systems
Control of fuel temperature is usually automatic Fuel Contents Gauging

but can be manual in response to a warning lamp.
Fuel in fuselage tanks is not heated deliberately;
the problem here is usually keeping the fuel The range obtainable from a fuel depends on
temperature down. its calorific value, or energy content. For any
specific fuel the energy available depends on
fuel weight, it is more important to know the fuel
Ice Traps weight rather than the fuel volume.
Special filters, or ice traps can be fitted to the
Early helicopters used a mechanical float
fuel delivery lines between the fuel tanks and the
operating a mechanical gauge to give a
engines, to prevent any ice crystals in the fuel
volumetric indication of the tanks contents. This
reaching the engines.
is only accurate when the helicopter is level
and at a constant temperature. It is, however, a
Cockpit Indications cheap, simple and reliable system.
Helicopter crew are given some or all of the Resistive System

following indications:
In the resistor system the mechanical linkage is
• Fuel quantity- indicated either as volume or replaced with an electrical resistor and a gauge
weight. On older helicopters the contents of operated by DC. Any change in the fuel level
each tank or group of tanks was displayed causes the float arm to move a wiper across the
on individual gauges. Modern helicopters resistor, resulting in a varying signal being sent
use a totaliser gauge which shows either to the gauge. The system, although cheap and
the helicopter's total fuel load, or the load in simple, is again limited as it only gives indication
selected tanks. There is also a separate fuel of volume, indications can fluctuate when the
low level warning system. helicopter is manoeuvring.
• Fuel temperature- this is more important A major drawback for volumetric indication is that
for turbine engined helicopters due to the the fuel contracts when it is cold and expands
likelihood of the kerosene becoming waxy. when it is hot, so a variation in temperature alters
the contents reading. This effect is particularly
• Fuel flow- indicated as pressure, weight per noticeable on the first flight of the day. If the
hour, volume per hour or as a percentage of helicopter were filled up the night before the fuel
power. Informs the crew about the engines would have been dense. As the temperature
fuel consumption. rises and the fuel expands it occupies a larger
volume and can vent on to the manoeuvring area.
• Filter light- illuminates when the fuel filter
starts to block or clog. Fuel weight can be obtained from fuel quantity,
if the specific gravity (SG) is known. This can
be calculated, or there may be an adjustable SG
compensator in the gauging system.

Fuel Systems 6
The Capacitance System submerged , measures the actua l capac itance for
the fuel in the ta nk. This data allows the gauge to
The capacitance system eliminates this problem convert the output from volume to mass of fuel.
by effectively weighing the fuel on board and Several tube units are located in each tank wired
displaying the quantity of fuel as a mass or in parallel for redundancy. Any change in density
weight. will still affect the volume in the tank, but the
mass or weight displayed will be the same.
Capacitance systems are preferred as If there is water in the tank it wi ll lie at the bottom
they indicate fuel mass not volume and cover the reference unit. Pure wate r has a
co-effic ient of capacita nce eighty times that of air
The capacitance unit or capacitor consists of and forty times that of fuel. The gauging system
three concentr ic tubes one inside the other. The interprets this as a massive calorific value and
outer tube is an earth screen, the inner tube at shows the contents off the scale at maximum.
low potential and the innermost at high potential.
In figure 6.9 the earth screen has been omitted
If there is water in the tank it will read full
for clarity. The general term for a substance
between the plates of a capacitor is dielectric , the scale full
dielectrics here are fuel and air. As fuel has
roughly twice the capacitance of air, the amount Fuel gauges only indicate the usable fuel and
of capacitive reactance indicates how much of the electr ically operated gauges will always go to
tube is covered by fuel , this is a volume zero when the power is removed, or if the system
measurement. fails.
Fuel has twice the capacitance of air Fuel gauges always read zero after failure
Fuel, however, has a different capacitance for Electrical gauges can work through a ratiometer
different densities , the capacitance increases as or a galvanomete r. Both need external power, the
density increases. The reference unit, which is in ratiometer will read correctly if power fluctuates,
the unusable fuel and therefore always remains the galvanom eter will not.
Simplified capacitance· tank circuit
To
gauge
Figure 6.9

6 Fuel Systems
Manual Measuring Systems Fuel Flow Gauging

Although modern helicopters have sophisticated Fuel flow can be used to monitor the performance
fuel computers and capacitance systems, fuel of a jet engine. Fuel flow integrated over time
reconciliation checks on the ground require some is used for comparison with the fuel quantity
basic old-fashioned methods . Two examples of gauging system , as an indication of fuel used.
these are drip sticks and magnetic sticks.
Fuel flow can be measured either as a volume
Drip Stick flow or a mass flow. Of the two, mass flow is
preferred as the calorific value of the fuel is
A drip stick consists of a hollow tube with a small proportional to its mass, not its volume . The flow
hole in the side just below the top, at the bottom meter is fitted after the HP cock , between the fuel
is a tap. When not in use the drip stick is locked control unit and the engine.
up. To take a reading the tube is drained , then
lowered until fuel starts to drip steadily from the
tap. This indicates the correct position for a Jet nozzles
reading to be taken from the junction of the stick
and the tank . If the hole is below the surface of
the fuel a steady stream of fuel will run from the
tap. Oil to fuel heat exchanger
From HP pump
Protective tube
Fuel
control
Drlpstlck unit
Figure 6.11
Read fuel quantity
Drip •
Figure 6.10
Magnetic Stick
The magnetic stick differs by using a float with a
permanent magnet located around a sealed tube,
inside the tube is a measuring stick again with a
magnet. The stick is unlocked and lowered until
the float supports the stick and the reading is
taken in the same manner as with the drip stick .

Fuel Systems 6
Fuel Jett isoning Refuelling

When fitted, jettison, or dump, systems operate Most helicopters are refuelled through filling
from the refuelling gallery pipe. Selecting fuel points at the top of the tanks. This is called
jettison opens a valve or valves and the fuel is gravity refuelling.
pumped out using the LP booster pumps. This
will allow a rapid reduction in helicopter mass by
discha rging fuel to atmosphere.
A jettison limit switch ensures that sufficient

fuel remains on board for an all engine climb at
maximum continuous power from sea level to
5000 ft and cruise for 30 minutes at maximum
range engine power. On some helicopters
this means that all of the fuel load, wit h the
exception of the supply tanks, may be discharged
overboard.
Occasionally an auxilia ry jettison control is fitted

to allow a second and separate selection to
continue the j ettison below these limits.
Figure 6.12
Other than in an emergency,jett isoning must not
be carried out below an altitude at which the fuel
will not evaporat e before hitting the ground, in Some large helicopters are ref uelled and
precipitation and over built up areas. de-fuelled via a single point where the f uel is
forced in under pressure, so it is called pressure
refuelling. The maximum pressure for this is
50 psi; the maximum suction for de-fuelling is
-5 psi.
The maximum pressure for pressure

refuelling is 50 psi
Pressure refuelling allows automatic operation,

where the amount of fuel to be added or de-
fuelled is pre-selected. The refuelling valve will
automatically close when the pre-set is achieved.
Tank sequencing can a lso be automatic . A
volumetric top off unit (VTO) will also close the
refuelling valve when the tank is full.

6 Fuel Systems
Fuel Sampling Water detecting paste or paper can be used. This

is attached to a rod and lowered into the fuel but
Fuel has to be checked , before the first flight kept clear of the bottom of the tank , it must not be
of each day, to ensure that it is free from kept in the fuel for more than 10 seconds . If water
contamination, from water and sediment. This is is present then the paper or paste will change
done by taking a sample of fuel from each tank in colour, normally to green.
turn. A clear container is used; the fuel must be
clear and bright. If a sample has any trace of contamination
the tank must be drained until all traces of
• Clear means that the sample is clear of contaminant are removed .
sediment, free of water or foreign matter such
as fungal growth. Refuelling Precautions
• Bright means that when the sample is held Refuelling is said to have started when the filler
up to the light it is a clear even colour - caps have been removed and continues until they
cloudiness can be caused by particles of are refitted.
water reflecting and refracting the light or
air. Air clears upward quickly, water clears A six metre radius refuelling zone is taken from
downward over a period of time - this water the open refuelling point/connection and any
is said to be in suspension , entrained or vents .
dissolved .
Helicopters are refuelled before standing
overnight to prevent condensation forming in the
tanks, full tanks present a fire risk, empty tanks
present an explosion risk.
bubbles ..... Before refuelling starts the helicopter must be
bonded to earth and to the refuelling equipment .
Air 0 . •• 0
0
Fuel
....
0 o.
o • •o
0
Sediment Water in suspension
Figure 6.13
If doubt exists over a sample of kerosene, which

could be pure water, place a small quantity of
water into a clear tube and mark its meniscus
then add the sample to be checked . If the sample
is water then the meniscus will move up the
container, if it was fuel then the water and fuel will
separate and there will be a meniscus between
the two.

Fuel Systems 6
07
Ice and Rain Protection

Any ice formation can be dangerous to helicopters as it will increase the

weight of the helicopter, increase the profile drag, reduce the lift by altering
the blade profile and reduce thrust if engine icing is experienced. Areas of
the helicopter where ice formation would adversely affect the handling of the
helicopter are known as critical areas.
Ice protection is necessary for: uncontaminated area. On take-off, the crew

should be aware of the possibility of one skid
111 Main and tail rotor blades being stuck to the ground resulting in a dynamic
rollover.
111 Windscreens
EU-OPS prohibits a pilot from starting a flight
111 Detector probes (pitot etc.)
under known or expected icing conditions unless
111 Carburettors the helicopter is certificated and equipped to cope
with such conditions.
111 Drain masts
Not all helicopters require all of this protection. In Flight Icing Conditions
The amount of protection will depend on the type
of helicopter, and the operational environment. In flight icing conditions are categorised by the
amount of ice that forms and the speed at which it
EU OPS Requirements forms into light, moderate and severe.
Icing conditions are said to exist in flight if the

EU-OPS states: A helicopter should not take off TAT is below +10°C, either with visible moisture
with the airframe contaminated by ice or snow in the air or if the visibility is below 1500 m. Ice
that could be ingested into the engine intake, detection systems will warn that icing conditions
block other intakes or cause damage to the rotor have been encountered. Many systems work
and drive system. Similarly rotor blades should better if they are selected on before icing is
not be contaminated in any way that could affect encountered.
their performance. If a helicopter is to be parked
in the open in cold weather and is likely to be
exposed to snow or rain, engine blanks (intake
Types of Icing
and exhaust) airframe, rotor, canopy and pitot/
Frost or Hoar Frost
static covers should be fitted. Instructions for
such cold weather procedures should be found in Frost on the ground forms mainly at night as the
the helicopter's Flight and Maintenance Manuals. heat radiates from the earth. In flight frost or
hoar frost forms when a cold airframe descends
Whereas for aeroplane operations use of de-
through warm air. It is most persistent on cold
icing or anti-icing fluids is a common practice,
soaked helicopters on the ground in conditions of
this is not the case with helicopters. Use of such
high relative humidity.
fluids may only take place in accordance with the
helicopter manufacturer's specific instructions. Runback Icing.+10 to -3°C
Alternative methods such as hangaring the
helicopter until the snow and ice have cleared are This forms in flight when warmer rain hits a cold
more common practices. airframe. The helicopter's speed is sufficiently
high to prevent it freezing on impact, so the water
If snow and ice is lying on the ground, there may runs back and freezes as a clear glaze.
be a risk of the helicopter yawing on rotor start
or stop due to torque reaction. Consideration
should be given to moving the helicopter to an

7 Ice and Rain Protection
Glaze or Clear Ice. -3 to -8°C warning light and activates a heater within the rod.
This melts the ice so the rod returns to its 40 KHz,
This forms all over the airframe as a clear glaze. extinguishing the warning light until ice forms on
Supercooled water droplets impact the surface, it again. If the light remains on constantly the ice
a small part freezes and releases latent heat, the detector is faulty.
remainder runs back and forms what is known in
Meteorology as clear ice.
Pressure Operated Detectors
If supercooled water falls as rain it forms clear
A pressure operated detector uses an aerofoil
ice on the airframe in the same way as it does in
cross section tube protruding into the airflow.
flight. This is called freezing rain.
Several small holes are let into the leading edge ,
Rime Ice. Below -8 oc there are fewer and smaller holes in the trailing
edge. This forms a pitot static system in which
This is formed where super cooled rain droplets the pitot (ram) air pressure holds a relay open.
hit the airframe and freeze on impact trapping the
air. It has a milky white appearance .
Mixed Icing •I
This forms as a combination of both rime and

glaze ice making an opaque surface. This
happens when the helicopter is at an intermediate
temperature between the glaze and rime figures .
Heater
element
Ice Detection Airflow --+
Detector
tube
Ice detection systems only warn that icing has
been encountered . The frequency of the warning
will indicate the severity of the conditions. Figure 7.2
Vibrating Rod Systems In icing conditions the holes on the leading edge
ice up before those on the trailing edge, this
VIbrating rod ice detector head causes the pitot air pressure to fall, allowing the
static pressure to close the relay and give an icing
warning . At the same time power is applied to the
heater element causing it to heat and melt the ice,
so the ram air pressure is re-established and the
relay broken, de-activating the ice warning light.
Serrated Rotor Systems

The serrated rotor system uses an electric motor
to turn a rotor that has grooves cut in to it. The
rotor turns next to a fixed knife. As ice forms on
the rotor the knife cuts it off. Because the motor
Ice detector
is flexibly mounted it moves under the torque
reaction, which switches on the ice detection light.
Figure 7.1
The most modern system is the vibrating rod,

which is mounted on the outside of the helicopter.
The rod is vibrated at 40 KHz. When ice forms on
the rod, it slows down , which illuminates the ice

system can be isolated in the event of excess

Mounting
temperature before structural damage is done.
assembly
Heated mats are occasiona lly used fo r airframe
anti-icing but only on small areas .
Knife-edge Engine Anti-Icing and De-Icing

cutter
Piston Engines
Rotor The carburettor throat is prone to icing. This is
explained in the piston engine section.
Fuselage
Whenever carburettor icing is likely the pilot
Figure 7.3 manually selects an alternative air source which
uses hot air drawn from a heat exchanger
wrapped around the exhaust system.
Hot Rod Systems
The hot rod or black rod is the oldest system, Gas Turbine Engine Intakes
only giving a visual indication that icing conditions
Most light turbine helicopters are equipped w ith
exist. A n aerofoil section rod is mounted below
an engine anti-icing system. This can be in the
the pilot side screen angled back. The rod is
form of electr ically heated mats , using hot engine
painted black and contains a heater element ,
oil by situating the oil tank around the front of the
when ice forms on the rod the pilot can heat it
engine, or engine bleed air.
removing the ice, then observe and time how
quickly it takes the ice to reform. A light that The engine bleed air system is controlled by an
illuminates the rod allows the pilot to use the electrically operated valve, and directs hot bleed
system at night. air to the intake of the compressor, to prevent ice
accumulation on the front frame. This system
Airframe Anti-Icing and De-Icing does not have a de-ice capability and should be
activated whenever the temperature is 4 degrees
celsius or less in vis ible moisture to prevent ice
Ice build-up can be dealt with either by anti-icing accumulation.
systems, which prevent ice accretion, or by de-
icing systems which remove ice build-up from the The use of engine anti-icing reduces engine
airframe and engine intakes. Some systems do performance partly because the bleed air is taken
bot h. off the side of the engine and partly because
introducing warm air into the inlet reduces mass
Thermal Systems flow . Many manufacturers conside r that the
penalty is minimal and give no perfo rmance
Therma l systems, as the name suggests, heat correction figures .
the area requiring ice protection. The heat is
normally provided by electrically heated mats or
hot bleed air.
Piston engines use wa rm air for de-icing of the

carburettor.
Modern jet helicopters can use thermal anti-icing

systems for the intakes.
Hot air systems require a shut off valve and

temperature overheat sensor so that the

Rotor Anti-Icing and De-Icing

The rotor ice protection system (RIPS) uses
heated elements to control the build-up of ice on
the main and tail rotor blades.
Main rotor blades use de-icing. The heater

elements on the main rotor blades operate in a
cycle to remove ice from the blades. The heating
cycle is determined by the liquid water content
(LWC) and outside air temperature (OAT).
The electrical power is transferred from the static

supply to the rotating blades via a slip ring and
brushes.
The principle of operation is to allow limited

amounts of ice to form on the blade, when heat
is applied, ice immediately in contact with the
surface melts. freeing the bulk of the ice to be
shed in the airst ream. Corresponding heater
elements on each blade, or pair of blades, are
energised as part of a timed sequence to provide
symmetrica l shedding of ice. This means that all
blades may not be heated at the same time.
Tail rotor blades use anti-icing. The heater

elements on the tail rotor blades operate when
OAT falls below zero degrees to prevent ice
forming on the blades. The electrical power is Figure 7.4
again transferred from the static supply to the
rotating blades via a slip ring and brushes.
Cockpit Indications
For some helicopters the rotor de-icing system
works at only one speed when selected on and
an indication of operation is given by a dedicated
ammeter needle dropping to a null (zero) as it
switches from one heater mat to another. When
heating the blades the ammeter needle should
indicate within a marked range on the gauge.
On modern helicopters , indication of operation is

on the control panel. Figure 7.4 shows a typical
panel.

Windscreen Protection Electric heating mats are usually powered by

three phase AC. They are thermostatically
controlled to keep the windows at a temperature
of around 35°C. A green light shows when the
Windscreen De-Icing heaters are being powered. The mats also
The windscreens directly in front of the two ensure that the windscreen is bonded electr ically
pilots on large transport aircraft are continuously to the airframe. It is often possible to select the
electrically heated, figure 7.5. Heating the heating to HIGH or LOW power. The normal
windscreen not only anti-ices it and provides setting would be LOW, with HIGH selected only
a measure of de-misting , but also makes it with visib le icing. LOW should also be selected
more malleable, so improving its resistance to initially to reduce the thermal shock.
impact and structural integrity. For this reason
inoperative windscreen heating can be a no- Windscreen De-Misting
go item or may restrict the aircraft speed and
altitude. A fan is provided to blow air up onto the front
windows for rapid de-misting.
Helicopter windscreens do not suffer from the
same problems, as they normally operate at much
lower altitudes and speeds. Some helicopters do
however have electrically heated windscreens for
de-icing purposes. Unlike transport aircraft , they
are only selected on when required.
Selector
Power switch
relay
Heating element
Selector
switch
Temperature
sensing elements
Indicator
lamp
Figure 7.5

Windscreen Wipers
Helicopters are fitted with wipers to remove rain
from the windscreen.
The wipers can operate at slow or fast speeds.
Figure 7.6
Pitot and Static Vent Heating

Pitot tubes are provided with electrical heating,
which is switched on by the pilot as required.
Static vents may have electrical heating,
depending on helicopter type.
The pitot heat system will have warning lights to

show if the heating element or power supply has
failed.

08
Basic Electrical Theory
In order to understand the flow of electricity we need to start by looking

at the construction of atoms- the basic building units for all materials. An
atom consists of a nucleus in the centre which contains equal numbers of
positively charged protons and neutrally charged or uncharged neutrons.
These are surrounded by an equal number of orbiting electrons which are
negatively charged.
An electrical current occurs in a conducting
• ••• ••• •• • •
material such as metal or carbon, when an
excess of electrons is induced into the circuit by .............................................................................
a battery or generator. These excess electrons

push out existing electrons from adjacent atoms,
these displaced electrons push out electrons in
the next atom - and so on, setting up a flow of Figure 8.2
electrons all the way down the wire.
This action is almost immediate but the actual
movement of a single ball or atom is small. It
does not matter how long the tube is, the result
will always be the same. An electric current
moves at approximately 3500 miles per second
and it would take about 7 seconds for an
electrical pulse to travel around the world.
Figure 8.1
The flow of electricity is virtually
instantaneous
The flow of electricity is therefore the flow of Electricity is able to flow through most metals,
electrons from negative to positive. Unfortunately, carbon and water. These are known as
before the process had been completely conductors . Materials which do not allow a flow
understood, a convention had been adopted to of electrons, such as rubber, plastic and glass are
regard the flow as being in the other direction. known as insulators.
Thus it is important to distinguish between the
convention, positive to negative, and the reality,
Conductors allow the flow of electricity,
negative to positive.
insulators do not
Electricity flows from negative to positive Some substances w ill allow a flow of electricity in
but by convention is shown the other way one direction only under certain conditions, acting
round as a conductor one way and an insulator the
other. These are semi-conductors . Semi-
One way of considering how the movement of conductors in their natural state act as insulators.
electrons becomes an electric current is to liken
them to ball bearings in a tube, as shown below.
Semi-conductors in their natural state are
If a ball bearing is pushed into the tube on the left
all the balls in the tube will be moved along one insulators
and the ball bearing at the other end will fall out.
Aircraft general knowledge v6.1. 2 8.1

8 Basic Electrical Theory
Electrical Circuits Alternative terms include electrical pressure , E,

potential difference or voltage .
A source generating electricity such as a battery

Electrical potential is measured in volts
or generator must be connected to both the 'out'
and 'in' side of an electrica l system - it cannot
push out more electrons, unless the generating The flow of electrons is called the current and is
source is supplied with new ones . In the ball measured in amps for which the symbol is A .
bearing analogy more ball bearings would need Current is referred to in formulae with the letter I.
to be provided to keep the flow going. A circuit For example , the statement 'the current is six
must therefore be closed with the returning amps' could be written as I = 6A.
electrons supplying the generating source with a
new supply. Figure 8.3 shows the components Current is measured in amps
of a simple electric circuit and a circuit diagram
with the relevant electrical symbols . There is a In an electric circuit the conductors and electrical
battery, conductors (wires), an on/off switch and a components resist the current flow. The
light bulb (the load). resistance to electrical flow is measured in ohms.
Resistance in formulae is represented by the
A circuit must be formed to allow the letter R and the symbol for ohms is n. 'The
electricty to flow resistance is eight ohms' becomes R = 8n.
Resistance Resistance is measured im ohms

load
A relationship exists between current, voltage and

resistance . The higher the voltage for a given
resistance the higher the current, the higher the
resistance for a given voltage the lower the
current. This can be expressed as a formula
------ ---------- known as Ohm's law,
Switch
+ V= I R
The formula can also be turned around to read:

v v
I=- orR= -
Resistance load R I
Figure 8.3 This diagram is a simple way of remebering ohm's
law. To find current, I, cover it up and you are left
It can be seen from the electrical diagram that with V over R, to find voltage, V, cover it up and
with the switch open as shown , the electrons you are left with IR, to find resistance , R, cover it
cannot flow back to the battery, the switch is up and you are left with V over I.
'open circuit' and the light bulb will not illuminate.
Closing the switch (closed circuit), will com plete
the circuit and the electrons will flow around the
illuminating the bulb. A closed circuit is said to
have 'continuity'. An open circuit has loss of
continuity and the loads will not work .
The build-up of electrons in a battery which

causes the current to flow is called the electro-
motive force (emf), this is measured in volts for
which the symbol is V.

We can ask questions which can be answered Ser ies and Parallel Circuits
using this formula ,
Resistors in a circuit behave differently depending
Example: on how they are co nnected. If they are connected
one after the other, in series, they behave as
The current in a circuit is 2A and the resistance is
one big resistor and the total resistance can be
60. What is the voltage drop?
found simply by adding all the little individual
Solution: resistances together.
v = IX R
Resistors in series add together
= 2X6
= 12V
Example:
The voltage of a circuit is 1.5 V and the resistance

is 0.50. What is the current? 10 20 30
Solution:
= V +R
Figure 8.4
= 1.5 + 0.5
= 3A
In figure 8.4 the total resistance is 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
Resistors ohms. Notice that the total resistance is greater
than any individual resistance.
All materials resist the flow of electricity to some
You might recall that in our first example we said
extent. Even conductors, such as copper wire,
a 12V circuit with a resistance of 6 ohms would
can be made into resistors by making the wire
have current of 2A. We can test that by applying
very thin. Resistance can also be increased by
a current of 2A to the resistances above and
increasing the length of a wire , double the length
checking the voltage drop across each resistor
and you double the resistance.
for the fir st one voltage drop = 2 x 1 = 2 v
The resistance of a wire depends on its for the second , the drop = 2x2 = 4v
thickness and length for the third, the drop = 2x 3 = 6v+
and the total = 12 v

Most metallic resistors are also sensitive to
temperature, resista nce increasing as Cheap party lights have the bulbs connected in
temperature increases, although carbon and series. The problem is that, although the wiring is
non-metallic insulators behave in the opposite simple, a failure of any single bulb breaks the
way. This change in resistance with temperature circuit and all the lights go out. Each bulb then
is used in aircraft systems for temperature has to be tested in turn to find the one that fai led.
measurement , and for the control of cabin Series circuits are seldom used for aircraft
heating. electrical systems.
As well as the conductors in the circuit any In series the total resistance is always
electrical device, such as lights or a motor will bigger than any individual resistance
create a resistance to current flow. Sometimes
special resistances are placed in the circuit to
alter current flow. These resistors may have a
fixed or variable value.

In parallel the total resistance is always

less than any individual resistance
For a 12 V circuit with a total resistance of 0.546

ohms the current would be
= V+ R
= 12 + 0.546
Figure 8.5 = 22A
A parallel circuit with only two resistors can use

A better way of wiring lights is to have a supply
an alternative formula derived from the first to find
wire and a return wire and to connect each bulb
the total resistance
between the wires, as shown in figure 8.5. This
is called placing the bulbs or, to use the more = R, X R,
general term, loads in parallel.
R, + R 2
Now the failure of any single bulb leaves the rest
of the circuit unaffected and the failed bulb can be Power
identified.
When a current flows through a resistor it
Curiously, the resistance of the circuit is no generates heat, sometimes so intense that it is
longer the sum of the individual resistors, 60. visible as light, as in the case of our party lights.
Resistance in a parallel circuit is found by the This heat is work done or power lost in the circuit.
formula, The power is measured in watts, for which the
symbol is W, and can be found from the formula:
::::.::- +- + Power = IV
R, Rz
or, putting it more clumsily in words, the inverse of that is to say the product of current and voltage.
the total resistance is the sum of the inverses of As we already know that V = IR we can replace
the individual resistances. the V in the formula with IR to find an alternative
and more common expression:
The inverse of the total resistance is the Power = 12 R
sum of the inverses of the individual
resistances Thus, if we go back to our very first example
where the current was 2 A and the resistance 6 n
Now we can do the maths for our circuit, we can find that the power lost in the circuit was
1 1 1 Power = 12 R
= - + -+ - = 22 X 6
Rtotal 1 2 3
= 24 watts
= 1 + 0.5 + 0.33
It is useful to note that, as power lost is the
= 1.83 product of the square of the current and the
resistance, it would make sense to reduce the
= 1 + 1.83 current and increase the voltage if we wanted to
= 0.546 Ohms reduce the power loss over a fixed resistance.
This is why the overhead power lines have a very
In parallel circuits the total resistance is always high voltage, some 500 000 V, which is reduced
less than the smallest value of any individual to a lower voltage before it reaches our houses;
resistance. it reduces power loss in transmission. The
opposite is also true, more power is lost in high
current conditions.

Meters An aircraft's supply voltage is kept constant. As

the loads or resistances are switched on and
off the current flow w ill change. Ammeters are
Ammeters , which indicate current, and voltmeters, sometimes called load meters because they
which indicate emf, are very similar in operation. indicate the load in the circuit .
Both detect current flow using a coil moving in
a magnetic field , the difference is that whereas Ammeters may have the needle in the centre to
ammeters are wired in series with the circuit show current in either direction or may have the
and have a very low resistance , voltmeters are needle resting on the left to show total current
wired in parallel and have a very high resistance, flow in one direction only. These two types are
figure 8.6. known as zero centre and zero left ammeters.
Both ammeters and voltmeters detect

current
This means that the current through the voltmeter

varies very little as the main circuit resistances
change. Although the voltmeter detects current it
is calibrated in volts.
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.6

The Electric Field

An accumulation of electrons creates a static
charge on a body, static because it is not moving.
The unit of charge is a coulomb, roughly equal to
6.21 x 1018 electrons.
Direction of an electric field
Figure 8.8
A static charge influences the area around it, a

negative charge would attract positively charged
objects and vice versa, it produces an electrical
field. The Sl units of electric field strength are
Newton's per coulomb or volts per meter.
The direction of the field is taken to be the

direction of the force it would exert on a positive
test charge , in other words it goes out of a
positive charge and into a negative.
The unit of electrical charge is the

coulomb
The coulomb provides a definition for the amp. A

charge of one coulomb flowing past a point in one
second represents one amp.

09
Direct Current Electrics

Everything we have considered so far applies to both direct current (DC)

circuits where current flows in only one direction and alternating current (AC)
circuits where it washes backwards and forwards. Now we are going to
consider DC circuits in more detail.
DC circuits have the advantage of simplicity and Primary Cells

DC electricity has the advantage that it can be
stored ready for use when required in a battery.
The simplest helicopters will have only DC Positive terminal
supplies, although most have bot h DC and AC.
Direct current can be obtained from batteries, Wax seal
from DC generators or from AC generators
(alternators), through a rectifier which converts
ACto DC.
Ammonium
chloride
electrolyte
Batteries
Batteries store electricity to allow it to be used Zinc case acts as
when required. They are made up of a number of negative terminal
cells each of which consists of two plates of
different material, separated by a liquid or gel
electrolyte solution. The chemica l action of the Figure 9.1
electrolyte on the different plates erodes or
changes the material allowing an electron flow In a primary cell the positive plate is carbon and
from one to the other, making one terminal the ammonium chloride gel electrolyte is encased
negat ively charged and the other positive. in a zinc shell, which also acts as the negative
plate. This is a normal torch battery as shown in
Batteries store electric ity using chemical figure 9.1. A primary cell produces 1.5 volts.
reactions
A primary cell produces 1.5 volts

The voltage provided by an individual cell
depends on the material of the plates and the Because they cannot be recharged prima ry cells
particular chemical used. have a limited application on helicopters.
Batteries can be made up of either primary or
seconda ry cells. A primary cell is one where the Primary cells are not rechargeable
chemical action on the plates eventually ceases
as does the production of a voltage. Primary
cells cannot be recharged where as a secondary
cell can.
In a secondary cell battery the chemica l process

is reversible by applying a voltage slightly higher,
about 112%, of the battery voltage and producing
current flow back into the battery.
The recharging voltage is 112% of battery

voltage

9 Direct Current Electrics
Secondary Cells
There are two types of secondary cell batteries
used on helicopters. The lead acid battery, just
like a car battery, is used on smaller helicopters.
Many modern helicopters are fitted with nickel
cadmium (NiCad) batteries.
Secondary cells are rechargeable
Lead Acid Batteries

The traditional lead acid secondary cell has a
lead peroxide positive plate and a Lead negative
plate with a dilute sulphuric acid electrolyte. The Figure 9.3
plates and electrolyte are contained in a plastic or
hard rubber case. A level of fluid is drawn into a glass tube of
the hydrometer and the value of SG is read off
The voltage of a fully charged lead acid cell with
against a scale indicated by a 'float' within the
no loads on it is 2.2 volts. If t he cell is then
tube. Fully charged it should be between 1.25
connected to a circuit with a load t he voltage wi ll
and 1.30, a low state of charge is 1.20 to 1.24 and
drop to 2 volts. This is called the on load voltage.
fully discharged is 1.17.
Lead acid batteries give 2.2 volts per cell If a lead acid battery is left discharged for a long
period of time , the sulphation of the plates makes
the battery unserviceable . Lead acid batteries
cannot be stored in a discharged state, they need
to be maintained and regularly recharged.
There are a number of reasons why lead acid

Lead (PbO) batteries are not always used on modern
negative helicopters. They are:
plate
• They are heavier than NiCad batteries.
Lead peroxide
• Acid is corrosive and will damage the
(Pb304)
positive plate helicopter if it is spilt.
Sulphuric
acid • The voltage reduces over time.
• The charge rate is slow.

Figure 9.2
Nikel Cadmium (NiCad) Batteries
As the battery discharges the sulphuric acid turns Alkaline or NiCad batteries have a nickel
both plates to lead sulphate, the strength of the cadmium positive plate and an Iron negative plate
acid reduces and the voltage of the cell drops. with a potassium hydroxide gel electrolyte. This
The only way to positively determine the state of type of battery is lighter and stronger than lead
charge of a lead acid battery is to measure the acid batteries, has longer life but costs more
specific gravity (SG) of the electrolyte. This is and only produces 1.3 volts off load or 1.2 volts
done with an instrument called a hydrometer . on load per cell. They do, however, produce a
relatively constant voltage as they discharge.

The advantages of NiCad batteries are:
• They have a wider temperature operating

range.
• They hold a constant voltage until almost

completely discharged.
• They don't spill acid.
• The charge rate is fast.

Figure 9.4
• They can be stored discharged.
• Sturdiness due to their metal casings. You should also be aware that battery
performance reduces in cold weather. In
The one real problem with NiCad batteries is that extremely cold weather as their interna l
if they are recharged too quickly their temperature resistance increases their current flow reduces .
rises. This reduces the internal resistance which, Lead acid batter ies are affected more than
in turn , leads to an increase in current flow. This NiCads.
increases the temperature again and the cycle
continues until the battery electrolyte boils and Battery performance reduces in cold
the battery is damaged . This is called thermal weather
runaway.
Too rapid a recharge can lead to thermal Charging

runaway
The primary source of DC voltage on helicopters
comes from engine driven generators. These
Thermal runaway does also occur in lead acid produce either 14 or 28 volts DC, 112% of the
batteries but it is less commo n and less severe. battery voltage. If connected to the battery the
generators will cause a flow of current into the
Battery Checking battery, revers ing the chemical process and
constantly recharging the cells.
As a pilot you will not be involved in checking the
charge of a battery with a hydrometer. Instead To reduce the chances of thermal runaway NiCad
you will use the helicopter voltmeter to compare batter ies are recharged through a constant
the off load and on load voltage of the battery. A current charging device, this prevents the current
known or rated load is applied to the battery and rising if the internal resistance falls.
the voltmeter monitored for about 15 seconds
during which the rated voltage of the battery Sensing devices may also cut off the charging
should be maintained, figure 9.4. If the battery power:
is almost fully discharged the voltage will drop
• When the battery charge is deemed
during this time under load. If one cell within a satisfactory.
battery is dead, the voltage will either be reduced
or zero. • When there is a battery overheat condition.
• In case of a battery internal short circuit.
Battery Ratings & Connections

Helicopter battery voltages are either 12 or 24
Volts DC. To achieve these values a number of
cells are connected in series within the battery.
A battery is rated by its voltage and its capacity

to provide a certain value of current for an hour. Single Pole or Dipole?

This is called its amp/hour rate.
You will recall that, for electricity to flow , a closed
A battery might then be described , for example, circuit connecting the outlet and return to the
as 12 V and having a 50 amp hour capacity. This electrical power source is required. Wooden
means it operates at 12 vo lts to supply 1 amp for aircraft require wires to and from the batteries to
50 hours, 2 amps for 25 hours or 50 amps for one the electrical systems to complete the circuit ,this
hour. Connecting a number of batteries either is called a dipole or two pole system . Metal
in series or parallel affects the total voltage and helicopters make use of the structure for the
capacity . return connection , this is a single pole, or earth
return system with the negative terminal of the
+-- Parallel12 Volts - battery connected to earth. Figure 9.6 illustrates
the two systems, the G symbo l represents a
generator wired in parallel with the batteries .
Modern helicopters use a single pole,

negative earth system
+
+
G
A dipole system
Figure 9.5 +
+
Batteries connected in series give same current G
but total of all the voltages . In the lower diagram
in figure 9.5 the total voltage would be 36 volts
and if the three batteries were all individually 50
l
amp hour models then we would still have 50 amp
hours. A single pole (earth return) system
Batteries connected in parallel give the same Figure 9.6

voltage and the same current but the total of the
individual's capacity. Thus the three 12 V 50 amp
hour batteries in the top diagram in figure 9.5 The single pole system has the advantage
would give 12 V but 150 amp hours. The of cutting out half the required wiring , but the
increased amp hour rate capacity and lower disadvantage that chafed wires can shor t to earth
voltage is preferred so helicopter batteries are disabling systems and creating a fire risk.
connected up in parallel.
Aircraft batteries are wired in parallel to

increase the capacity

Busbars Electricity and Magnetism

Rather than being connected to individual
systems as in a car, helicopter batteries and
generators are usually connected to a busbar, a
heavy copper bar, and the systems or loads are
in turn connected to that. Each load typically
has one connection to the busbar and another to
earth, this means they are wired in parallel and
failure of one component should not affect the
supply to another.
Busbars are used to distribute power
An ammeter between the battery and the busbar

indicates whether the battery is either discharging
as it powers the busbar or being charged by the
generator, figure 9.7. A helicopter may have more
than one busbar to distribute the electrical power. Figure 9.8
A permanent magnet is surrounded by a magnetic

field which can be indicated with iron filings,
figure 9.8. We can produce the same effect
with electricity as it flows through a conducto r to
create an electromagnet. The advantage of an
electromagnet is that, because the current can be
controlled, the strength of the magnet can also be
controlled. Increasing current flow increases the
magnetic field.
The Corkscrew Rule

Lines of magnetic force around a wire carrying an
electrical current will rotate in the same direction,
Figure 9.7 as a corkscrew which is moving in the direction of
the current. This means a current carry ing wire
has a circular magnetic field around it.
Figure 9.9

If the wire is looped again and again to create a Solenoids

coil, then the resulting magnetic field increases in
strength and the field around the electromagnet
will be like that shown in figure 9.10. Increasing As children we have all played with magnets and
the number and thickness of the coils increases know that the north and south poles of a magnet
the strength of the field . are attracted to their opposite pole but repelled
by a like pole. If the iron core is not central within
/
..... - --
.--··.--
the coil when the current to the electromagnet is
switched on, it will be attracted to the centre of
the coil. This movement of the core allows the
"" / .,.... ..
//-:.-
/.-
electromagnet to be used to move switches and
valves . In this form it is called a solenoid.
Spring Moving core
Actuator link
Coli
Figure 9.10 ON
Figure 9.12
To finally improve the electromagnet we insert a
soft iron core to concentrate the inner field. Now
we have a strong controllable magnet , figure 9.11. Solenoids are often used to control hydraulic
and pneumatic valves. The solenoid shown
in figure 9.12 is being used to move a valve
actuator. When current is applied to the coil
windings, the core is drawn into the coil against
spring pressure, moving the actuator link. When
the current is cut, spring pressure returns the
actuator to its original position. Solenoids can be
designed to hold valves or switches either closed
or open in the event of power failure. They are
low torque devices.
Solenoids operate very low torque valves

and switches
Figure 9.11 Dolls-Eye Indicators

Electromagnets can also be used to control
dolls-eye magnetic indicators, figure 9.13. When
current is applied to the electromagnet it attracts
a permanent magnet in the indicator, causing
it to rotate against spring pressure. When
off, the white side of the dolls-eye shows to
attract attention. Magnetic indicators have the
advantage of not being as fragile as bulbs and are
typically used to indicate rotary actuator positions .

Motors
We have seen that passing a current through
a wire creates a magnetic field that can in turn
be used to make soleno ids and relays move,
what we have yet to discover is how to create
continuous motion, in other words a motor.
A rotatable coil of wire with a current passing

'---..- through it has a magnetic field. When it is placed
0 ON in between the poles of a permanent magnet t he
two magnetic fields attract and repel each other to
create torque a turning force on the wire.
Figure 9.13
A current passed through a wire in a
magnetic field creates a force
Relays
The direction in wh ich the coil moves is
dependant on its position within the magnetic field
Electromagnets that are used to switch other and the direction of the current flow through the
electrical circuits are called relays. Here the loop. An easy way to find the direction in which
magnetic field of the electromagnet attracts the the loop moves is to apply "Fleming's left hand
contact breaker against spring pressure to hold rule".
the circuit open.
However, another force, called a Lorenz force,
is a lso produced , which is perpendicular to the
current and perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The directio n of the force is demonstrated by
Contacts
Fleming's right hand rule, which is explained later
in the chapter.
Coil
Fleming's left
hand rule
M ddle finger points In
direction of current flow (I)
Figure 9.14
Relays are typically used to remotely switch high

current circuits , sometimes switching several at
once. ThuMb points in direction of Motion
Relays can be designed to fail with the points Figure 9.15

open or closed.
John Fleming was an English physicist who
developed many practical methods of determining
the effects of magnetic fields. Fleming's left hand
rule says, using the First finger of the left ha nd
to point in the direction of the magnetic Field

(north to south) and middle finger to point in the

direction of the current flow (I) through the loop,
the thuMb will point in the direction the of Motion
of the coil.
Left to its own devices the coil would end up

stationary and at right angles to the magnetic
field. The trick is to cut the current just before it
reaches this position and, as it continues to rotate
past it, then supply current again for another
half rotation in the same direction so the rotation
continues. The device that does this is called a
commutator.
The commutator is a conductive ring in two

pieces. Electrical contact is made with it through Figure 9.17
brushes , small blocks of solid carbon held against
the commutator by springs. With the commutator
Field coils are wound round the iron cores to
in the position shown in figure 9.16, the current
create electromagnets, rather than use weaker
will flow through the coil (correctly called the
and uncontrollable permanent magnets.
armature), causing it to rotate.
The field coils produce the magnetic field

In a motor the armature carries the current
As it reaches the 90° position the brushes are in

the gap between the commutator segments ,
current is cut but angular momentum keeps the
armature turning to make the contact again.
Carbon
brush
Figure 9.18
Current Field Windings

Carbon
brush
flow
Careful design can create motors for differ ent
Figure 9.16
purposes. To create a motor with high starting
torque we would need high field strength initially.
The maximum torque or twisting moment is found It makes sense, then, to put the field coils in
where the coil lies parallel with the magnetic field series with the armature. Series wound motors
as in figure 9.16. The complete motor uses many need heavy field wiring to take the high currents,
turns of wire and multi segment commutators so figure 9.19.
the current is always flowing through the wires in
the maximum torque position. A disadvant age is that withou t anything to slow
them down , series wound motors can easily
overspeed. Typically they are used as engine

starter motors and for systems requiring high

initial torque. Shunt wound motors are low torque and
constant speed
The obvious compro mise between the two is to

make a motor w ith both shunt and series wound
Series field coil
Series field wires to try to gain the advantages of both
wound types. The compound wound motor uses shunt
motor windings to create 60% to 70% of the magnetic
field and series windings for t he rest. Compound
Armature
wou nd motors are ideal for applications that
require a wide range of torques.
•All of the input flows through the field windings .

•A few turns of thick wire are used.
• High starting current possible.
• High starting torque .
• Speed reduces as mechanical load increases.
Compund
Figure 9.19 wound
motor
Series wound DC motors, the most

common , have high starting torque
Parallel or shunt wound field windings (figure • A compromise betweem the two types
9.20) have the advantage that the current flow • 60% to 70% of flux form the shunt field
through them is low and constant thus creating a • Constant speed under load and good starting torque
constant speed motor, a disadvantage is that they
produce low torque and cannot take much Figure 9.21
mechanical load on start-up. Shunt wound
motors are used to drive cooling fans and a
device we shall meet later, a rotary inverter. Compound wound DC motors offer a wide
range of torques
Motors can be made to run in both directions by

having two sets of field coils, one wound
Shunt clockwise and one anticlockwise. Switching the
wound Shunt
motor field coil current from one to the other reverses the polarity
of the field and thus the direction of the motor.
These are called split field motors.
Split field DC motors are reversible

• Only part of the input flows through field windings
• Many turns of thin wire are used
• It must be started on low load
• Constant speed with increasing mechanical load
Figure 9.20
To change the direction of rotation of this type of

motor, the polarity of either the stator or rotor is
reversed.

Actuators actuators may also be referred to as inching

controls .
Whilst solenoid actuators are ideal for low

torque operations, electric motors are the better
choice to drive high torque actuators . Electrical Limit ....... . ....................... Limit
actuators fall into two categories , the rotary
actuator and the linear.
Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators are small reversible electric Figure 9.23
motors which ty pically operate through 350°.
Linear actuators use series wound
Rotary actuactors use reversible series reversible DC motors
wound DC motors
Linear actuators are reversible DC motors with
Limit switches at each end of travel turn the motor series field windings for instantaneous torque .
off and change the direction of the field ready for
the motor to drive the actuator back on its next Generators
selection. They are powered by series wound
motors for the torque and are used to open fuel
cocks and butterfly type valves. t
t
Limit switch Limit switch t

I
t I
I I
I I
Current I I Motion
I
I
Rotor
Field
Figure 9.24
Figure 9.22
So far, we have seen that if we pass a current

Limit switches open to remove power to
through a wire in a magnetic field we get
the actuators movement. The reverse is also true, if we move a
wire through a magnetic field a voltage is induced
in the wire , figure 9.24.
Linear Actuators
Linear actuators use a DC motor turning a screw A voltage is induced only if the wire
jack to give precise control over the actuator moves In the magnetic field
position. Solenoid operated brake systems avoid
over-run when power is turned off and friction This means that if we turn a motor armature with
clutches are fitted to protect against mechanical a drive from an engine we generate a voltage. A
overload. Limit switches cut power to the actuator generator, then , is a motor working backwards, a
motor when the limit of travel is reached. Linear motor is a generator working backwards.

The relationsh ip between the motion, the field and Field coils Annatur e
the induced current in a generator is described
by Fleming's right hand rule, the relationship for
Field coils
motors is Fleming's left hand rule. Remember to
use the right hand for generighters.
Flemings right hand rule applies to

generators
Fleming's right hand rule
ThuMb points in direction Brush

of Motion of conductor
relative to field Multi segment commutator
Figure 9.26
First finger po
in direction of More commonly the generator relies on residual
magnetic Field magnetism in the iron core to provide a sma ll
magnetic field on start up. Once current begins
Middle finger points in to be generated this can be directed through
direction of cur rent flow (I ) the field coils to increase the output. This is a
from Induced EMF self-excited system. Self-excited generators
sometimes lose their residual magnetism because
Figure 9.25 of excess heat, shocks or inadvertent reversal of
the excitation current. Residual magnetism can
be restored by briefly passing a current through
The size of the induced voltage depends on the the field coils in the correct direction. This is
strength of the magnetic field, the number of turns called field flashing.
of wire and the rate at which the lines of magnetic
flux are cut. The same controlling factors make
the construction of a simple generator just like a Self excited generators use their own
simple motor. output to power the field windings
Some of the simplest generators rely only on The aim in designing a generato r should be to
permanent magnets for the field, these have produce one that has a relatively constant output
the advantage that the field is present as the voltage , irrespective of the output current and
generator starts to turn. This method can only changes in drive speed . The current through the
be used for small , low output devices as the field coils is a good starting point as it directly
magnetic field is small. If electro-magnets are influences the strength of the magnetic field. If
used for the field an excitat ion current can be the field is strong the induced emf is high and t he
drawn from other sources such as the battery, output voltage high, if the field is wea k the output
these are separately excited systems. voltage is low. Ideally we need a constant current
to the field coils.
Separately excited generators use an
external power source for the field Field flashing restores lost magnetism
windings

Parallel Wound Generators Series Wound Generators

Putting the field coils in parallel with the output An alternative system places the field coils in
voltage helps initially as large variat ions in the series with the electr ical loads. As the field
output current, as systems are turned on and windings now have to take the full output current
off, will have only a small effect on the current they must be made of fewer turns of heavier wire.
through the many fine windings of the field coils.
In a series wound generator an increase in the
Resistance changes in the main circuit will still, main circuit current also increases the field
however, have a discernible effect. As more current. Now we have the reverse of the parallel
electrical items, wired in parallel, are turned wound system, as load increases field current
on, more 'paths' are opened for the current to increases and output voltage also increases .
flow through and the main circuit resistance
decreases . If the main circuit resistance
decreases , the output current or load in the main
circuit will increase and the current through the
shunt field coils decreases. This will , in turn,
decrease the output voltage.
Shunt
field coil
Output
voltage
100%
Output
voltage 0 IL (Load Current Output) 100%
Figure 9.28
The voltage of series wound generators

0 I L (Load Current Output) 100% increases with increasing current
Figure 9.27
The voltage of series wound generators is hard to
control and they are not used in helicopters but,
The parallel wound generator is sometimes as with motors , the series wound system can be
referred to as a shunt wound generator. mixed with the shunt wound to create a
compound wound system.
The voltage of shunt wound generators
decreases as more services are switched
on
9.12 v6.1. 2 A ircraft general knowledge

Compound Wound Generators The Carbon Pile Regulator

The wo rking part of a carbon pile regulator is
a pile of carbon discs whose resistance var ies
with compression. When compressed the
carbon discs make better electrical contact and
resistance is decreased.
As the pile is compressed resistance

decreases
Output
voltage
• Generator voltage increases.
• Voltage coli becomes more
powerful.
• Carbon pile compression
decreased.
0 • Resistance increased.
I L (Load Current Output) 100%
• Excitation current decreased.
Figure 9.29 • Generator voltage decreased.
The combination or compound wound syste m

combines the characteristics of both the series
wound and parallel wou nd coils to produce a Figure 9.30
steadier output voltage with load. The fa ll in
out put voltage of the parallel coil generator as
load increases is balanced by the increased At high RPM or low load conditions increasing
voltage of the series wound generator as load voltage across the voltage coil increases the pull
increases. The series windings carry a large against a spring which reduces pressure in the
current so they are few and made of heavy wire, carbo n pile. This reduced pressure causes the
t he parallel (shunt) windings consist of more resistance of the pile to increase thus lowering
windings of thinner wire. The generators fitted to the current in the shunt field which accordingly
helicopters are either compound or shunt wound. reduces the output voltage.
As the resistance of carbon decreases with

Combination wound generators are used temperature, it also needs to be cooled, this is
to provide constant vo ltage with changing accomplished by enc losing it in a finned ceramic
load tube which acts as a heat sink .
A lthough the generator output voltage is fairly Notice that the regulator is w ired in ser ies with the
stable it is still not quite constant enough to use. field coils and that, because the regulator acts to
The next thing to consider is fine control of reduce the voltage , failure of the regulator would
voltage , voltage regulation. cause the output vo ltage to increase.
The regulator is in series with the shunt

field coil

Vibrating Contact Regulator Parallel Operation and DC Load

Sharing
If two or more generators are installed, perhaps
on a twin engine helicopter, and the voltages
• Generator voltage are nearly the same, the output can be fed to a
increases. busbar and then out to the individual components .
• Voltage coli becomes A busbar is simply a means of electrical
more powerful.
-LJ • Points open.
• Resistance increased.
distribution . The generators are then operating in
parallel.
• Exciting current decreased. Once connected to the busbar the individual
• Generator voltage generators must have balanced output voltages
decreased.
or one will do more work than the other. To
• Points close.
achieve this load sharing an extra equalising
circuit is added between the return lines to the
generators .
Figure 9.31
The equalising circuit shown in figure 9.32 adds
two special coils called the equaliser coils , which
An alternative form of voltage regulator for low are wired in series with each of the voltage coils
current systems is the vibrating contact regulator. and two calibrated resistors. The resistors can be
Now as the generator voltage increases the fitted in the negative or, with slight variation, to the
voltage coil causes the points to open decreasing positive side of the circuit. The equalising circuits
the field current, decreasing the output voltage are then called negative and positive lead
and allowing the points to close. The points will paralleling respectively. The resistors may be
open and close between 50 and 200 times a special resistors or a series winding of the
second. generator.
Vibrating contact regulators are unsuitable
for high output systems as the points might A DC generator's output voltage is
fuse together with the heat generated. Some balanced to balance loads
vibrating contact systems have a current regulator
combined with the voltage regulator, so that either
high current or high voltage , will open the points.
When either the current regulator or voltage BUSBAR
regulators breaker points are open, the other
regulator will be disarmed.
Vibrating contact regulators might be

used in light helicopters
Once again the regulator is wired in series with

the field coils and, because the regulator acts to
reduce the voltage , failure of the regulator would
cause the output voltage to increase .
Modern helicopters with DC generators are fitted

with electronic voltage regulators. A generator is Figure 9.32
rated by its supply voltage and current capacity.
The equalising circuit depends upon the voltage
drop across the calibrated resistors. If all
generators are supplying the same current, the
voltage drop across each resistor is the same. If
the current is different from either generator, there

will be a greater voltage drop across the resistor Feeder Fault

of the generator supplying the higher current.
A feeder fault to the busbar, that is to say a
If number 1 generator is taking more load than generator supply fault, can result f rom a flux
number 2, the return side of number 1 generator imbalance between the voltage coil and the series
will be at a lower potential than the return side winding coils. Protection syste ms would:
of number 2, leading to a current flow through
the equalising circuit from 2 to 1. This acts on • Open the generator field current relay.
the voltage regulators to reduce the voltage of
number 1 generator and increase the voltage of • Open t he main relay of the generator breaker.
number 2 by varying the excitation currents to the • Open the balance circuit of paralleled
field coils restoring the balance. In a steady state
generators.
no current will flow in the equalising circuit.
• Operate a generator OFF line indicator light.
The equalising circuit acts on the voltage
regulators
Amber light
If the equalising circuit were to fail, then any
generator with a higher output voltage would
supply significantly more current. Where multiple
generators are installed, each generator would
have its own ammeter to allow the pilot to monitor
correct operation of the equalising circuit.
If either generator were to fail it should be isolated

and non-essential electrical services turned off to Field current '
relay j_
G
is called load shedding.

reduce the load on the remaining generator. This l
Figure 9.33
Load shedding is required if a generator

fails
Reverse Current Protection
In a two generator system, a differential relay is
Generator and Busbar Protection fitted which ensures that the voltages are almost
None of the regulating systems discussed so equal before the generators are paralleled. Once
far will protect the generator or the busbar from paralleled, any faults w ill remove one of t he
faults in the system. Each helicopter generator generators from the busbar to prevent it being
will have an ammeter installed indicating output driven as a motor against the direction of the
current in amps. Fluctuating output current and engine. Protect ion against a reverse flow of
a flickering generator warning light can indicate current from the battery through the busbar to the
imminent generator failur e. Automatic protection generator is also provided.
is provided by relays and control breakers that The first step to avoiding this is to maintain the
disconnect the generator from the busbar, remove generator voltage at a higher level than the
the supply to the generator field coils and provide battery voltage, for 24 V batteries the gene rator
a fault indication to the pilot. output voltage would be maintained at 28 V.
Generator voltage is higher than battery

voltage

The second step is to include a reverse current current. If the generator is taken off line because
relay in the circuit to disconnect the generator of overheating it should be allowed to cool for a
when the voltage drops to 27 V and specifically while before bringing it back on line.
prevent reverse current flow. This often
incorporates an additiona l switch to allow the Starter Generators
generator to be manually disconnected from the
busbar and is referred to as the generator breaker
or cut-out. Some helicopters are designed to take advantage
of the fact that the construction of a DC motor
and generator are the same by using a single
machine to function in both roles. Initially the
machine works as an engine starter motor. Once
e the engine is running, the machine is selected
current to operate as a generator. Using the same
relay
component for both tasks reduces weight
Amberlig
DC Power Distribution
G
Grouping services on busbars makes load
Figure 9.34
1 shedding a relatively simple operation. Helicopter
systems are classified as vital services , essential
services or non-essential services . Each group
is powered from separate busbars so that power
to groups of electrical services can be simply
controlled .
Generator breaker contacts are held open by
• Vital Services are needed when all main
spring tension when the generator is off line and
power is lost
closed by a solenoid, when the switch is made
and generator output is adequate , generally at • Essential Services are needed for safe flight
half a volt over battery voltage . A generator in an emergency
warning light indicates the generator cut-out is
open . • Non-Essential Services can be shed
in an emergency
A reverse current circuit breaker (RCCB) may
operate to disconnect the generator if the reverse The vita l services are powered from the battery
current relay fails . busbar, this is also called the "hot busbar " or
"direct busbar". This busbar is directly connected
If a zero centred ammeter is fitted to show if the to the battery and is always powered.
battery is charging or discharging , then generator
failure would be indicated by the ammeter, Helicopters fitted with DC generators may require
indicating a discharge with the generator warning some AC power for instruments and avionics.
light on. If a voltmeter calibrated in volts is used, The AC supply is obtained from an inverter, a
it will show the voltage of the electrical system device that turns DC to AC.
both before the cut-out closes as , for instance,
28 V and after the cut-out closes, when it will The generators are connected to their respective
show battery voltage of 23 V or 24 V. busbars via the generator control breakers (GCB).
The No 1 and 2 DC busbars can be connected
together by operation of the bus tie breaker
Thermal Trips (BTB), either for parallel operation or to power the
When working hard the generators get very hot. whole system from one generator. The BTB is
In flight the generators are normally cooled with occasionally referred to as the changeover relay.
ram air. If the cooling is insufficient there may
be thermal trips fitted which turn off the field

Air cooled
generators
External
power relay
Battery
switch
Battery
Figure 9.35
Provision is made on some helicopters for

external ground power to feed the busbars.
Circuit and Component
Closing the BTB with ground power supplied Protection
would allow all the services to be powered on
the ground. Bringing an engine generator on Fuses and circuit breakers are connected in
line automatically trips the external power relay. series with helicopter services to prevent
Figure 9.35 shows a typical DC power distribution excessive current damaging delicate components
system for an helicopter. and reduce the risk of fire from overheating. In
general, in the event of a ruptured fuse, it may be
Voltmeters and ammeters are fitted so that the
replaced once with one of the same rating, or
electrical system can be monitored. Warning
less, in the event of a tripped circuit breaker it
lights indicate if a generator is off line or a busbar may be reset once only in flight.
is not powered .
It is unusual to obtain the AC supply solely from Fuses can be replaced once only and
inverters. Usually the main AC supply comes circuit breakers reset once
from AC generators and the inverter supply
is a back up, DC is obtained from AC through
rectifiers. A more common distribution system
Circuit Breakers
incorporating DC and AC supplies is shown later Circuit breakers should be fitted as close as
on. possible to the power source and may be colour
coded:
Red Circuit breakers which may
need to be manually reset in
flight
Yellow or Circuit breakers which can be

White pulled to isolate a serv ice

Supply In
Fuses
CB closed (normal operation}
Most fuses are made of a waisted strip of zinc
alloy. The heating effect of excessive current
causes the alloy to melt and break the circuit. An
extra 10% of fuses must be carried in flight as
spares.
Supply in An extra 10% of fuses must be carried as

CB 'popped' open
spares
Slow blow fuses or current limiters are made

of a waisted strip of tinned copper. This has a
high melting point, which means that it will stay
Figure 9.36 intact in the event of a high transient overload but
melt and break the circuit if there is a continuous
Helicopter circuit breakers are trip free. This overload .
means that the circuit breaker cannot be held in to
Fuses are rated in amperes .
re-make the circuit with the malfunction still
present. Non-trip free circuit breakers, which are
not permitted in helicopters , can be held in to Warning Lights
re-make the circuit. Neither can be reset until the
On most modern helicopter lights and indicators
fault is cleared.
are designed to be off when the system is
operating normally. This is sometimes referred
Trip free circuit breakers cannot be held in
to as a 'black panel', as lights only come on if
to make a faulty circuit
the unusual happens . Lights are generally , but
unfortunately not exclusively, colour coded as
Bi-Metallic Circuit Breakers follows :
These circuit breakers are operated by a bi- Red Danger, e.g. fire warnings, engine
metallic strip, two strips of metal bonded together. failures .
The heating effect of the current causes the Orange Alert , e.g. turbo-charger
metals to expand by different amounts , this or Amber overboost, low oil pressure,
causes the strip to bend. Excessive current will generator failure.
bend the strip so much that a latch is moved
to trip the circuit breaker and literally break the Green OK , e.g. landing gear down .
circuit.
Blue Transit, e.g. fuel transfer valves .
Magnetic Circuit Breakers Advisory, e.g. ground power
connected
A possible disadvantage of bi-metallic circuit
breakers is that the heating effect takes time . Filaments of the bulbs are tested by pushing in on
Magnetic circuit breakers provide a quicker the light lenses or by a master test switch to show
response. Magnetic circuit breakers are also a complete panel of lights.
tripped by the current of the circuit itself, an
increase in current acts on an electromagnet in
the circuit breaker.

Switches Static Protection

Protection from sparking caused by static
electricity is achieved by bonding or electrical ly
connecting all helicopter parts w ith metallic
tape. Bonding equalises the electrical potential
I throughout the airframe. Indications of
inadequate bonding are the presence of corrosion
at joints in the helicopter skin or static noise on
[ the radios.
Figure 9.37
Most modern helicopter rocker and toggle

switches are designed to be on when selected up,
although the convention used to be the opposite,
so there are many examples of helicopters where
'on' is 'down'. Many modern helicopters use
switch lights which are push switches with integral
lights to show the selection made. Figure 9.39
:: . : LA] i]i s
Static is discharged to the atmosphere through
[
1 0 1
2 2
START • ' ' '• c • START static wicks on the trailing edges of the helicopter
i 1
s·
'
EHG1 #
N1-MATCH
·s
' ENG2
N1
L
W'
'-- MODE_..
VAR NR
•
2
and to earth through the helicopter tyres.
RESET ENGAGE RESET
(j- NORM e ON (j- NORM

OFF OFF OFF
GEN 1 BAT MSTR GEN1
Figure 9.38
Figure 9.40

Screening
Wires carrying alternating currents will have
induced electro-magnetic fields around them that
can interfere wit h other systems. Current carrying
wires are often surrounded by a braided fine wire
shield to minimise these. Unshielded wires in
close proximity to radios can create an 'AC hum'.
Current canying
core
Insulation layers
Figure 9.40

10
Alternating Current Electrics
Whilst DC electricity is a constant flow of electrons in one direction along

a wire , AC electricity is produced when electrons move backwards and
forwards along a wire. It could be produced by an AC generator (alternator)
or via a DC circuit which is converted to AC by an inverter.
Figure 10.1 shows how AC voltage varies To get around this problem of description the
with time, the current flow in an AC system is voltages are squared to make them positive, then
constantly changing both in magnitude and averaged, then the square root is taken to provide
polarity. The frequency of an AC current is the root mean square (RMS) voltage, a more
expressed as the number of complete cycles a meaningful indication. The heating effect of the
second , one cycle a second is a hertz (Hz), three RMS AC voltage is the same as the equivalent
full cycles are shown here. DC voltage . The RMS voltage is, because of
the maths of a sine wave , 0.707 times the peak
voltage. UK mains electricity is 240 volts RMS,
so the peak voltage is 240 + 0.707 = 340 volts.
+150 v
RMS voltage is 0.707 times peak voltage
and has the same heating effect as the
equivalent in DC
AC Generation
·150 v Figure 10.2 shows a simple AC generator and its
output with a DC generator for compariso n. In
each case the wire loop rotating in the magnetic
field , the rotor, has a voltage induced in it. In the
Figure 10.1 DC generator the segmented commutator
ensures that the pulses of current flowing out to
the circuit are of the same polarity (positive or
AC electricity comes from alternators negative). In the AC generator the commutator is
replaced by slip rings which continuously collect
As voltage fluctuates evenly between peak the current induced in the loop. The current
positive and peak negative the average voltage is changes from positive to negative as the sides of
clearly zero. This tells us nothing of value as the the wire loop pass the north and south poles of
peak voltages could be very high or very low and the stationary electro-magnet , the stator. In
still the average voltage would be zero. practice there are many loops of wire wound on
the rotor to increase the alternator efficiency.
The rotor rotates, the stator is fixed

10 Alternating Current Electrics
Stator
coils
'(YYVYYVY\ :'(VWVV\M
DC Generator Alternator
It is equally acceptable, and more common in Figure 10.3 is a simple brushless three phase
aircraft , to feed a low DC current via brushes AC generator, it lacks a method to control output
and slip rings to the rotating coil (the rotor), thus voltage. The three phase output is shown in
producing a rotat ing magnetic field wh ich induces figure 10.4. Electrical services can use one, two
AC electricity in the stationary coils (the stator). or three phases at once.
Alterna tors
Because AC generators are more efficient than
DC generators they are sometimes combined
with an internal rectifier and used to power
DC systems. Generators like this are called
alternators.
Three Phase Output

Figure 10.4
Larger helicopters use AC generators that
produce an AC output. These generators have
three outputs, called a three phase supply. Figure Calculating the Frequency
10.3 shows a three phase AC generator with a
permanent magnet rotating between three sets The frequency of the induced AC current will be
of induction coils, effectively three AC generators the rate of revolution of the rotor but divided by
in one. As the rotor end passes a stator coil, the 60, as frequency is expressed as cyc les a second
magnetic field of the rotor moves closer to, then and rate of revolution is revs per minute (RPM). If
away from, the stator. This changing magnetic two magnets are used, two pole pairs, the
field induces an AC current in the stator. The frequency is doubled , if three are used it is tripled.
stator pairs are at 120° from each other, thus
producing three AC supplies which are 120° out Frequency is RPM times pole pairs divided
of phase, each phase being tapped from a pair of by 60
stator coil windings .
Putting this concept into a formula, we get:
RPM x number of pole pairs

Frequency (Hz) =
60

Example: Figure 10.5 shows, in diagrammatic form, the

components of a brushless self excited AC
An AC generator has four pole pairs at generator . The voltage regulator controls the DC
6000 RPM. W hat will the frequency be? current to the exciter, which in turn controls the
Solution: AC current induced. The AC is rectified to DC
to provide a controlled excitation current in the
Use the formula , generator field coils. The permanent magnets
on the stator induce a small amount of AC in the
RPM x Number of pole pairs rotor coils as the generator first starts to turn, this
Frequency (Hz) =
60 makes the generator self starting.
6000 X 4
= 60 Brushless alternators are the most
common
= 400Hz
A typical three phase aircraft AC supply will run at
The Self-Excited Brushless AC 115 volts RMS.
Generator
Advantages of AC Generators
The permanent magnet rotor of the AC generator
in figure 10.3 is usually replaced by a DC The main difference in construction between
powered electro-magnet. Vary ing the excitation the DC generator and the AC generator is that ,
current through the field windings of the electro- in an AC generator, the windings in which the
magnet varies alternator output voltage. output current is induced, the armature , are on
the stator with the field windings on the rotor.
Voltage output is controlled by the current W ith a DC generator the opposite is the case, the
in the field windings field wind ings are on the stator and the induction
windings of the armature are on the rotor.
The DC supply for the field windings can come AC generating systems have several advantages
from either the battery (separately excited), over DC systems:
or from the generator itself, via a rectifier (self
excited). If the excitation current comes from the • They are more flexible in use.
battery then it follow s that a flat battery will result
• They are lighter than DC generators.
in the generator not operating . This makes the
second format , self exciting , the most common. • They have a better power to weigh t ratio.
• It is easy to change the voltage with

transforme rs.
• It is easy to convert AC into DC, if required.
• They are brushless , so require less

maintenance.
Rectifier on shaft • They produce a voltage at a lower RPM than

DC generators .
AC advantages: better power to weight

ratio, voltages can be changed
Exciter Because of this most piston engined helicopters

Figure 10.5 use alternators where all, or nearly all, of the 14 V
AC output is converted to DC through a rectifier

and controlled with a voltage regulator to feed the Phase A

aircraft systems and charge the battery.
Large helicopters use AC generato rs for t he main

JPhase
voltage
1Line
voltage
AC circuits that also supply DC services thr ough

rectifiers. Some smaller gas turbine engines,
espec ially on helicopters, still use DC generators
Phase B l
Phase C
as they have an additional function as starter
motors - in this case DC current is fed from the
battery to the generator which works backwards
as a motor.
Most aircraft use alternators rather than phase A phase B phase C

DC generators
Figure 10.6
The Star Connection A lthough multiple phases can be used most

Now we have t hree phases, effectively three aircraft loads are single phase loads and
separate AC supplies, we have to consider how therefore placed betwee n the live line and
we wire them up. The star connection, shown in the return. If the loads are kept fairly equally
figure 10.6 is used for alternators. distributed between the phases , as when one
current is positive the other two are likely to be
negative, the current tends to flow only along the
Alternators are star wound live lines and the return line current is fairly low.
Each pair of stator coils is connected at one end If a single phase of an AC generator fails,
to a common star, w ye or neutral point and at perhaps because of a broken wire or open circuit ,
the other end to t he output, through a load and then the current in the other two phases wi ll not
then back to the star connection via a return be balanced and the flow down the return line
line. Loads can also be placed betwee n any two will increase. If there is a short between a phase
outputs to use a different, higher RMS, voltage. and the return line, line to earth, or betwee n two
phases, line to line, the current will markedly
increase leading to overheating in t he stator coils.
Star wound generators can produce two
In short, a failure in one phase of a star wou nd
voltages
system affects all phases.
The voltage between a single output , a live line,

A failure in one phase of a star wound
and the return is called a phase voltage; the
vo ltage between two live lines is ca lled the line system affects all phases
voltage.
Domestic electricity makes use of t he star
The RMS line voltage is the sum of two out of winding. High vo ltage power is three phase, but
phase stato r coil supplies which is >/3 (or 1.73) x is split into single phases for small groups of
the RMS phase vo ltage, therefore the line voltage houses. The domest ic plug has a live wire in to
is higher than the phase voltage. Because in the plug , a live wire out of t he plug a nd, usually,
aircraft applications the phase voltage is 115 V, an earth line which literally uses the earth to
the line voltage is 115 X 1.73 = 200 V. The line connect to the wye point of the supply. The
current is equal to the phase current as the loads theory is that, if the loads are balanced in the
are placed in t he live lines, not in the return. street then no current flows through the eart h line.
Many countries dispense completely with the
Line current equals phase current, line earth connect ion.
vo ltage is greater than phase voltage

Capacitance. Inductance. The value of capacitance depends on:
Impedance and Reactance • The area of the plates.
• The distance between the plates.

AC circuits do not behave quite the same way as
DC circuits, because current flow and voltage are • The material of the dielectric.
continually changing. This changing current and
the devices in an AC circuit can produce effects, Capacitance is directly proportiona l to the
which are not found in a DC circuit. area of the plates and inversely proportional
to the distance. The value of the dielectric is
expressed as a number derived from comparing
Capacitance and Capacitors the electrostatic field of the material, with that
Capacitors are used to store an electrical charge. of a vacuum and called the die lectric constant
They are made by placing a non-conducting (K). Capacitors are used in aircraft fuel gauging
material, called a dielectric, between two systems, where the value of K for fuel is about 2
conduct ing plates. Applying a voltage to one compared to 1 for air.
plate builds up a charge on that plate, positive Capacitors act different ly when fitted to DC and
or negative depending on the voltage, and a AC circuits. In a DC circuit the capacitor acts like
matching opposite charge on the other. If the a switch. Once charged there will be no further
capacitor is disconnected once the charge has flow in the circuit and any other loads will cease to
been built up, it will hold the charge until a circuit operate.
is created again allowing it to discharge. The
plates have a relatively large surface area so it A capacitor in an AC circuit will build up a charge
takes a little time for the charge to build up, the as current flows into it in one direction , then
discharge is quicker. discharge and build up an opposite charge as
the current reverses. Loads in the circuit will still
Insulating layer work. The maximum charge across the plates
or dielectric occurs when the supply current is zero , just
before it reverses , and the maximum discharge
Charged plate Charged plate current occurs when the supply voltage is zero.
This is odd, because normally voltage and
current are in phase and high voltage means
high current. The implication is that, in a purely
capacitive AC circuit, the capacitor has the effect
of shifting the current and voltage goo out of
phase. Strictly, current leads voltage by goo, see
figure 10.8.
Current leads volt age with capacitors in

the circuit
Figure 10.7
The amount of electricity a capacitor can store is

called its capacitance and is measured in Farads.
A capacitor in a circuit is shown by the

-II- symbol on the left, similar to the symbol
for a battery but with two lines of the
same length .
A one farad capacitor with one volt applied to it Figure 10.8

will store one coulomb of energy.

In reality there is always some resistance in a

circuit and it can never be purely capacitive. This
means the current never quite leads the voltage
by the full 90°, all we can say in reality is that
current leads voltage in a capacitive circuit.
This effect of capacitance in an AC circuit is

called capacitive reactance and, as it opposes
current flow , it acts like resistance and is
measured in ohms. Capacitive reactance is also
affected by frequency. Capacitive reactance
is inversely proportional to frequency. So as
frequency rises capacitive reactance reduces and
current flow will increase.
Another way of putting it is that capacitors act as Figure 10.9

low resistances to high frequencies and high
resistances to low frequencies. A mnemonic
Inductance will be a feature of all AC circuits,
helps here, Cows Love Really Happy Farmers for
which include coils such as motors, generators,
Capacitors have Low Resistance to High
electro-magnets and transformers.
Frequencies.
The unit of inductance is the henry (L). If an emf
Capacitors act as high resistance to low is induced of 1 volt wit h a current flow of 1 amp an
frequencies inductance of 1 L (henry) is produced. The effect
of inductance is called inductive reactance and
act like resistance in that it affects current flow .
Inductors and Inductance Inductive reactance is measured in ohms.
We know that as a magnet is inserted into a coil
of wire, a current is induced in the wire. What we Inductance is measured in Henrys
have yet to consider is that the induced current
will have its own magnetic field which, depending An inductance is shown in a circuit by the symbol
on its sense, would either encourage the initial \JJ.JJ.J.J Notice the similarity to the symbo l for
movement or oppose it. Judicious use of resistance, we shall use this later to remind us
Fleming's left and right hand rules wi ll show that that inductors in series and parallel behave the
the induced current creates a field that opposes same as resistors.
the movement, this is Lenz's law. The induced
current always flows in such a direction as to We would expect the maximum back emf when
oppose the change that is giving rise to it. The the rate of change of current in a circuit is at
opposition can be v iewed as an opposing voltage, its greatest. This is where the current is zero,
called a back emf. reversing direction from one way to the other.
The minimum back emf is where the rate of
In any AC circuit the collapse of the current before current change is least. The effect of inductance
it reverses direction and the subsequent build up is not dissimila r to the effect of capacitance
will produce a change of the magnetic field and a except here current lags behind voltage . See
back emf will be induced. This back emf will be figure 10.10.
small in a simple circuit but larger if many coils
and windings are included. The effect of the back
emf, of inductance, is to resist current flow. Induced current lags behind the voltage
The induced current always opposes the

movement

Capacitors and Inductors in a Circuit

For total inductance, inductors are added in the
. CD ... -····· same way as resistors, for total capacitance,

capacitors are added the other way around. The
\j\ similarity of the circuit symbols of resistance
and inductance make it easier to remember they
behave the same way in a circuit.
Figure 10.10 Resistance in phase

with current
Inductors are also frequency sensitive but this

time reactance is directly proportional to
frequency, high resistance at high frequencies
Captivate reactance Inductive reactance
and low resistance at low frequencies, the leads current . ._ -+ lags current
opposite of capacitors.
Inductors create high resistance to high

frequencies
Use the mnemonic CIVIL to remember the lead

Resistance Impedance
and lag.. Total reactance
C In Capacitors the Figure 10.11
Current (I) leads the

Inductors in series:
V Voltage, which leads the
L,OTAL = L, + L2 + L3
Current (I) in
L Inductors (L) Inductors in parallel
As we have seen the effects of capacitive = + 1 + 1

reactance and inductive reactance are opposite,
the suspicion grows that capacitors and inductors
are complimentary and that one can be used to
balance the effect of the other Most circuits have Capacitors in series:
both, and of course they will have resistance as 1 = 1 + + 1
well.
c, c, c,
Because the capacitive reactance leads current
flow, resistance is in phase with it and inductive Capacitors in parallel
reactance lags behind current flow there cannot
be a straight addition of the three. The total = c, + c, + c,
resistance to current flow in an AC circuit with
capacitive and inductive reactance is called
impedance and is the vector sum of all three. Inductors behave like resistors
Capacitors are the opposite
lmpendance is the vector sum of
resistance and reactance

AC Power Assuming , for the moment, that we have failed

to achieve resonance then the impedance of
We know that power equals voltage multiplied by the circuit will be made up of the resistance and
amps. So for a simple resistive only circuit (no the reactance, both capacitive and inductive.
capacitors or inductors), we can plot a graph of The work done by the generator overcoming
voltage, current and power as below. Power is at resistance is useful or real power. The work done
a maximum when volts and amps are also at their overcoming reactance is wasted effort, called
maximum values (figure 10.12). reactive power or reactive load. Reactive loads
waste power.
Reactive loads waste power
This can be represented by our familiar vector

diagram .
Useful power Total power available

Resistive circuit
Figure 10.12
In a circuit which contains a capacitor or an

inductor, the voltage will be out of phase with the
current. If we plot voltage and current for an out
of phase circuit, then we can see that the peak
power is lower.
Reactance load
Figure 10.14
The ratio of useful work (useful power) to total

work (total power) is a measure of the efficiency
of a circuit. This is called the power factor.
The power factor is the useful work

divided by the total work
Figure 10.13
In practice, this all means that if an AC motor
(which has many inductive windings) has a power
The maximum power is no longer the product of factor of 0.45 and it is required to put out 500
voltage and current at their maximum , but the watts at 25 volts, then instead of just
product of lesser values. This means that power
in a capacitive (or inductive) circuit is reduced. 500 watts + 25 volts = 20 amps
Obviously the answer to this is to balance a
capacitor with an inductor to bring the current and we will actually need
voltage back into phase; if we achieved this we
20 + 0.45 = 44.4 amps.
would have a resonant circuit, a circuit where the
impedance is totally resistive. This would suggest a strong case to fit a capacitor
in the circuit to increase the power factor.

Generator Power Ratings frequency produced by an aircraft generator wi ll

affect power in the circuits.
AC generators are rated to show the total power

available in kilovolts amps (kVA). The measured AC Frequency Control
output elements are kVA and kVAr, reactive load.
Typical generator output would be from 30 kVA up Frequency Wild AC Generators

to 90 kVA for the largest aircraft.
AC generators will be frequency wild if there is no
Example: control of RPM. Such a system can only be used
for systems wh ich rely upon resistance only and
An AC generator rated at 90 kVA is operating in a are not affected by frequency, basically heating
circuit with a power factor of 0.8. W hat will be the and non-fluorescent lighting. Outputs from such
useful output?
generators cannot be paralleled to a common
Solution: system.
The useful output is 0.8 x 90 = 72 kW. We can Such a system can only be used for
use t he kW unit for rea l power. systems which rely upon resistance
only and are not affected by frequency ,
The power factor formula is best remem bered
basically heating and non-fluorescent
using the units involved
lighting
POWER FACTOR= kW + kVA
Frequency wild generators are usually fitted to
We can, once again, show the relationship on the
more simple aircraft where the primary electrical
vector diagram.
supply is DC, their output is 208 V, 22 kVA with a
frequency range from 280 to 400 Hz. This is
KW KVA used directly for engine and prop anti-icing and
rectified to DC for the other systems.
Constant Speed Drive Units

Systems that are primarily AC need frequency
and voltage control. To produce a constant
f requency generator a constant speed drive
unit (CSDU or CSD) is used. This consists of a
hydraulic/ mechanical unit with its own hydraulic
oil supply. As well as providing the hydraulic
power for operation the oil in the CSDU is used
for cooling the unit. The CSD is connected to the
KVAR engine by a dog clutch release mecha nism known
Figure 10.15 as the CSD disconnect.
As engine speed or load on the generator

The verbal descriptions of kW, kVA and kVA r can cha nges the CSD alters its output torque to keep
be confusing. The following may be used: the generator running at the same speed and
kVA tota l or apparent power consta nt frequency. The frequency is stabilised to
kVAr idle, reactive or wattless power between 380 Hz and 420 Hz, quoted as 400 Hz,
kW real, true, active , effective or useful from a typical rotation speed of 6000 RPM.
power Some helicopters drive the AC generators from
Since capacitive and inductance reactance the main rotor gearbox, which runs at a fairly
constant RPM, therefore there is no requirement
are affected by frequency. Any change in the
for a CSD.

Variable Speed Constant Frequency

(VSCF) Drive Constant speed APUs can be paralleled
A VSCF drive takes the variable output of a APUs are normally started electrically.
frequency wild generator, rectifies it to DC, then
converts it again to constant frequency AC with As well as providing back up electrical power
an inverter.. in flight the APU can be used to power the
helicopter systems on the ground prior to engine
start. Indeed, some helicopter APUs may not be
Paralleling AC Generators used in-flight.
The reactive load on a generator is affected by
the frequency and by the rated output in kVA AC Motors
which is in turn affected by voltage. The real
load (kW) is affected by the rated output and the
reactive load. It can be seen that the kW, kVA DC motors are ideal for high torque applications
and kVAr are interconnected and any adjustment and applications where variable speed control
in frequency will affect both kW and kVAr. If is needed. In other situations more reliable AC
generators are to be paralleled, frequency is motors can be used.
adjusted by adjusting the CSD output torque to There are two main types, the synchronous
balance the real load and then the reactive loads motor and the induction motor. The synchronous
are trimmed by adjusting the energising current motor runs at a speed that is related to its supply
from the voltage regulator. frequency and thus maintains speed as load
varies, the induction motor tends to lose speed as
Frequency adjusts real load & reactive load increases but in its two or three phase forms
load is controlled by voltage has the advantage that it is inherently self-starting
In summary: Synchronous Motors

11 Real load- adjusted with CSD torque. Recognise the graphic in figure 10.16? This is
a three phase motor, exactly the same as the
11 Reactive load - balanced by energising
three phase alternator except now the current
current.
is fed into the stationary field coils, causing the
rotor to rotate. Motor speed is therefore directly
Auxiliary Sources of AC Power related (synchronous) to voltage frequency, if
not overloaded. Under higher loads, the rotor
In the event of loss of an engine driven generator falls behind the rotating magnetic field reducing
in flight, either through generator or engine failure, efficiency, torque then reduces in turn and the
motor slows and quickly stalls.
there are other ways of providing AC power.
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)

An APU is a small gas turbine engine fuelled from
the aircraft main fuel supply that can provide a
power to drive a three phase generator to produce
normal 115/200 volts AC at 400 Hz. APUs are
capable of supplying all the essential electrical
loads on their own. On older helicopters, APUs
cannot be paralleled with the aircraft's generators;
as the they have no CSDU, the turbine speed can
vary. On modern, constant speed, APUs the APU
generator can be paralleled.

Stator Synchronous frequency (Hz) x 60

coils speed = number of pole pairs
400 X 60
= 4
= 6000 RPM
Induction Motors
The induction motor differs from the synchronous
motor in that instead of using a magnet as a rotor;
coils of wire are used. Figure 10.17 shows an
induction motor, the six black dots represent three
coils shown in cross section, in reality there would
Figure 10.16 be many more.
The changing electromagnetic field produced

Synchronous AC motors are used for low torque , by the stator coils induces a current in the wire
constant speed applications such as the drive to a which in turn produces its own magnetic field.
tachometer. They may be single or three phase. The magnetic field of the rotor is attracted to the
rotating electromagnetic field of the stator so the
Synch ronous AC motors are low torque & rotor ends up chasing the stator field.
constant speed
As they are not self-starting , an inductive

system is incorporated to bring the motor up
to synchronous speed when it then becomes
a solely synchronous motor. On occasions a
separate DC supply is used to create an electro-
magnet on the rotor.
Synchronous AC motors are not self

starting
The speed of a synchronous motor depends upon

the frequency of the supply and the number of
pole pairs (pairs of rotors) and is obtained by
dividing the AC frequency by the number of Figure 10.17
phases - this give revolutions per second, so to
get RPM we must multiply by 60. You should As the rotor speed builds up towards the speed of
recognise this formula as a rearrangement of the the stator field, the relative movements of the
formula used for generators . fields reduce and thus the induced emf and
ultimately the torque that makes the rotor turn
Synchronous Frequency (Hz) x 60
= reduces. This means that the rotor can never turn
speed (RPM) number of pole pairs quite as fast as the stator field . The difference
Example: between the two is called the slip speed and it will
increase as the torque load on the motor
An AC motor has four pole pairs, what increases. Increasing slip speed caused by high
synchronous speed is achieved with an input torque loads increases inductive reactance and
frequency of 400Hz? therefore reduces motor efficiency in terms of the
ratio of power in to power out. This means
Solution: induction motors are at their most efficient under
light loads. The induction motor is commonly

used for fuel and hydraulic pumps, gyro rotors,

gyro torque motors and AC actuators.
Induction motors run slower than

synchronous speed, the difference is the
slip speed
Induction motors may be single or three phase

but single phase motors will not be self-starting.
A curiosity of mathematics means that only
two of the phases of a three phase motor need
to be reversed to reverse the direction of the
motor. Consider a three phase supply running
ABCABCABC , if we reverse A and B we get
BACBACBAC . Figure 10.19
Rather than use loops of wire , induction motors

often use a series of copper or aluminium bars
A faulty induction motor will run slow or
connected to circular metal endplates, each
stop
opposite pair act like a closed single loop coil.
This is called a squirrel cage motor.
Delta Connections
Current flow in loop
You will recall that generators use a star
connection where the return line is required
because unless the loads are exactly equal in
each phase, there will be an unbalanced current.
When the loads can be made permanently and
exactly equal, for instance where the alternator is
used 'backwards' as a motor, the return line can
be dispensed with and the phases connected by
a delta connection.
Rotor Magnetic field

induced in loop
Figure 10.18 Line

voltage
The diagram in figure 10.18 is stylised and

only shows two loops. In reality, once again,
there would be many more. A more realistic
representat ion is shown in figure 10.19 the
Figure 10.21
squirrel cage rotor can be seen inside the loops of
the stator field coils.
W ith this connection, line voltage is the same as
If a three phase induction motor suffers an phase voltage, but line current must be more than
open circuit fault on one of the phases then it phase current as each line is connected to two
will continue to run but at only about half speed, phases and two loads. In fact the line current is
unless the loads are very heavy when it may stop ;}3 x phase current or, if you prefer, 1.73 x phase
altogether. Once stopped, it will not be possible current. Thus we can say that, in a delta system ,
to re-start the motor whilst the fault persists. If a voltages are equal but line current is greater than
short circuit occurs between two phases then the phase current, whereas in a star system currents
motor will over heat, slowing down in proportion to are equal and line voltage is greater than phase
the applied load. voltage. Use the symbo ls VtN to remember that

voltages are equal in a delta system, once you AC Devices

have that everything else can be figured out.
VtN, delta wound voltages are equal Transformers

If a sing le phase on a delta connection is ea rthed Some helicopter systems may require lower AC
all phases will be eart hed. As we have observed voltages than the generated 115/200 V AC supply.
an open circuit in one phase will mean the motor Helicopter instrument systems often work off a
continues to run but more slowly. 28 V AC supply. To achieve this transformers are
used to power busbars at reduced AC voltages.
Delta connections are used in motors, rotary
rectifiers and transformers. Transformers use the principles of
electromagnetic induction to increase (step up) or
decrease (step down) AC voltages. If the voltage
increases the current must reduce and vice versa,
as the power out must be the same as the power
in, assuming no power lost in the transformer
itself.
Transformers step up or step down AC

voltages
Transformers have two sets of windings, the

primary input windings and secondary output
windings , arranged on a laminated metal core.
Note that the two sets of windings are not
electrically connected in anyway.
Figure 10.20
An alternating current in the primary windings

induces a magnetic field in the core, which in turn
induces an alternating current in the secondary
windings.
The output current and voltage will depend upon

the proportion of windings between each coil,
more coils on the secondary windings than the
primary will step up the voltage, fewer will step it

down. The relationship is straightforward, twice Rectifiers

as many turns produces twice the voltage and, of
course, half the current. A rectifier allows current to flow easily in one
direction but not in the other direction. Rectifiers
Twice the turns, twice the voltage but half in normal circuits can be semiconductors or
the current valves called diodes.
Semiconductor diodes are made from silicon or

Transformer cores are made up of laminated germanium 'doped' or made impure with other
sheets in order to reduce the eddy currents which materials such as boron. Doped crystals can
are induced at right angles to the field and will either have an excess of electrons in which case
have a heating effect. they are known as N or negative type material
The transformer is particularly useful if you have or a shortage of electrons, called electron holes,
to transmit electricity a long way. Very high in which case they are called P or positive type
voltages can be used with corresponding ly low material. If N and P type materials are placed
current and consequently low power loss. The next to each other, current can flow from N to P,
negative to positive, but not from P toN. This
heating effect of electricity is 12 R, remember.
creates a PN diode, the most common rectifier.
Transformers can be multi phase, and in a three
phase system the transformers will be delta Rectifiers allow current to flow in only one
wound as the loads are predictable and can be direction
balanced.
The circuit diagram symbol for a diode is shown
Three phase transformers are delta wound on the right and it would permit conventional
current flow in the direction of the arrow, in this
case from left to right.
Auto Transformers
Neither valves nor semi-conductors are suitable
If a step up or step down in voltage is required in for circuits with very high currents. In these
a low current circuit then this type of transformer cases an AC motor can be used to drive a DC
is used. Primary and secondary coils are generator to produce the same effect. This is a
combined in one coil and the input current is rotary rectifier.
tapped in at the appropriate number of turns.
The simplest form of rectificat ion is half wave, this
Simpler and lighter in construction than a normal can be done with a single diode.
transformer, this type is usually only used for
lighting in aircraft.
\TVVInput
Figure 10.22
r (\(\
Output
Secondary
Just one diode for single phase, half wave
rectification
Prima ry Full wave rectification of a single phase using four

diodes provides a better DC output, figure 10.23 .
Figure 10.21

Zener Diodes
vvv I\/\
Input
Most diodes will break down and be permanently
damaged by high reverse current flows. The
zener diode is designed to prohibit reverse
current flow to a point and then to allow it. Once
reverse current flow is permitted the voltage
across the diode remains close to constant for a
wide range of reverse currents. This allows the
zener diode to be used as a voltage stabilising
device. The symbol for a zener diode is .-.J
Zener diodes are used for voltage
stabilisation
Figure 10.23
Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU)

To provide full wave rectification of a three phase
supply six diodes are required. This will produce A TRU is a transformer and rectifier in the same
a fairly smooth DC output. unit. It is used in an AC system to power the DC
busbars and charge the batteries.
Transistors
Transistors are semiconductors. They are made
.... from three layers of doped silicon or germanium .
... A layer of P type materia l is sandwic hed
between two layers of N type material. In normal
circumsta nces the two PN junctions created
wo uld act as back to back rectifiers allowing no
current flow in either direction.
Three phase input Output N p N

Ito ... .. ...
Figure 10.24
.. ..
... 'It • ...
.. • ... " :to ..

..
...
----
Six diodes are used for 3 phase full wave
rectification
Figure 10.25
In this case. though, the P material is only very

lightly doped , and therefore very weak , so it does
initially let much of the current through , about
98% of the electrons .
2% of the electro ns, however, cannot get past

the PN boundary and build up in the P layer
preventing further electrons crossing the NP
boundary. Now the current is restricted and in
as little as 0.00000005 seconds can be shut off
entirely.

N p N
(L . '&..
... ...
,
..
ot.. ... ""' <L
..
' ... &..
... ':f.
..
(6..
':+- .........
- ----
Figure 10.26
The trick is to allow the electrons in the P layer,

properly called the base, to esca pe down a Base
third wire . Typically removing one electron from PNP
the base allows 50 electrons to cross the NPN
Figure 10.28
jun ction. This means that small fluctuations
in base current can be translated to large
fluctuations between the other two ter minals, the Revers ing the materials produces a NPN
collector and the emitter. transistor, figure 10.29 .
.Emitter
.. ...
N
.:
'L. 'L
..
p
"'-
'&..
"-
.....
L
N
....
... ...
t.. .. Collector
Base
Figure 10.27
In this format the transistor can act as an

Base
amplifier. If, on the other hand, t he current into
NPN
the base is regarded as being either on or off,
perhaps digital pulses, then it wil l act as a switch Figure 10.29
on the main circuit. Remember that the function
of the base is to control the current through the Transistor ised or semiconductor rectifiers are
transistor. also known as solid state rectifiers. They are the
type fitted to modern aircraf t. Transistors are low
The function of the base is to control the current devices and can be easily damaged by
current exposure to large voltages and currents.
The circuit symbol for a PNP transistor is shown Transistors are low current devices
in figure 10.28.

AC Power Distribution Split Busbar System

In a split busbar system each engine driven
Modern aircraft systems are designed so that , generator feeds an AC busbar. The busbars
in flight and following a failure, the electrical are only connected in the event of a generator
services can be supplied from either a single failure or, possibly, on the ground . Because
engine driven generator or an APU . the generators are not operated in parallel their
voltage and frequency can vary slightly and they
AC is distributed through a number of busbars
need not be in phase.
which allow services to be prioritised into vital ,
essential and non-essential services . Vital and
essential service busbars have more backup In a split busbar system each generator
systems to ensure the power supply is not supplies its own busbar
interrupted.
The generators are connected and disconnected
28 V DC services are powered from the AC to the busbar by operation of the generator circuit
generators through transformer rectifier units breaker (GCB) The GCB can be operated
(TRUs) which reduce the voltage and rectify it manually by the crew and automatically by the
to DC in order to power the DC bus bars and generator control unit (GCU).
charge the battery. In an emergency the battery
can power the essential AC bus bars through an A bus tie breaker (BTB), also called a changeover
inverter as well as the DC bus bars and the vital relay, is fitted between the AC busbars. It is
DC bus. operated by a bus power control unit (BPCU) with
inputs from an air/ground logic switch .
There are two ways of designing an electrical
system in normal operation . It is possible to have
several generators feeding a common busbar,
the parallel system, or to have a single busbar for
each generator, the split busbar system .
AC
external
power
J
BTB
No.2 AC Busbar
'
t No.1
TRU
No.2
TRU
Non
AC
Essential
DC services
Figure 10.30

When closed on the ground it allows both busbars

to be powered either by external power or by the Vital services are DC, often from isolated
APU generator. It can also be closed in flight to batteries
allow one generator to power both busbars after
a fai lure. Non-fluorescent lighting to the cabin and flight
deck is usually 28 volt AC , with a 28 volt DC
Number 1 and Number 2 AC busbars normally
standby. Fluorescent lighting (450 volt AC) is
provide DC power to the number 1 and number 2
used for flight deck storm lighting and also cabin
DC busbars through TRUs. The essential AC
lighting.
services can be fed from either the Number 1 AC
busbar or from the battery through an inverter.
Essential DC services can be fed from either the Paralleled Systems
TRU or the battery. The battery becomes the
In a parallel system in normal operation all
final back up for both AC and DC essent ial
the generators are connected to a n AC tie or
services and, when fully charged, should be good
synchronising busbar.
for 30 minutes operation once all other power
sources have failed.
Paralleled generators supply tie busbars
Essential services were defined earlier as those
required for safe flight in an emergency. They Before a generator can be paralleled the voltage
would include flight instruments , control actuators and frequency must be within limits. In older
and avionics and may be either AC or DC. aircraft the voltage and frequency were checked
manually, on modern aircraft the process is
Vital services are DC and powered directly from
automatic . If all the requirements of voltage
the battery busbar, usually called the hot battery
f requency and, sometimes, phase relationship are
busbar because it cannot be disconnected. The
not met the generators cannot be paralleled.
A320 , for example, has two hot busbars, powering
engine and APU fire extinguishers, the parking
brake, slide warnings etc.
BTB
AC TIE BUSBAR
Figure 10.31

A three generator parallel system is shown

in figure 10.31. Each engine generator is Excitation Breaker
connected to its load busbar via a GCB that -----4-r-.. ----- 1
can be paralleled through bus tie breakers to a
synchronising or tie busbar. The tie busbar has GCU
few or no services on it, its purpose is to connect Over volts
the power supplies. The DC systems have been Under volts
Excess current
left out for clarity. Under frequency
Over frequency
During normal operation the BTBs are closed and
each of the generators is connected to the tie/
synchronising busbar. The load is shared equally
by all generators in this system. In the event Figure 10.32
of a generator failure the AC tie busbar would
continue to be powered but the GCB and the BTB The GCU also receives inputs from the fire handle
for the failed generator wou ld be tripped. pulled in the event of engine failure or fire. When
the fire handle is pulled the GCU operates to trip
Protection and Generator Control the GCB and exciter relay for that generator.
Generator failures are often transient and, once

Generator ControlUnit (GCU)
the failed generator has been isolated, the cause
A GCU is provided for each of the aircraft's of the fault can be determ ined. It is often possible
generators. The GCU monitors power quality, it to subsequently close the exc iter relay, confirm
consists of a number of relays that are sensitive the generator is once more operating wit hin limits
to generator voltage and frequency. Protection is then manually close the GCB to bring it back on
provided for: line.
• AC generator over voltage.
• AC generator under voltage
• Under-frequency
• Over-speed (high frequency)
• Excess current
• Differential fault (internal short)
When a fault is sensed the GCU automatically

opens the GCB to remove the generator from the
busbar and trips the exciter relay to cut the power
to the generator field and stop the production of
electricity. Faults from the CGU are placed in
memory.

Bus Tie Breakers and Transfer Load Shedding

Busbars
In the event of a generator fa ilure it is normal,
Bus tie breakers have different roles in split and particularly on older helicopters, to have to turn
parallel systems. off non-essential electrical services . This is
known as load shedding. Most modern systems
In a split bus system (figure 10.33) the BTB have some form of automatic load shedding
is normally open as the generators cannot be device.
paralleled. If only one power supply is available
the BTB automatically closes so that both the left
Summary
and right systems are powered.
A generator fault on a split busbar system wi ll
The role of the BTB in a split system is
cause the GCU to:
sometimes filled by special transfer busbars ,
which will normally be supplied by their individual • open the GCB, disconnecting the generator
generators, but switch automatically to the from its busbar.
remaining source in the event of a power failure.
• trip the exciter relay, cutting its output.
In a parallel system (figure 10.31) the BTBs
are normally closed and the load busbars are • close the BTB in o rder to power both
connected to the tie or synchronising busbar. If main busbars from the main generator or,
there is a generator fault on a parallel system the depending on type, switch the transfer bus.
GCU will take the generator offline and also open
the BTB between that generator's load busbar A generator fault on a parallel system will cause
and the tie busbar. Once it has been established the GCU to:
that a generator fault exists rather than a busbar • open the GCB, disconnecting the generator
fault , the BTB can be remade and the load busbar from its busbar
powered from the tie busbar. If the problem is
a phase relationship defect, then only the BTB • trip the exciter relay, cutting its output
will open , as the generator is serviceable , and
can therefore operate a busbar, but it cannot be • open the BTB, isolating the busbar of the
paralleled. failed generator from the tie busbar
External External
l l
PWR PWR
No 1 No2
EXT EXT
No 1 No2
PWR PWR
SN SN
Split System Breaker (SSB)
Figure 10.33

Cockpit Indications and Controls v v

MAIN AUX
BATTERY IJJI>I ESS 1 ESS2 BATTERY
Cockpit indications and controls vary widely.
Light helicopters like the Robinson R22 have a :i: :i: :i:
very simple control and display, figure 10.34.
% v BUS TlE v %
GEN MAIN1 00 MAIN2 GEN
1 2
v v
N-ESS 1 SS 2
Figure 10.35
Figure 10.34
Modern helicopters can have a much more

detailed display , although the control is kept
simple due to automation of some funct ions.
System status may be displayed on the EFIS
such as the example in figure 10.35; the overhead
control panel from the same helicopter is shown
in figure 10.36. Figure 10.36

Intentionally blank

11
Logic Circuits and Computers

We use numbers between zero and nine to count. Once we get beyond
nine we start with one and zero again, which we call ten, and count up
to nineteen. After nineteen is twenty, or two tens and no units and on to
twenty-one, two tens and one unit, and continue on through hundreds,
thousands and millions. This is the decimal system, or numbers based on
ten, and derives directly from the numbers of digits on our hands.
The nice thing about this is that all decimal

Binary counting only involves two digits numbers can be reduced to a sequence of ones
and zeros. Electrically ones and zeros are very
Other number systems exist. Digital computers easy to deal with as they can be represented
work with numbers based on multiples of two, the as the positions of a switch, on or off. The very
binary system. Just as we have no single symbol earliest computers used mechanical switches
for ten, relying instead on a one and a zero, the to reproduce the ones and zeros but nowadays
binary system has no single symbol for two or millions of small transistors are used instead on
above. Now as we count this happens ..... an integrated circuit using different voltage levels
to represent the ones and the zeroes.
Decimal Binary Meaning
Counting Devices
0 0 No unit
The basic counting device is called a "flip-flop".
This is a semiconductor with two equally stable
One unit states which we could equate with 1 and 0. If a
pulse is fed into it when the state equates to 0 it
2 10 One two, no unit will change to 1 and if one is fed in when it is at 1
it will change to 0.
3 11 One two, one unit

A flip-flop has two equally stable states
One four (two squared), If we start counting with a string of binary zeros
4 100 no twos, no units
representing a string of flip-flops and input a pulse
One four (two squared), into the first column, units, then 0000 changes to
5 101 no twos, one unit 0001. Of course, unless something is done, the
next pulse in will simply change the 1 back to 0,
One four (two squared), but if we make the flip-flop output a pulse to the
6 110
one two, no units next column as it does this the next digit will
One four (two squared), change to 1.
7 111
one two, one unit
This means two pulses in becomes 0010, which is
One eight (two cubed), 2 in binary. The next pulse changes the first flip-
8 1000
no fours, no twos, no units flop to 1 again so three pulses is 0011. The fourth
changes the first column to zero sending a pulse
One eight (two cubed), to column two, which also changes to zero and
9 1001
no fours, no twos, one unit sends a pulse to column three, which changes to
One eight (two cubed), 1. Now we have four pulses reading 0100, four in
10 1010 binary, and we can theoretically continue counting
no fours, one two, no units
up to the processing limit of the computer.
Figure 11.1
A ircraft general knowledge v6.1 .2 11.1

11 Logic Circuits and Computers
Bits and Bytes one only if the inputs are one AND one, all other
combinat ions produce an output of zero. This
can be shown in the table below with the AND
In computing an individual binary digit is called a gate symbol next to it. This logic gate is often
"bit" and a series of "bits" makes a "word". The called an "all or nothing gate".
number of "bits" in a "word" is governed by the
computer itself, most modern computers have
words of 32 bits and are therefore called 32 bit Input A Input B Output a
computers. Do not confuse "bits" with "bytes".
A "byte" is a unit of storage capacity, the space 1 0 0
taken to store a single character, and a "word"
may be stored in several "bytes". Computer 0 1 0
memory is expressed in units of megabytes ,
0 0 0
millions of bytes, and gigabytes, thousands of
millions of bytes. 1 1 1
A bit is a binary digit, 32 bits make a word .

A byte is a unit of storage capacity
AND Gate
Other Number Systems Figure 11.2
A lthough digital computers wo rk in binary they The second basic logic gate is the OR gate . This
can also deal with numbers using the base 8, the is designed to output a one if either of the inputs
octal system, and the base 16, the hexadecima l are one. This is shown in the table below with
system. Octal numbers are written wit h a small the OR gate symbol next to it. This gate is also
8 at the end of the number, 35478. Hexadecima l known as an "any or all gate".
numbers have a problem in that they need single
symbols to show the decimal numbers ten,
eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen and fifteen so Input A Input B Output a
the letters A , B, C, D, E and F are used wit h a
small 16 at the end to show the base. 3D9 E16 is 1 0 1
a hexadecima l number.
0 1 1
Octal is base 8, hexadecimal is base 16 0 0 0
1 1 1
Logic Gates
Apart from being used as counters
:: -DI---.• a
sem iconductors as combinations of transistors OR Gate

can be put together so that two inputs, each a Figure 11.3
one or a zero represented by different voltage
levels, can produce a single out put. They can be
The third basic gate is the inverter or NOT
designed so that different combinations of inputs
gate. This reverses any input , a one becomes
produce different outputs , these are logic gates.
a zero and vice-versa . The NOT gate symbol is
The first of three basic logic gates to consider is triang ular and the output is show n as, A, NOT A.
the A ND gate. With two inputs we could have The function of the NOT gate is to invert the input
zero and one, one and zero, zero and zero or one signal so that the output is always the opposite
and one. The A ND gate is designed to output a sense.

Input A Input B Output Q
Input A Input B 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0
NOT Gate
NAND Gate
Now we have the three basic gates we can start The final combination is to negate the input to the
to refine them. A standard OR gate can be gate rather than the output. This is known as an
modified so that it exclusively outputs one only inhibited or negated gate.
when the inputs are one and zero and not when
both are one. This is an exclusive OR or XOR
gate. Input A NotA Input B OutputQ
1 0 0 0
Input A Input B Output Q
0 1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 0
:_: -----, -----· Q

Figure 11.7
Inhibited AND Gate
X·OR Gate
Figure 11.5 Input A NotA Input B OutputQ
1 0 0 0
An A ND gate and a NOT gate can be joined to
make a NAND gate. Now the NOT element is 0 1 1 1
shown by the small circle on the output side. This
could be described as an inverted AND gate. 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
Inhibited OR Gate
Figure 11.8

Integrated Circuits Figure 11.9 shows a section of a MOST integrated

circuit with metal connections on top, separated
by the oxide layer and empty spaces from N and
Groups of logic gates made of transist ors, P type semiconductors below. The base P type
resistors, capacitors and diodes can be material is often called the substrate.
constructed together on an integrated circuit (IC)
made of layers of materials diffused with doping
The base material is called the substrate
elements and etched into the correct shapes.
The starting material is made of three layers, The design allows current to flow in specific paths
metal at the top, then an insulating oxide layer, through the metal connections and then across a
then layers of semiconductors. The sequence series of PN diode junctions , or through PNP or
metal, oxide, semiconductor is the origin of the NPN junctions, which act as transistors . The
name given to this technique, the MOST system. miniaturisation and reliability of integrated circuits
has made them common in everyday equipment.
MOST, metal, oxide, semi-conductor
technique
Oxide Insulator
Metal connections (copper)
Isolation region
P type material (gennanlum)
N type material (silicon)
Figure 11.9

Digital Computers
Memory
Digital computers use semiconductors in

integrated circuits to store and process
information in binary form. The computer system
Input Central Output
can be represented in its broadest sense by the processing unit interface
interface
block diagram , above , which shows data entering
the system through input peripherals, such as
keyboards , exiting through output peripherals
such as monitor screens and printers. Figure 11.11
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of

the computer. Its job is to execute the programs
--+ Output --+ Data
stored in the memory by fetching the instructions,
peripherals out
examining them and then executing them in
a sequential manner. The CPU's task can be
described as the FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE
Figure 11.10
cycle.
The computer itself is made up of hardware and The CPU has three component parts.
software . The physical parts of the computer are
• The control unit, responsible for fetching the
the hardware , while the programs used are called
instructions from memory and determining
the software .
their type.
A digital computer has six basic features and
• The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which
capabilities , a standard known as the von
performs arithmetical and logical operations .
Neumann model.
• A small, high speed, memory used to store
The von Neumann model calls for :
temporary results and control information .
• Input and output facilities The memory is made up of registers , often
only 32 bits big.
• A processing unit
• Memory The Memory

• Programs and data sharing the same memory The function of the memory is to store programs
and data , while the computer is operating and in
• Program steps carried out in a sequential some cases, when the computer is turned off. If
manner information does disappear when the power is
removed it is called volatile memory.
• Processor and memory jo ined as a pair
The most common form of memory is random
The internal organisation of a simple computer access memory (RAM) otherwise known as read/
incorporating the von Neumann architecture is write memory.
shown at figure 11.11.
RAM is volat ile
The data in RAM can be changed easily while the

computer is operating . In the early computers of
the 1950s and 1960s the alignment of magnetic
rings, magnetic core memory, was used to
provide a non-volatile form of RAM. Today
volatile semiconductor RAM is used instead.

Semiconductor RAM can be divided into two Analogue Computers

sub-categories, static RAM and dynamic RAM
(DRAM). Static RAM will hold information
without being refreshed for as long as power Although digital computers are the most common,
is supplied but DRAM needs refreshing every other forms of computers do exist, both analogue
few milliseconds. DRAM is used because its and hybrid. An example of a mechanical
simplicity allows four times the density of static analogue computer could be a system of gears
RAM but it is slower to use than static RAM. which gives a varying output in response to a
varying input, perhaps to calculate the positions
of planets at different dates. Electrical analogue
DRAM is slower than static RAM
computers also exist but they do not have
the processing or memory capacity of digital
Read only memory (ROM) is data stored in a chip
computers, their advantage is that they operate
that cannot be erased intentionally or otherwise.
in real time, an input directly produces an output
ROM is used for start up programs and standard
rather than being broken down into digital data in
mathematical routines.
the middle of the process.
Data stored in ROM cannot be erased Hybrid computers take the advantages of
both systems, usually with the digital element
Programmable read only memory (PROM) can be controlling the analogue element, exchanging
programmed once into a "blank" chip making information through analogue/digital and digital/
manufacture easier. analogue converters.
Erasable programmable read only memory

(EPROM) can allow chips to be re-used after a
lengthy erasing process, involving ultra-violet light
and electrically erasable programmable read only
memory (EEPROM) does the same thing more
swiftly with electrical pulses. EEPROM is only
a manufacturing tool, the process is far too slow
to substitute for RAM. The EPROM keeps its
memory content when the power is turned off.
The Input and Output Interfaces

The task of the input interface is to convert
input data from a format that we can use into
something the computer can use. An excellent
example of this is the computer mouse. The
information going in is analogue, continuously
varying, and it must be converted to digital data
for the computer to use. This would involve an
analogue/digital converter at the input interface.
The task of the output interface is to carry out

this process in reverse, often to use a digital/
analogue converter to change computer data
into something meaningful to us. A sound card,
for instance, converts digital audio into analogue
information.

12
Engine Basic Principles
Helicopters are powered either by piston or by gas turbine engines . Although

the two types look very different, they are both internal combustion engines .
In other words, they both convert the chemical energy of the fuel to heat
energy.
As its name implies , an internal combustion the volume of the gas will increase. Expressed
engine burns fuel with air internally . In a piston as a formula :
engine, heating the air increases pressure within
a cylinder to produce power. In a gas turbine P,V, =PV 2 2
engine heating the air increases its volume , and
Where P = pressure, V = volume and the absolute
hence its velocity, and this is used to produce
temperature of the gas remains constant.
power at a turbine and thrust from its exhaust.
In practice the situation is a little more complex
Internal combustion engines are much easier
because any change in pressure will also affect
to understand if you have first grasped the
the temperature of the gas.
underlying physical principles . It's important that
you learn them - not least because some exam
questions will directly test your knowledge of the
physics. So before we examine each engine
type in detail we must revisit some elementary
principles.
Combustion Combustion
Constant temperature
Figure 12.2
Charles' Law
Figure 12.1 Charles' law describes the relationship between
the temperature and volume of a gas.
The volume of a given mass of gas at constant

The Properties and Behaviour of pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
Gases thermodynamic temperature . In other words,
if the temperature of the gas is increased (and
its pressure remains constant) it will expand to
Boyle's Law occupy more volume.
Boyle's law describes the relationship between Expressed as a formula:

the volume and pressure of a gas.
The volume of a given mass of gas is inversely

::, = ::2
T, T2
proportional to its pressure at constant
temperature . Put simply, if a gas is compressed Provided that the pressure remains constant
its volume will decrease. If pressure is reduced

12 Engine Basic Principles
Temp 1 Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli's theorem applies the law of
conservation of energy to a gas. It states that
the sum of the pressure, potential and kinetic
energies per unit volume is constant at any point
in a non-viscous incompressible fluid in steady
subsonic flow . Expressed as an equation:
static pressure + dynamic pressure
= total pressure =constant
or
static pressure + (1/2 x density x velocity 2 )
Figure 12.3
= total pressure = constant
In effect the theo ry is saying that air mass flow
must always be constant. If you increase the
The Comb ined Gas Law rate of flow (the kinetic energy) then the pressure
(pressure energy) must drop.
To accurately describe the behaviour of a gas we
must combine Boyles' and Charles' laws. From this we can make a couple of deductions
about the properties of a flowing gas. When gas
The true relationship between the pressure (P),
flows through a restriction (a convergent duct) it
temperature (T), and volume (V) of an ideal
must increase its velocity to maintain the same
(hypothetical) gas can be expressed as the
mass flow. Converse ly whe n gas flows into a
formula ,
divergent duct its velocity must reduce.
PV
T = a constant Hence:
• A divergent duct will cause a decrease in

This allows us to state the following:
velocity and an increase in static temp erature
• If the volume of a gas is kept constant, its and pressure.
pressure will increase with temperature.
• A convergent duct will cause an increase in
• If the volume of a gas is reduced, its pressure velocity and a reduction in static pressure and
and tempe rature will increase. temperature.
• If the volume of a gas is increased its

pressure and temperature will reduce.
• If the pressure of a gas is kept constant , its

volume will increase with temperatu re.
Conservation of Energy
Pressure Velocity
The law of conservation of energy dictates that reduces increase
s
energy can be neither created nor destroyed. So
in a perfectly isolated system, energy may be
Figure 12.4
converted from one form to another, but it wi ll
never be lost.
This has important implications for the energies

contained in a flowing gas. In this context the
sum of the pressure, heat and kinetic energies of
a given mass of gas must remain constant.

Gas Properties Newton's Laws of Motion

Given these laws we can make some important
deductions about the behaviour of an ideal gas: Newton's laws are fundamental to our
understanding of how a piston or jet engine
• At a constant temperature, pressure will generates thrust and how the mass of gas inside
double if the volume is halved. these engines behaves. It's very important to
learn these laws and to understand that they
• At a constant volume gas pressure will apply, not only to the engine's moving parts,
increase with an increase in gas temperature.
but also to the air moving through the engine or
• At a constant pressure density increases with the propeller disc. Air has mass and therefore
a decrease in temperature possesses inertia and momentum.
• In a given mass of flowing gas, as the speed Newton's 1st Law

of flow increases the pressure will reduce and
vice versa. A body will continue in a state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless acted on by an
• If pressure and temperature are constant, external force.
density will decrease with humidity.
Newton's 2nd Law

Mechanisms for Heat Transfer
The rate of change of momentum is proportional
to, and takes place in the direction of, the applied
So far we have considered an ideal gas flowing
force.
in perfect isolation from its surroundings (an
adiabatic system). But in practice energy, in the
form of heat, is lost to, and gained from, external Newton's 3rd Law
sources such as the engine components. Energy
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
may also be lost through mechanical inefficiency
caused, for example, by friction from bearings.
Definitions
Piston and gas turbines engines are no exception.
The heat of combustion is transferred to the air
and to the engine components. There are three Mass The quantity of matter in a body.
mechanisms by which heat can be transferred
Weight The gravitational force acting on a body
from one mass to another:
at the Earth's surface.
Convection Heat is transferred indirectly through
Inertia The property of a body (which is
the circulation of a warm gas or
proportional to its mass) which
liquid.
opposes any change in motion.
Conduction Heat energy passes directly from
Force Force is an influence that causes a body
molecule to molecule when two
to accelerate, rotate, or cause a
bodies touch.
deformation of the body. Force is
Radiation Heat energy radiates as measured by the rate of change
electromagnetic waves from a of momentum of the body. The
relatively hot body. These are Sl unit of force is the Newton.
then absorbed by another body. One Newton is equivalent to the
force required to accelerate a one
kilogram mass at one metre per
second per second.
Force= Mass x Acceleration

12 Engine Basic Principles
Momentum Is the tendency of a body to continue Power

to move in its direction of travel.
It's the product of the body's
mass and velocity. The modern unit of power is the kilowatt, but the
older unit, horsepower, is still commonly used.
Momentum = Mass x Velocity One horsepower equals 746 watts. There are
three principal measurements of horsepower:
Work The work done by a force is defined as
the product of the force and the Indicated Horsepower (IHP) is the theoretical
distance moved. The Sl unit of power produced by a reciprocating engine. It is
work is the joule, which is defined calculated from the pressure developed in the
as the work done when a force cylinders but takes no account of the work that
of one Newton moves an object must be done within the engine.
through a distance of one metre.
Friction Horsepower (FHP) Friction horse
Work = Force x Distance power is the work done within the engine; in other
words, the work required to drive the engine's
Power Power is the rate of doing work. It can mechanical components.
be expressed by the formula:
Brake Horsepower (BHP) or shaft horsepower
force x distance is the power delivered to, for example, the rotor
Power=
time shaft. It derives its name from the brake drum
The modern (SI) unit of power is dynamometer originally used to measure it. BHP
the watt. is IHP minus the power lost through friction and
compression.
A watt is 1 joule per second.
Engine power output is most Efficiency

commonly expressed in kilowatts.
The more work that an engine has to do to power
Power toThe power to weight ratio is
its own internal components the less efficient
Weight Ratio also called specific power output.
it will be as a power source. The mechanical
It is measured in kilowatts per
efficiency of an engine is expressed as the ratio
kilogram (kW/kg).
of useful power produced to the theoretical power
produced. Modern piston engines are about 80%
efficient.
Engines are also described in terms of their

thermal and volumetric efficiency. These
concepts are explained in detail later.

13
Piston Engines

Piston Engines 13
Both diesel and spark ignition engines can be referred to as "piston engines".
Both types of engine are used in modern aircraft designs and both develop
power in the same way. Piston engines produce power by converting the
chemical energy contained in the fuel to mechanical energy. The fuel is
burned with air to release its energy in the for m of heat.
Chemical Heat Pressure Converted to Mechanical

Converted to Converted to
energy energy energy energy
Figure 13.1
The heat is absorbed by the gas which The mixture is ignited by an electric spark plug.
experiences a marked increase in pressure As combustion takes place, the hot air attempts
energy. This pressure energy is converted to to expand, but is confined by the cylinder. This
mechanical energy by a piston. causes a marked increase in pressure, which
forces the piston down the cylinder.
The Spark Ignition Engine The piston is connected to a crankshaft that
converts its linear, (up and down) motion, into
A ir is the wo rking fluid of all internal combustion rotary motion. The up and down motion of the
engines. In this context the term "air" covers piston is more accurately described as reciprocal
all the va rious forms of gas encountered in the movement, hence the term "reciprocating engine".
engine. Atmospheric air is sucked in but when
The natural momentum of the piston and
mixed with fuel, it is called "the mixture". The
crankshaft cause the piston to travel back up the
gas produced from burning the mixture is usually
cylinder. As it does so, an exhaust valve opens to
called the "products of combustion" or "exhaust
allow the products of combustion to be driven out
gas".
through an exhaust port.
Principle of Operation The crankshaft is either connected directly to the

rotor, or indirect ly through a gearbox .
See figure 13.2. Gasoline fuel (petrol) is mixed
with air. The mixture is introduced into a cylinder
through an inlet port. The inlet port is then closed
by a n inlet valve. The cylinder is sea led at the
other end by a moveable, but gas-tight , piston.
Aircraft general knowledg e v6.1.2 13.1

13 Piston Engines
Figure 13.2
The piston and crankshaft arrangement is

analogous to a bicycle, figure 13.3. By increasing
the force applied to the pedals, the cyclist
increases the power supplied to the rear wheel.
In the same way the increased force exerted by
the pistons is translated into increased power to
drive the rotor.
Figure 13.3

Piston Engines 13
Function of the Major Components The Theoretical Four-Stroke

The major components of a piston engine are Cycle
shown here.
To produce one power stroke, the engine must
perform 3 additional strokes to allow mixture
Valves into and out of the cylinder, and to pressurise
Cylinder head the mixture. This gives a total of four strokes to
Spark plug
Cylinder
complete a full cycle. The four strokes, in their
order of operation, are as follows:
Piston
• Induction: The mixture must be drawn into the
cylinder.
Connecting rod
• Compression : The mixture is compressed
Crankshaft
to maximise the pressure produced by
combustion .
• Power: The piston is driven down the cylinder

to produce mechanical power.
Figure 13.4
• Exhaust: The waste gases must be expelled
from the cylinder before the who le process
The key points to note are: can begin again.
• The fuel and air are mixed together in a finely The four strokes are sometimes better
measured ratio before entering the engine. remembered as suck, squeeze, bang and blow.
They are more correctly known as the four-stroke
• The mixture enters the cylinder through the cycle; or the 'Otto cycle' named after its inventor.
inlet valve.
• The piston fits tightly inside the cylinder to

ensure that no gas escapes around its sides.
• The fuel/air mixture is ignited using an

electrical spark plug. Top dead centre (TDC)
• The pressure resulting from combustion

1 Stroke
Bottom dead centre (BDC)
drives the piston down the cylinder.
• The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a

connecting rod.
180°
• The connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft
rotation
crankshaft off-centre from its centre of
rotation. This forms a lever arm which
translates the reciprocating movement of Figure 13.5
the piston into the rotary movement of the
crankshaft.
The term "stroke" refers to the distance the piston
• After combust ion the exhaust valve opens to travels between its lowest and highest points
allow the waste gas to be driven out of the within the cylinder. The topmost limit of travel is
cylinder by the piston. called top dead centre (TDC). The lowest limit
is called bottom dead centre (BDC). Both are
• The inlet and exhaust valves are opened by important reference points for the operation of the
push rods and a camshaft. They are closed valves and ignition.
by spring pressure.

13 Piston Engines
There are two other important points to note:

• Inlet valve closed
• Ignition occurs between the compression and • Piston moves from
power strokes. BDC to TDC
• Volume decreases
• To move the piston through one stroke , the Compression Stroke
crankshaft must rotate 180°. • Pressure Increases
The Induction Stroke ·Total crankshaft

rotation 360•
The inlet valve opens at TDC just as the piston
begins to travel down the cylinder. As the
available cylinder volume increases , the internal
pressure (and temperature) reduces, causing the
mixture to be sucked into the cylinder. As the
piston reaches the bottom of its travel, BDC, the Figure 13.7
inlet valve closes to seal the chamber.
• Inlet valve open

Combustion
• Piston moves from Combustion takes place between the
TDC to BDC compression and power strokes. The mixture
• Volume Increases is ignited by an electric spark produced by one
Induction Stroke
or more spark plugs, located at the top of the
• Pressure reduces
cylinder.
• Temperature reduces
• Total crankshaft In the theoretical cycle combustion occurs
rotation 1eo• instantaneously, wh ilst the piston is at TDC .
Theoretically then, there is no change in volume
during combustion. This is why piston engines
are sometimes known as constant volume
engines. Combustion in such a confined space
produces a very large increase in pressure and
Figure 13.6 temperature.
An engine that induces the fuel and air in this way The Power Stroke
is called a normally aspirated engine.
The rapid rise in pressure causes the piston to be
forced down the cylinder. This is the only stroke
The Compression Stroke in the four stroke cycle when power is produced.
The compression stroke begins as the piston As the available cylinder volume increases, the
starts to travel up the cylinder. Both the inlet pressure and temperature of the combusted gas
and ex haust valves are closed , so the pressure reduces. The average pressure exerted on the
and temperature of the mixture increases as the piston during the power stroke is called the mean
volume in the cylinder reduces. At TDC the fuel effective pressure (MEP). This value is used to
is ignited by the spark plug. calculate the theoretical power of the engine.
The power stroke is sometimes referred to as the

'firing expansion stroke'.

Piston Engines 13
• Both valves closed Work on the Air

• Piston moves from The useful wo rk done on the air during the four
TDC to BDC
stroke Otto cycle can be shown graphically. The
• Volume Increases size of the area bounded by the graph represents
Power Stroke
• Pressure reduces the power produced.
·Temperature reduces You can see that this area, and thus power, could
• Total crankshaft be increased, either by drawing in more air or by
rotation 540° increasing the pressure. These are important
considerat ions which we will consider later.
Figure 13.8
lsochoric
combustion
The Exhaust Stroke

At BDC,just as the piston begins to rise, the
exhaust valve opens. The rising piston causes lsochoric
exhaust
the pressure and temperature in the cylinder valve
to increase. The products of combustion are open
expelled from the cylinder, through the exhaust
valve and out to atmosphere.
TDC Volume BDC
Figure 13.10
• Exhaust valve open
• Piston moves from
BDCto TDC During the theoretical cycle the air is subjected
to two adiabatic processes of compression and
• Volume decreases Exhaust Stroke expansion, (change in pressure with no heat
• Pressure Increases energy added or removed), and two isochoric
• Temperature Increases processes (change in pressure w ith no change in
• Total crankshaft
volume).
rotation 720°
Figure 13.9
Two revolutions of the crankshaft are required to

complete the four stroke cycle.

13 Piston Engines
The Practical Four Stroke Cycle Valve Timing

Within the ineffective crank angle the piston can
An engine designed to operate the theoretical do little work on the cylinder gases. So the valve
four stroke cycle would produce some power, but timing is adjusted to exploit the momentum of the
it would be very inefficient. gas and to overcome its inertia.
Air has mass and therefore possesses inertia and As the exhaust stroke comes to its end, but before
momentum . It doesn't want to flow into or out the piston reaches TDC, the inlet valve opens.
of the engine, but once it is flowing it will tend to This allows fresh mixture to enter the cylinder
continue to flow. before the start of the induction stroke proper.
The force that makes the air flow, comes from The process of opening the inlet valve before
the pressure changes produced by the changing TDC is known as valve lead.
volume of the cylinder. But close to TDC and
BDC there is very little linear movement of the
piston, even though the angular rotation speed Valve lag·
of the crankshaft remains unchanged . This is compression stroke
known as the ineffective crank angle and marks
the periods where there is little change in cylinder
volume and therefore little change in cylinder
pressure.
Ineffective
crank angle
Small linear
• movement of piston
compared to large
angular rotation of
crankshaft at TDC
and BDC. Figure 13.12
The inlet valve remains open while the piston

travels down the cylinder and continues to remain
open as the piston enters the area of ineffective
crank angle at the bottom of the stroke. The
momentum of the gas flowing through the inlet
Figure 13.11
valve, ensures that mixture continues to flow
into the cylinder even though the piston is barely
moving .
A further problem with the theoret ical cycle is
that it assumes that the combustion process The inlet valve remains open beyond BDC, and
is instantaneous . In reality it takes time to for a short while as the piston starts its return on
completely burn the mixture. Consequently the compression stroke. This is called, valve lag.
it takes time for the combusting gas to reach The inlet valve closes before the piston passes
maximum pressure in the cylinder. the ineffective crank angle.
The practical four stroke cycle exploits the Inlet valve lead and lag both help to maximise the
characteristics of ineffective crank angle and finite amount of mixture that enters the cylinder. Valve
combustion time, to maximise engine efficiency. lead and lag is measured in degrees of crankshaft
It does this by altering the position at which the rotation.
inlet and exhaust valves open and close, (valve
timing) , and by adjusting the point at which When both the inlet valve and the exhaust valves
are closed the mixture is compressed. The
ignition occurs (ignition timing).
compressed mixture is then ignited.

Piston Engines 13
Both valves remain closed at the start of the The exact point in the cycle at which each valve
power stroke as the pressure of combustion opens and closes is dictated by the shape of
forces the piston down. the cams on the camshaft. Because the cam
profile can't be changed, valve t iming remains
However, most of the work on the power stroke is unchanged regardless of engine RPM.
done well before the piston reaches BDC - and
certainly before it reaches the ineffective crank Some modern car engines can vary the valve
angle. This gives the engine designer another timing but this system is not yet used on aero
opportunity to increase efficiency. engines.
The exhaust valve is opened just before the end

of the power stroke; in other words, exhaust valve Ignition Timing
lead. The very small theoretical loss in power is It takes a finite time for the mixture to combust
more than compensated for by the benefits. Not and thus reach peak pressure. So if the spark
only is there a longer period available to clear the is timed to occur at exactly TDC, the piston
cylinder of waste gas, but the residual pressure will already have travelled some way down the
greatly assists the process. cylinder, before peak pressure is reached.
The exhaust valve remains open until slightly after Again the engine designer exploits the ineffective
TDC, valve lag. This allows the last vestiges of crank angle to increase efficiency. Ignition
exhaust gas to exit under their own momentum. is timed to occur just before TDC on the
By this time the inlet valve is already open to start compression stroke. So combust ion is well under
the cycle again. way by the time the piston begins its downwa rd
movement on the power stroke.
Valve overIa p • In fact combustio n is completed, and maximum

exhaust stroke pressure produced, just as the piston leaves the
period of ineffective crank angle on the down
power stroke- about 6-12° after TDC. This
increases peak pressure and maximises the
power generated on the power stroke.
When the spark is timed to occur before TDC the

ignition is said to be "advanced".
While the rate of burning remains relatively

constant, the speed at which the piston t ravels
does not. At higher engine revolutions the piston
is moving so rapidly that, if nothing is done to
Figure 13.13 alter the timing of the spark , it w ill have already
completed a significant portion of the power
stroke before peak pressure is achieved. If this
The period when both inlet and exhaust valves
were allowed to happen, the maximum power
are open at the end of the exhaust stroke , and
produced by the engine would reduce markedly
the start of the induction stroke, is called valve
with increased RPM.
overlap. During the over lap period the action of
exhaust gases flowing out helps to draw in the To overcome the problem , the ignition is further
fresh mixture. A process known as scavenging. advanced as the RPM increases.
A further advantage of valve lead and lag is the
longer period available for valve operation. This
reduces the speed at which the valves have to
work, which significantly reduces the stresses
imposed on their operating gear.

13 Piston Engines
Just before TDC TDC Just after TDC
Figure 13.14
Likewise, as engine speed reduces , the ignition These modifications to the theoretical cycle can
must be retarded. If it were not, in the extreme be graphically displayed by a timing diagram,
case, peak pressure might be achieved before figure 13.15. This relates piston movement , valve
the piston reaches the top of its travel. Not only operation and ignition to the angular rotation of
would this be highly inefficient but it would also crankshaft. The angles shown in the figure are
impose huge and potentially damaging forces representative only. Each engine design will have
on the engine components . It could even force it own particular timing values.
the crankshaft to reverse its direction of rotation.
There is a real risk of this happening during the
very slow RPM associated with engine starting .
During start the ignition is usually retarded to
around TDC.
TDC
Induction
- Compression
t) Ignition
- Combustion
Power
- Exhaust
-;.i-----f'-- lgnilion
advance
Valve lead
Inlet valve closes sr
..·· Exhaust valve
...···
opens
Figure 13.15

Piston Engines 13
Multi Cylinder Engines In-Line Engines

The cylinders are positioned in line. These
We noted earlier that one of the factors engines can be air or liquid cooled. The number
determining engine power is the mass of mixture of cylinders is often restricted to four or six, to
ignited in the cylinder. The greater the mass that ensure adequate air cooling, and to limit the
can be combusted, the greater the power. overall length of the engine.
The obvious way to increase mass would be to In-line engines are often inverted to provide
increase the size of the cylinder. But in the four- greater propeller tip clearance with the ground.
stroke cycle power is produced for only 25% of This can give rise to problems with oil pooling in
the time. The other three strokes represent power the cylinders.
that must be used for "housekeeping" tasks.
In practice cylinder size is increased but, more

importantly, multiple cylinders are used. Multiple
cylinder designs have another benefit- they
produce smoother power delivery. Four stroke
aero-engines normally have at least four
cylinders.
A four cylinder engine is designed so that each

cylinder is on a different stroke, ensuring that a
power stroke is occurring at all times.
Because a complete Otto cycle takes two

revolutions of the crankshaft, 720', the firing
interval of an engine is found by dividing 720' by
the number of cylinders. A six cylinder engine
would produce a power stroke every 120' of Figure 13.16
crankshaft rotation.
Classification of Engines Radial Engines

Engines can be classified according to their As the name suggests, in a radial engine the
design characteristics. Most commonly by the: cylinders are arranged radially around a central
crankshaft. Radial engine designs have the
• Number of cylinders. advantage of being short, offering a better power
to weight ratio than other engine arrangements.
• Cylinder arrangement.
Radial engines require an odd number of
• Method of cooling. cylinders. The engine shown here has seven,
arranged in a single bank. More cylinders could
• Type of fuel and air induction system.
be added by using multiple banks. The ultimate
• Rotor drive arrangement. radial piston engine design had 28 cylinders
arranged in four banks of seven.
Some of the more common engine arrangements
are described below. Radial engines are air cooled and were often
the preferred arrangement for larger aircraft.
However, their relatively large frontal area can
incur a significant drag penalty. Like inverted
in-line engines, oil can pool in the lower cylinders
when the engine isn't running.

13 Piston Engines
Horizontally Opposed Engine

The horizontally opposed, or "flat" engine is the
most common multi-cylinder arrangement used
in light helicopters . The cylinders and pistons
are arranged equally, either side of a common
crankshaft.
Figure 13.17
The ·v· Engine

The 'V' engine is effectively two in-line engines,
set at an angle to each other and joined by a
single crankshaft. This arrangement allows the
designer to increase the number of cylinders, Figure 13.19
without increasing the engine's overall length.
This arrangement produces a short, rigid engine
that can sit easily within a streamlined nacelle,
so reducing drag. Four, six and eight cylinder
arrangements are common . They are usually air
cooled but some designs may have liquid cooled
cylinder heads. The internal arrangement is
shown in figure 13.20.
Figure 13.18
Figure 13.20

Piston Engines 13
Major Components of a Spark Compressio n rings are fitted around the top of the
piston to prevent gasses from escaping around
Ignition Engine the sk irt. They are made from centrifuga lly spun
cast iron. Carbon in the cast iron makes the rings
self lubricating and the natural springiness of the
Cylinder and Cylinder Head material ensures a gas tight seal.
Oil control rings are used to ensure that oil is

spread evenly over the inner surface of the
cylinder. An oil scraper ring is fitted to the piston
skirt to draw excess oil back into the crankcase.
Figure 13.21
The cylinder comprises two parts, the barrel and

the head, which are bolted together. A gasket
between the two faces ensures a completely gas
Figure 13.22
tight seal. The barrel is usually made of steel and
the head of alloy. Air cooled engines have fins
on the barrel and head to help to disperse heat.
Liquid cooled engine have galleries incorporated
Connect ing Rod
within the casting to allow a flow of cooling liquid The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a
around the engine. connecting rod. A hinged gudgeon pin connects
the rod to the piston at the "sma ll end". The rod
Spark Plugs is attached to the crank pin of the crankshaft at
the "big end". The connecting rod is usually H
Aero -engines always incorporate two spa rk plugs shaped for extra strength.
per cylinder. This in-built redundancy increases
safety. It also ensures more efficient combustion
because the mixture is simultaneously ignited
Crankshaft
at either side of the cylinder. This produces a The crankshaft lies between the two halves of the
quicker and more even burn. crankcase and is supported in bearing journa ls.
Shell type main bearings are used to minimise
Pistons friction.
Alu minium alloy pistons fit tightly in the cylinder. Crankshafts need to be very strong and are made
The top of the piston is called the crown. The from heavy steel alloys. They are sometimes
piston is tapered slightly towards the crown hollowed to save weight and to allow cooling
to allow for thermal expansion. The crown lubricating oil to flow through them.
itself is shaped to ensure optimum combustion
conditions. The lower part of the piston is called The distance between the centre of the
the skirt. cranksha ft jo urnal and the centre of t he crank pin
is known as the crank throw.
A ircraft genera l knowledge v6.1.2 13.11

13 Piston Engines
The amount of crank throw determines the The crankshaft, connecting rods and pistons are
distance the piston moves up and down in its collectively known as the "crank assembly ".
cylinder. In one revolution the piston will move
twice the distance of the crank throw. This Camshaft
distance is known as the stroke.
The camshaft is driven through gears by the
Crankshaft
2 x Throw
------- -------
I= Stroke
------ ·
crankshaft. The camshaft always rotates at half
the speed of the engine crankshaft and operates
the valves .
Crankpin
Balance weight Crankcase
Crankweb
The crankcase forms the main structural element
of the engine. Its two halves are cast from a light,
strong alloy such as magnesium.
The main rotating assemblies , the crankshaft

and camshaft, are mounted in the crankcase
Journal and supported by bearings. Internal passages
within the crankcase allow lubricating oil to flow
to the bearings. In some cases the crankcase
Figure 13.23 also serves as the oil reservoir. A crankcase
breather pipe vents excess internal air pressure to
Reducing the stroke saves weight because the atmosphere .
cylinder, connecting rod and crank throw are all
The crankcase provides mounting points:
shortened and therefore have less mass. This is
why aircraft engines tend to be short stroked. • For the cylinders.
Counterweights are used to counteract the • For the engine itself, to attach it to the
unbalancing effect of the piston and connecting airframe.
rod.
• For an accessory gearbox .
The crankshaft is designed to permit a particular
cylinder firing order. A typical firing order for a Fuel, oil, ignition, hydraulic and pneumatic
four cylinder engine would be 1,3,4,2. Alternating systems are driven from the accessory gearbox.
the firing order in this way reduces the stresses The engine starter motor is sometimes also fitted
on the crankshaft . to the gearbox .
Tacho drive
Vacuum pump mounting pad
Crankcase breather
Induction manifolds
Magneto
Fuel pump Oil sump
Figure 13.24

Piston Engines 13
Valves and Valve Gear moves up, sp ring pressure returns the valve to its
fully seated , closed position.
The Valves
The rocker arm is operated by a push rod that
The inlet and exhaust valves are poppet valves. rests on a camshaft driven by the crankshaf t.
They are usually mounted in the cylinder head. The profile of the cams on the camshaf t is
The valves close under spring pressure and are carefully set to ensure that the valves open and
opened by the camshaft, via the valve operating close, at precisely the right point in the four-stroke
gear. The inlet valve is normally larger than the sequence .
exhaust valve.
A tappet is fitted between the camshaft and
The poppet valves are made from a special steel the push rod. This helps to translate smoothly
alloy, designed to withstand the very high thermal the movement of the cam into the reciprocating
and mechanical stresses imposed by high speed, motion of the push rod. The assembly is adj usted
high temperature operation. The valve seat is so that when the va lve is fully closed a small gap
carefully machined to ensure a gas tight seal at exists between the top of the valve stem and the
the port. rocker pad. This "tappet clearance" allows for
thermal expansion.
Rocker arm
Tappet
Clearance Adjusti ng nuts
Valve stem Push Rod
Valve seat
Figure 13.25
Figure 13.26
To assist cooling, the exhaust valve is hollowed

and partially filled with sodium. At high The correct tappet clearance ensures that
tempe ratures the sodium melts , flowing up and the valves close completely at all operating
down the stem, transferring heat from the valve temperatures. An excessively large clea rance
face to the valve stem. will prevent the valve f rom opening fully. An
excessively small clearance may prevent the
Springs are located around the valve stem and valve from closing properly at high temperatures.
are retained by a cup and tapered collets. Two
springs are fitted for safety and to prevent valve Incorrect tappet clearance can cause a significant
bounce. The springs are wound in different reduction in performanc e. Many modern engines
directions to eliminate any tendency of the valve are now fitted with hydraulic tappets , which
to rotate. automatically adjust themselves to cater for
thermal expansion . They operate using engine oil
Valve Gear and require no preset tappet cleara nce.
Valve gear is the collective term used to describe

the components that operate the valves . A
hinged lever, the rocker arm, moves down. This
forces the valve down , against the pressure of its
springs, to open the port. When the rocker arm

13 Piston Engines
Engine Power When the engine is started the MAP will drop. On
a normally aspirated engine MAP would always
indicate slightly less than atmospheric pressure ,
A ir is the working fluid of the engine. The more even with the throttle fully open when running.
that can be induced into the cylinder, the more On the other hand, a supercha rged engine can
power the engine can produce. produce higher than atmospheric MAP pressure.
"Normally aspirated" engines rely on the
difference between atmospheric pressure and Calculating Power
cylinder pressure to draw the mixture into the
Power is the rate of doing work and is shown by
cylinder, but atmospheric pressure reduces with
the formula
altitude . At height, less mixture will be drawn
into the cylinders so the engine will produce less
power. This limitation can be partially overcome force x distance
by forcing air into the cylinder using some form of
Power = time
mechanical compressor . Engines which use such
systems are described as being "supercharged ".
Area of piston 'A'
Length of stroke 'L'
Figure 13.28
Figure 13.27 The force produced on the piston is equal to the

pressure ' P' (MEP) in the cylinder during the
power stroke acting on the area 'A' of the piston
The pressure of the mixture is measured in the crown. The distance the piston moves is the
inlet manifold, just before it is introduced into the length of stroke 'L.
cylinder. This value is displayed on a manifold
absolute pressure gauge (MAP). The unit of Distance over time is speed, which in this case
pressure normally used is inches of mercury, (in equates to RPM. Because, on a single piston
Hg). engine, only one power stroke is produced for
every two revolutions of the crankshaft , the RPM
MAP directly correlates with the average pressure must be divided by 2 to give the effective number
produced by combustion (MEP) and is therefore of power strokes 'E'.
a good indicator of the power being produced by
the engine. The pilot controls MAP and therefore Multiplying these factors together gives the
cylinder pressure with the throttle lever. The lever theoretical power produced in the cylinder. If the
operates the throttle valve (butterfly valve) , which engine has multiple cylinde rs, an additional facto r
contro ls the amount of air or mixture delivered to 'N' for the number of cylinders must be applied .
the engine. A mnemonic to help remember the five factors is
PLANE.
When the engine is stopped the MAP gauge
displays atmospher ic pressure which, in ISA The length of stroke of the engine, piston area
conditions, is 29.92 in Hg. and its number of cylinders are all fixed in the
design, but the pressure 'P' depends on MAP.

Piston Engines 13
Remember that the theoretical power produced Piston Engine Efficiency

in the engine is not the power that is delivered to
the rotor. Some power must be used to overcome
internal friction. The remainder is delivered to the
rotor shaft.
Mechanical and Thermal Efficiency
Because only one power stroke is produced in
Power Indications four, the mechanical efficiency of a piston engine
is never more than about 80%. This is the ratio of
On helicopters power is a function of MAP and the actual power produced at the rotor shaft to the
RPM, so both must be monitored. theoretical power.
Larger or more sophisticated helicopters have The greatest losses occur because of the
dedicated power indicator gauges. These "torque engine's poor thermal efficiency. Thermal
gauges" measure engine torque, which is the efficiency is expressed as the ratio of the work
turning force exerted by the engine on the rotor done by the engine, to the mechanical equivalent
shaft. of the heat energy released by combusting the
fuel.
Torque is produced when a force is applied at
a distance to a turning point. The force comes A modern piston engine is about 33% thermally
from the pressure 'P' acting on the area 'A' of the efficient. Most of the heat energy is lost to the
piston. The distance from the turning point is the atmosphere in the exhaust. The remainder heats
throw of the crank shown as 'd' which equates to up the engine components. Therma l efficiency
half the length of the stroke 'L'. This means that is independent of altitude but increases with
the PLA of the PLANE formula can be replaced increased compression ratio.
by torque.
'N' represents the number of cylinders , leaving

the last factor 'E' which is proportional to RPM.
Pressure 'P' Area of piston 'A'
Length of stroke 'L'

-.:L•P""-.!..._ twice throw of
crank
Figure 13.29
So, engine power can be expressed as torque x

RPM.
Torque x RPM = Power

Torque is measured at the gearbox between the
engine and the rotor.

13 Piston Engines
Clearance TDC Total Swept

volume volume volume
BDC
Figure 13.30
Compression Ratio Volum etric Efficiency

W hen the piston is at TDC the fuel/air mixture is Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the mass of
compressed into a very small space between the the mixture induced into the cylinder, to the mass
top of the piston and the top of the cylinder. This of air (at standard temperature and pressure),
is known as the clearance volume. which wo uld otherwise fill the swept volume.
When the piston is at BDC the volume of space Increased volumetric efficiency results in
containing the mixture the "total volume" is increased engine power. The most obv ious way
very much larger. The difference between the to increase volumetric efficiency is to force more
clearance volume and the total volume is called mixture into the cylinders by supercharging .
the swept volume. The compression ratio is the
ratio of total volume to clearance volume . For a normally aspirated piston engine, three
main factors influence volumetric efficiency :
For aero engines , compression ratios typically
fall between 7:1 and 9:1. High compression • The ease with which the mixture can enter the
ratios improve thermal efficiency. However there cylinder.
is a practical limit to the maximum achievable
• The dens ity of the air. (Affected by alt itude,
compression ratio. If it is too high, the rise in
temperat ure and humidity.)
temperat ure caused by compression can cause
the mixture to spontaneo usly combust. This is • The ease with which the exhaust gases can
called "detonation". leave the cylinder.
The swept volume multiplied by the number of Inlet flow will depend on the smoothness of the
cylinders gives the "displacement". In other inner surfaces of the inlet manifold, the shape
words: of the manifold itself, the effic iency of operation
and timing of the inlet valve and any restrictions
Displacement = piston area x stroke x number of caused by the throttle butterfly valve.
cylinders .
Outlet flow will depend on the design of the
To compensate for their shorter stroke, aero
exhaust system and the operation and timing of
engines have a relatively large piston area. A
the exhaust valve. Back pressure in the exhaust
"squared" or "square cage" engine describes a
pipes will hinder the flow of exhaust gases from
design where the cylinder diameter equals the
the cylinders.
stroke.

Piston Engines 13
On a normally aspirated engine, volumetric Specific Fuel Consumption

efficiency increases with:
The overa ll fuel efficiency of a piston engine is
• Altitude: because the reduced air density measured by its specific fuel consumption (SFC).
results in a drop in exhaust back pressure , SFC is the mass of fuel required to produce a
which increases mass flow into the cylinder, given amount of power for a given period of time.
and therefore density in the cylinder, but only The Sl units of SFC are kilograms per kilowatt
if the MAP remains constant. Note; if the hour. A low value of SFC indicates a more fuel
MAP does not remain constant then the VE efficient engine.
will reduce.
• RPM: because of the increased momentum of Engine Lubrication Systems

the gases.
A modern normally aspirated piston engine The moving parts in an engine must be lubricated
typically achieves a volumetric efficiency of about with oil to reduce friction and wear. This is
80%. achieved by injecting or spraying a thin film
of oil between them. The outside layers of oil
The Effect of Volumetric Efficiency on Engine cling to the metal surfaces, allowing a central
Power layer of molecules to move effortlessly in an oil
"sandwich".
In normally aspirated engines the maximum
obtainable MAP will reduce with altitude because As well as its primary lubricating function, engine
of the reducing atmospheric pressure. Maximum oil has a number of secondary functions.
power will be obtained at low pressure altitudes
• Cooling. Oil helps to cool the engine
and power will reduce with altitude.
by absorbing heat and dispersing it to
atmosphere.
• Cleaning. Oil cleans the engine by removing

deposits and metal flakes which are then
trapped by an oil filter.
Engine
power Climb at constant Power increase • Protection. Oil protects the components
MAP and RPM due to reduced
(MAP) until throttle is exhaust back pressure from corrosion.
fully open
• Hydraulic operations . Oil can be used as
the hydraulic medium to operate valve gea r.
Engine oil temperature and pressure are both

Sea level 1000 It 2000 It 3000 It 4000 It 5000 It 6000 It very important indicators of the condition of the
A ltitude engine.
Figure 13.31
Aero Engine Oils
The improvement in vo lumetric efficiency caused An important character istic of oil is its viscosity.
by reduced exhaust back pressure is evident in Viscos ity is the resistance of the fluid to flow. It
flight when using a normally aspirated engine. reduces with increased temperature.
If the helicopter is climbed initially at less than full High viscos ity oil makes the engine more difficult
power, the power available would initially increase to turn over, but guarantees a good film in the
with altitude until the throttle is fully opened bearings. Low viscosity oil makes the engine
and the selected MAP value can no longer be easier to turn over. But if it is too low, t he oil film
obtained. can break down, allowing metal to come into
contact with metal.

13 Piston Engines
Aero engines normally use a mineral oil, designed Types of Lubrication System
specifically, to maintain an acceptable level
of viscosity over the full range of operating Engines may be classified according to the way in
temperatures. A numbering system is used to which the engine oil supply is stored. There are
indicate viscosity; the higher the number, the two methods: the "dry" and "wet sump" systems.
higher the viscosity.
In a dry sump system, oil is stored in a tank
Aero engine oil must: mounted remotely from the engine. In a wet
sump system, the oil is stored in the bottom of the
11 Maintain suitable viscosity over a wide range crankcase; the "sump".
of temperatures and pressures.
11 Have a low evaporation rate. The Dry Sump System

• Inhibit corrosion. Oil is drawn from the tank by an engine driven
pump. A suction filter is fitted just before the
• Not react with the materials with which it pump. The pump forces oil through a second,
comes into contact. high-pressure, filter to various strategically placed
jets and drillings servicing the major lubrication
• Discourage the formation of sludge.
points.
To meet these requirements, additives are
The pump provides considerably more oil
introduced to the base mineral oil. OH containing
pressure than is normally necessary. This
additives is known as "compound oil". It may
ensures that sufficient pressure can be
be identified by letters preceding the viscosity
guaranteed, even under extreme conditions;
number. For example W80 or AD100.
a pressure relief valve regulates the system
"Straight" oil has no additives and is used on new pressure.
engines to reduce the running-in time.
Highly loaded points, such as the big end
Some piston aero engines use modern synthetic bearings, are fed with high-pressure oil at about
multi-grade oils. Synthetic oil is produced from 60-70 psi. The oil is injected at the crankshaft
chemical compounds which don't occur in crude main bearings and passes into a gallery inside
oil. the crankshaft to emerge at the big end bearings.
As it leaves the big end bearings, some of the oil
No oil can indefinitely resist the effects of is flung onto the cylinder walls.
operating in such a harsh environment.
Eventually irreversible damage is caused Lightly loaded components such as the camshaft
by oxidization, the corrosive by-products of are fed with low-pressure oil via a pressure-
combustion, water vapour contamination and the reducing valve.
repeated mechanical shearing, which occurs in
Spent oil falls to the sump, where it is collected by
the lubricating fUm. This is why it is essential to
a scavenge pump. This pumps the oil back to the
change the oil, according to the schedule laid
oil tank, via an oil cooler. The scavenge pump is
down by the engine manufacturer.
more powerful than the high-pressure pump, to
As well as incurring damage some oil is normally ensure that oil doesn't pool in the sump.
lost through burning. Nevertheless, the oil level
should be checked regularly to ensure that Dry Sump System Components
oil consumption isn't excessive. Abnormal or
excessive oil burning may be indicated by blue or Oil Tank
grey smoke in the exhaust.
The oil tank contains a reserve of oil to allow for
fluctuations in demand, thermal expansion, minor
leaks and frothing caused by aeration.

Piston Engines 13
Reservoir
Pressure
pump
Engine
oil sump
Figure 13.32
Oil returns from the engine via the oil return line Coarse Filter
(or "scavenge line"), spilling onto a de-aerator
plate. This helps to sepa rate out any air bubbles Coa rse filters are fitted before the pressure and
which may be suspended in the oil. The air scavenge pumps, these are respectively known
escapes to the sump via a vent, and eventually to as the suction and scavenge filters. The filters
atmosphere via an oil breather. clean the oil by trapping any dirt, metal particles
and carbon carried by the oil. The filters are fitted
The de-aerated oil drops into the tank which before the pumps to protect them from damage.
contains baffles to prevent the fluid from slopping They are removed during servicing and the
and surging during manoeuvres. contents examined by engineers to assess the
Most oil tank designs incorporate a hot well. The wear on the engine components.
hot well is a perforated metal cylinder covering
the outlet to the pressure pump. During starting, Magnetic Plugs (Chip Detectors)
when the oil is cold and at its most viscous, oil is
drawn first from the hot well. The cold viscous Removable magnetic plugs ("chip detectors")
oil in the main part of the tank can only flow very are fitted in the oil return lines. Ferrous particles
slowly through the perforations into the hot wel l. from the engine or gearbox are caught by the
Consequently the hot well tends to refill with magnets. Analysis of these particles can provide
hot oil returning from the engine. This quickly a very accurate indication of wea r and impending
establishes a good circulation of less viscous oil component failure. This analysis is used for
during and immediately after start. engine condition monitoring.
Eventually all the oil in the tank warms to Oil Pump (Engine Driven Pump)
operating temperature and is able to flow freely
through the hot well. The oil pumps are engine driven and normally use
a spur gear system. The scavenge pump usually
has twice the capacity of the pressure pump.
Pump speed varies with engine RPM so pump

13 Piston Engines
output will increase at higher engine speeds and Oil Temperature Gauge
has to be regulated by a pressure relief valve.
An oil temperature gauge measures the
Relatively low oil pressure, especially at high temperature of the oil in the supply line, after the
RPM, may indicate a worn oil pressure pump. cooler and before the pressure pump.
Pressure Relief Valve Oil Pressure Gauge

The pressure relief valve is fitted in parallel to the An oil pressure gauge measures oil pressure at
pump, to regulate its output pressure. Excessive the outlet of the pressure pump. Oil pressure
output pressure causes the spring-loaded valve and temperature are inextricably linked. Cold oil
to open and dump oil to the suction side of the is more viscous and results in a higher pressure
pump. reading for a given RPM, than oil at normal
operating temperature.
Pressure Filter
Oil pressure should begin to indicate within 30
The fine high-pressure filter removes very small seconds of engine starting.
particles that might otherwise damage the
bearing surfaces. The filter is made of very fine The Wet Sump System
felt, reinforced by wire gauze. The felt surface is
deeply corrugated to increase the filtration area. The wet sump system uses the same components
A bypass valve is fitted to ensure that sufficient as the dry sump system, except that it has
(unfiltered) oil continues to lubricate the engine if no scavenge pump, scavenge line or oil tank.
the filter becomes blocked or clogged. Instead the oil is stored in the sump, which is a
reservoir formed by part of the crank case.
Air Cooled Oil Cooling As well as pressurised oil feeds, the action of
An oil cooler is fitted in the scavenge line between the crankshaft splashing through the oil helps to
the scavenge pump and the oil tank. It comprises lubricate the working surfaces. This is known as
a matrix of small galleries with fins attached. Air splash lubrication.
is drawn through the intake and passes through
the matrix, absorbing the heat from the oil and Comparison of Wet and Dry Sump
exhausting it overboard. An anti-surge valve Systems
allows oil to bypass the cooler whilst it is cold
and viscous, or in the event that the oil cooler The principal advantage of a dry sump system
becomes blocked. is that the oil is contained in a separate oil tank.
This ensures a supply of filtered, cooled oil to
Shutters are sometimes used to control the the pump under all flight conditions. By contrast
amount of air passing over the oil cooler. These the oil in a wet sump system disperses around
manually operated doors restrict the flow of the engine during inverted flight. This can very
cooling air, preventing the oil from being cooled quickly lead to oil starvation.
excessively.
Because the wet sump system uses splash
Excessive cooling can cause "oil coring", in which lubrication, excessive oiling can occur at high
the oil tends to congeal in the matrix, blocking RPM. Furthermore, the oil used for splash
it. If this occurs the anti surge valve will operate, lubrication hasn't been filtered or cooled.
sending uncooled oil directly back to the oil tank.
The result will be a sharp rise in oil temperature In a wet sump system, depending on the shape
that can only be corrected by closing the shutters! of the crankcase, it may be necessary to carry a
greater quantity of oil than is strictly necessary,
In a dry sump system the oil cooler is fitted in for lubrication to ensure an adequate supply to
the return line; in wet sump systems the cooler the oil pump.
is normally fitted in the pressure supply to the
engine.

Piston Engines 13
Checking the Oil Level Engine Cooling Systems

In a dry sump system the oil tank quantity must
be checked immediately after the engine is shut Lubricating oil contr ibutes significantly to engine
down. This is because oil in the tank can, after a cooling, but oil alone is insufficient to dissipate
while, start to drain back into the engine and give all the heat. An additiona l cooling method is
a false low reading. needed.
In a wet sump system the oil level in the sump Piston engines can either be air or liquid cooled.
should be checked about 20 minutes after shut Liquid cooling is inherently more efficient , but
down, to allow time for all the oil to drain back to spark ignition aero-engines are usually air-cooled
the sump. to save weight and to reduce the number of
working components.
Hydraulicing In an air cooled engine, an air inlet directs air over
the engine. Deep fins on the cylinders increase
Oil leaking into the engine and particularly into
the external surface area available for cooling.
the engine cylinders can lead to a problem known
Cylinder baffles control the flow of air to ensure
as hydraulicing. This usually only occurs in
that each cylinder is evenly cooled, figure 13.33.
inverted and radial engines. Oil can pool in the
inverted cylinders between the piston crown and When the helicopter is in the hover, or at low
the cylinder head. Any attempt to start in this forward speeds , there will be insufficient cooling
condition can cause severe damage as the piston air over the engine. To overcome this problem,
forces the incompressible oil against the cylinder an engine driven impeller draws air through a
head. scroll assembly, using baffles to direct the cooling
air around the engine.
To prevent damage from hydraulicing it is
common practice to briefly remove the spark
plugs from the lower cylinders to allow the oil to Temperature Measurement
drain out. At the very least the engine should be
To operate efficiently, the engine is designed to
turned manually before starting to check for signs
run at high temperature- but not so high as to
of hydraulicing.
cause fuel detonation and unacceptable thermal
stresses on the engine.
The highest temperatures occur around the

cylinder head, which is why cylinder head
temperature is often measured and used as an
indicator of engine health.
Cylinder head temperature (CHT) sensors may be

fitted to all the cylinders, but usually only one is
attached to the (normally) hottest cylinder. CHT
is measured by a thermocouple which requires
no electrical supply. The thermoco uple produces
a voltage which varies directly with tem perature.
This is used to drive a CHT display in the cockpit .
Figure 13.33

13 Piston Engines
Temperature Control Starting and Ignition Systems

During normal operation , cylinder head
temperature is affected by: Modern piston engines are equipped with an
electric starter motor, powered by the battery.
• The amount of power being produced. During the start sequence the motor drives the
engine , either v ia a gearbox or by engaging a
• The aircraft's speed (i.e. the mass flow of toothed gear on the engine flywheel.
cooling air).
As soon as the engine starts, an overrun clutch
• The temperature of the cooling air.
disengages the drive from t he motor. An amber
• The ratio of the mixture. starter warning lamp illuminates whi lst the drive
gear is engaged. If the light remains on for more
Of these four factors the pilot can control three. than 30 seconds after engine sta rt, the star ter
motor may have failed to disengage. The engine
Mass flow is related to the aircraft's forward must be shut down.
speed. The heat generated by the engine
depends on the power produced and the mixture As the engine begins to rotate it drives one or
is controlled by the mixture lever. more magnetos , which generate high tension
electricity to power the spark plugs.
A "lean" or "weak " mixture will cause an increase
in CHT because it burns more slowly and has
more time to transfer heat to the components.
The engine is most likely to overheat at low speed

and high power, for exa mple, during an extended
climb or in the hover. It is equally important
to ensure that the engine is not overcooled .
Overcooling can result in thermal shock which
can cause cylinders to crack. Overcooling is
most likely to occur at high speed and lower
power settings.
Figure 13.34
Ignition
The purpose of the ignition system is to provide
sparks of sufficient strength and durat ion at
precisely the right moment in the cycle to ensure
efficient combustion .
The critical components of the ignition system are

duplicated, thus ensuring that any single failure
does not result in a total loss of engine power.
Aero engines use engine-driven magnetos to
generate the high voltages required for the spark
plugs.

Piston Engines 13
Left hand cylinders Right hand cylinders
Left or No1 magneto Right or No2 magneto

fires upper spark plugs LH fires upper spark plugs RH
cylinders and lower spark cylinders and lower spark
plugs RH cylinders plugs LH cylinders
Figure 13.35
Principle of Magneto Operation Ferro·Magnct ic

Core
The magneto is an AC generator , transfo rmer

and distribution system providing high voltage
current to the spark plugs. It is independent of
the aircraft battery and electrical system and , like
Magneto
all electrical generators , works on the principle
Rotor
that current will be caused to flow in a coil of wire,
Spark plugs
when it is passed between the poles of a magnet.
The generator section of the magneto comprises

a 4-pole rotating permanent magnet, surrounded Contact
by a U-shaped stator made of soft iron, figure break points
13.36. Airc raft 's Earth Ret urn
A primary winding, also called the low tension Figure 13.36

(LT) circuit is wound round the stator and
comprises a few turns of thick wire. A secondary
The primary winding circ uit is continuously broken
winding , also called the high tension (HT) circuit
and remade by a contact breaker. This has two
is then wound over it.
effects:
The secondary winding contains many turns of
• It converts the continuous flow of alternating
fine wire and so acts as a step up transformer . As
current into a series of pulses.
a result , any electrical flow in the primary winding
will induce a higher voltage in the secondary • The collapse of the magnetic field around the
winding, albeit at lower current. primary winding produces a surge of energy
in the secondary winding.
The permanent magnets are rotated by a drive
from the engine. As they rotate they induce an The overa ll result is a series of very high voltage ,
alternating current in the primary and secondary low current pulses of electricity which are fed to a
windings. Both windings also produce a magnetic distributor , then through high-tension (HT) leads ,
field that surrounds them. to the spark plugs.

13 Piston Engines
The HT leads and sometimes the spark plugs are this design, a break in the switch's wiring will not
screened to reduce electrical interference. cause the ignition system to fail.
The collapsing magnetic field caused when the The system is anything but fail-safe on the
contact breaker points open has one undesirable ground, a disconnected wire in the switch circuit
effect. It induces a current in the primary may result in a permanently live ignition circuit!
winding, which is sufficiently strong to produce
arcing at the contact breaker points. This arcing There is a further problem with this arrangement.
can damage the breaker points. A capacitor or Most helicopters use a single-pole, earth-return
condenser is fitted in parallel with the contact electrical system This means that it only needs
breaker to prevent arcing; and also to provide one disconnected switch wire, to touch any part of
a rapid collapse of the primary current. It also the airframe, for the magneto to switch off.
helps to ensure that the highest possible voltage
is induced in the secondary circuit. Additional Advantage of Two Spark
The distributor actually distributes the electrical
Plugs
pulses to each spark plug, in the appropriate The additional spark plug in each cylinder helps
sequence. It comprises a rotor arm driven by the to accelerate the combustion process. This is
engine and a distribution block, which contains because the flame front spreads out from both
a series of electrodes, each linked to a separate plugs simultaneously causing a quicker rise to
spark plug. HT current from the magneto is fed peak cylinder pressure and thus a noticeable
to the rotor and passes to each spark plug in turn, increase in power. This explains why engine
as the rotor comes into contact with its associated RPM drops slightly when each magneto is
electrode. switched off during the pre-flight magneto check
The HT current is sufficiently large to jump the
gap between the spark plug's electrodes, creating Magneto Checks
a powerful spark as it does so. The spark occurs
Because the ignition system is completely
at the spark plug, just as the contact breaker
duplicated, both halves of the circuit must
points open.
be checked. The pre-flight magneto check
The engine drives the contact breaker and the comprises two elements: the "mag drop" check
distributor rotor, via a spindle. So the speed and the "dead cut" check
of the rotor and the speed of operation of the
The "mag drop" check is carried out twice, but at
contact breaker, vary directly with engine RPM.
different power settings and for different reasons.
The spindle always rotates at half the crankshaft
The first check is carried out just after starting
RPM.
the engine with the RPM set at about 1000-1200
RPM. Each magneto is switched off in turn. The
Controlling the Ignition System RPM should drop but the engine should continue
to run smoothly. This proves the operation of the
Each magneto is controlled by its own ignition
magneto switches and confirms that, at low RPM,
switch. The switch isolates the magneto's ignition
one magneto will keep the engine running.
circuit by connecting the primary circuit to Earth.
In this condition it is said to be "grounded". The The second "mag drop" check is carried out at
ignition switch lead is called the 'P' lead. higher RPM, normally about 75% of maximum
Again each magneto is switched off in turn.
The ignition switch must be closed to earth the
During this check the RPM drop must fall within
circuit. When the switch is open the ignition
specific limits and the engine must continue to run
circuit is live; current is free to flow in the primary
smoothly. A successful check indicates that, if
circuit, whenever the contact breaker is closed.
one magneto were to fail, engine power would not
This switching method works in the opposite be significantly affected.
sense to a normal electric switching system, in
A complete dead cut would indicate a failure of
order to provide fail-safe protection in flight. With
one half of the ignition circuit, whilst no drop in
RPM would imply that one half of the ignition

Piston Engines 13
system is not being earthed. Excessive RPM the spring unwinds rapidly , rapidly spinning the
drop and rough running indicates an ignition magneto.
problem. A drop of around 300-400 RPM,
accompanied by rough running, is typical of a This occurs once every half revolution of the
malfunctioning spark plug. engine, ensuring that sufficiently strong sparks
are generated, even when hand starting. The
Because a malfunctioning ignition switch could same mechanism also retards the ignition during
leave the circuit live after engine shut down , it is its operation.
essential to carry out a dead cut check before
shutting down. With the throttle at idle, both Once the engine has started, pawls within the
ignition switches are briefly turned off. If the mechanism move out under centrifugal force to
system is serviceable the engine will begin to prevent the coupling from operating.
shut down, however it will recover immediately
the magnetos are switched back on. If a dead cut High Tension Booster Coil
doesn't occur it's likely that at least one magneto
The output from the magneto can be augmented
·
is "live"- a pote ntia lly dangerous condition.
using a booster coil. High-tension booster coil
systems are commonly used on larger engines.
PANEL The HT booster coil induces a large current in a
0
ON
UGHTS
ON
./ ENG
ON
:;_:._
ON
·"., .
secondary winding by collapsing the magnetic
field surround ing the primary winding. Current
is fed from the aircraft battery to power the
Or Or
0 O r Or :.J' .,. primary winding. A trembler interrupter in the coil
'PEN
interrupts the primary winding circuit, producing a
NAV STROBE
(
•cH All MASTER
continuous steam of high voltage impulses in the
LTS BATTERY RELEASE BRAKE
BEFORE START secondary (HT circuit).
Figure 13.37 This voltage is then fed to a trailing brush on

the distributor rotor arm. The amount of trail is
set to ensure the spark is sufficiently retarded
Auxiliary Spark Augmentation for starting. This system is also known as the
"shower of sparks" ignition system. Once the
The magneto's output voltage is directly engine has started the HT booster coil is switched
proportional to its rotational speed. It is driven off.
by the engine, via a gearbox, which increases its
rotational speed to guarantee sufficient voltage is
produced, even at idle RPM.
Low Tension Booster Coil
The low-tension booster coil uses aircraft battery
During start, when the engine is turning very
power to increase the output from the magneto.
slowly , the system needs some help and, for
Boosted battery power is fed directly to the
reasons we discussed earlier in this chapter, it
primary winding of the magneto itself, improving
must also ensure that the spark is sufficiently
its slow speed power generation.
retarded. There are three methods of achieving
this. In this system , a second set of contact breaker
points in the LT booster coil circuit ensure a
Impulse Magneto sufficien tly retarded spark The LT booster coil is
switched off once the engine has started.
Smaller , lower powered, engines use an impulse
coupling magneto on either or both magnetos.
The coupling comprises a spring-loaded clutch ,
Spark Plugs
mounted between the drive spindle from the The high tension (HT) leads from the distributor
engine and the magneto shaft. As th e engine supply each spark plug with abo ut 30 000 volts at
begins to rotate, the drive spindle winds up the relatively low current.
spring-loaded clutch. When the clutch releases

13 Piston Engines
The plug comprises an insulated electrode Piston Engine Fuel

running through its centre , with a smaller
electrode attached to the base of the spark plug
body. The main body of the plug is metal , this
Characteristics of Aviation Gasoline
connects to earth when screwed into the cylinder.
A small but precisely set gap separates the two (AVGAS)
electrodes. A piston engine relies on harnessing the energy
When HT voltage is applied to the centre released when fuel is burned with air. For this
electrode , a strong spark is generated between to be effective the fuel must have a number of
the two electrodes. This ignites the fuel air characteristics :
mixture. • It must contain a significant quantity of energy.
The size of the gap is important and must be • It must be able to form vapour - but not too
accurately set before the plug is installed. If it is readily.
too small the spark may be weak If it is too large
there may be no spark at all. • It must be able to burn quickly, but
controllably , giving a manageable rise in
Occasionally oil, carbon or lead deposits from the pressure that can be efficiently translated into
fuel can block the gap, causing a failure to spark the movement of the pistons.
This is known as plug 'fouling'.
The quantity of energy contained in the fuel
is measured by its calorific va lue, which is the
amount of heat obtained for a given mass of fuel.
The way in which the fuel burns depends upon a

Spark jumps number of factors. For example, under optimum
across gap conditions , aviation gasoline burns rapidly but
consistently with a flame rate (the speed at
Centre which the flame propagates) of about 60-80 ft
electrode per second. This produces the predictable and
uniform rise in pressure which is used to drive the
If gap is blocked
piston.
plug is said to be
Body forms fouled
electrode Detonation
Under abnormal conditions the mixture may
Figure 13.38 detonate rather than burn. Detonation is the
extremely rapid spontaneous combustion of
Spark plugs have a designated operating part of the mixture , after burning has begun.
temperature range. Within this range the plug is The result is a rapid , violent and uneven rise
designed to reduce the risk of fouling. Fouling is in pressure in the cylinder , with flame rates in
much more likely to occur if a plug of the wrong the order of 1000 ft per second. The shock of
temperature specification is fitted. detonation can often be heard as a knocking
sound within the engine. Detonation is often
referred to as "knocking".
Most of the energy produced by detonation is

not absorbed by piston movement , instead it
is given up as heat and shock Consequently
power output reduces markedly and the cylinder
temperature rises rapidly and unevenly , producing
local hot spots and inflicting physical damage
to the piston crowns . The engine runs rough.

Piston Engines 13
Prolonged detonation will eventually cause the differing anti-knock characteristics. !so-octane
piston crowns to fail under the load. has very good anti-knock qualities, heptane does
not. For example an 87 octane fuel would have
The four principal causes of detonation are: the same anti-knock qualities as a mixture of
87% iso-octane and 13% heptane. The higher
11 Fuel with poor anti-knock qualities.
the octane rating/grade of a fuel the higher its
m Incorrect (excessively weak) mixture ratio. resistance to detonation.
11 Anything that unduly raises the temperature or AVGAS normally has a two-figure octane rating
pressure of the mixture before it is burned (i.e. which describes its anti-knock properties for weak
low RPM with high MAP). and rich mixture settings respectively. AVGAS
is normally rated at 100/130 or 115/145. The
a High engine temperature. AVGAS specification is D Eng RD 2485. Octane
numbers above 100 are called performance
Pre-Ignition numbers.
Detonation should not be confused with pre-

ignition. Pre-ignition is the ignition of the mixture
Additives
before the spark plug has fired. Detonation By far the most effective additive for controlling
occurs after ignition. detonation is tetra-ethyl lead. Unlike the fuel used
in cars, lead is still added, albeit in much reduced
Pre-ignition is caused by local hot spots within
quantities, to aviation gasoline. The most
the cylinder caused, for example, by small carbon
common fuel used for piston engine aircraft is
deposits. It is most likely when the cylinder is
100 LL (lower lead). 100 LL is dyed blue and has
excessively hot or excessively contaminated
replaced the 100 fuel which is coloured green.
with carbon deposits. The primary cause of
Both 100 and 100 LL have the same resistance to
pre-ignition is an excessively weak mixture. The
detonation despite the lower lead content of the
symptoms of pre-ignition are the same as for
latter. Some older piston engines were designed
detonation: loss of power, rough running and
to run originally on 80/87. This fuel is dyed red.
overheating. Pre-ignition usually worsens with
increased RPM, whereas detonation usually
reduces as RPM increase. Other Factors Influencing Detonation
Pre-ignition has one unique characteristic - the Although fuels are selected for their resistance
tendency for the engine to continue to run for a to detonation they can still detonate! Anything
short period after the ignition has been turned off. which raises the temperature or pressure of the
This is called 'running on'. mixture will increase the likelihood of detonation.
Carburettor heat at high power settings,
overheated cylinders, and high power settings at
Controlling Detonation low RPM all increase the risk of detonation.
Modern aviation gasoline has very good anti-
Not surprisingly, engines which use high
knock qualities, produced by carefully controlling
compression ratios or which are supercharged
the hydrocarbon content of the fuel and by using
require a fuel with very good anti-knock qualities.
additives.
If fuel of the specified octane rating or grade isn't
Octane Rating/Grade (Anti-Knock) available, you may operate the aircraft temporarily
using a fuel with a higher rating but never use one
Fuel is assigned a number to indicate its with a lower rating/grade.
resistance to detonation. The number is
sometimes also known as the anti-knock value.
The Combustion Process and Mixture
The number indicates the percentages of the Ratios
two pure spirits, iso-octane and heptane used
The ratio of air to fuel which ensures complete
to produce the same detonation characteristics
of a particular fuel under test. Each has widely combustion is about 15: 1 by mass. This ratio is

13 Piston Engines
sometimes referred to as the "chemically correct mixture causes black smoke in the exhaust. It
mixture" or "ideal ratio" or stoichiometric mixture. can form carbon deposits in the cylinder and lead
to fouling of the plugs.
When a chemically correct mixture is ignited , all
the hydrogen and carbon in the fuel combine with Ironically, a weaker mixture will also result in
all the oxygen in the air for complete combustion. cooler burning . not only because less fuel is being
The products of stoichiometric combustion are burned per power stroke . but also because the
carbon dioxide and water vapour , coupled with an rate of burning slows down.
increase in the temperature of the inert nitrogen
gas. With extremely weak mixtures the mixture may
still be burning as the inlet valve opens . This can
The chemically correct mixture cannot be used lead to "popping back" in the inlet manifold.
for normal operations . as the high combustion
temperature would incur the risk of detonation. A weak mixture will produce cooler burning gas
but , paradoxically . it will result in higher engine
With the mixture set about 10% richer. the excess temperatures. This is because the slower burn
fuel absorbs some of the latent heat , cooling the gives more time for heat to be transferred to the
charge below the detonation value. Rich mixtures body of the engine. So a lean mixture will result
also burn quickly . Both factors help to reduce the in an increased CHT but a reduced exhaust gas
risk of detonation. temperature.
In practice not all cylinders receive exactly the The slower burn resulting from a weak mixture
same mixture so to err on the safe side a 15% results in reduced power , however, it has the
rich mixture is used at normal cruising power. advantage of reducing fuel consumption. A
Typically , mixture strengths vary from 8 :1 (rich) to 20% lean mixture is enough to achieve the best
20 : 1 (lean). specific fuel consumption.
Finally . at very low idling RPM the momentum

Chemical correct of the exhaust gas is much reduced and
Rich mixture ratio Lean I weak consequently not all of it is scavenged from the
8:1 15:1 20 :1 cylinder. The remainder dilutes the incoming
fresh mixture and effectively over-weakens it.
Consequently the mixture must be enriched as
idle RPM is approached .
Air
Fuel Prolonged ground running at idle with a rich
mixture can cause spark plug fouling. To prevent
this, the engine should be run at about 1000-1200
RPM.
Engine Fuel Supply

Figure 13.39
The amount of air delivered to the engine is
controlled by the throttle. But, before it can be
At high power settings (high combustion used for combustion . it must have exactly the
pressure and temperature) . the risk of detonation correct amount of fuel added to it. Furthermore .
increases . When high power is required . the the fuel must be well atomised to maximise
mixture is further enriched to about 20% rich to combustion efficiency . These are the functions of
obtain the necessary cooling. the carburettor or, on more modern designs, the
At take-off the mixture may be as much as 30% fuel inject ion system.
rich. Apart from its cooling function . this excess Both systems infer the amount of air entering the
fuel has no other use. It isn't fully burned and engine induction system and add sufficient fuel to
is discharged in the exha ust as a combination maintain the correct mixture ratio, figure 13.40.
of fuel vapour and carbon monoxide. Very rich

Piston Engines 13
Metered fuel
delivered with air
Throttle valve
Induction
Main manifold
fueljet
Throttle Induction
valve manifold
Figure 13.40
The Basic Float Carburettor When the engine is running , air is drawn in
through the inlet and accelerates as it passes
Principle of Operation thro ugh the throa t. Because of the venturi effect,
the pressure in the throat drops. As a result fuel
Filtered fuel is pumped into a chamber in the is drawn up the U-tube and into the air, flowing
carburettor. The level of fuel in the chamber is thro ugh t he throat , figure 13.42.
regulated by a float valve , using a needle valve to
shut off the fuel s upply when the fuel reaches the Throttle butterfly
correct level.
Throttle butterfly
"'
Figure 13.42
The nozzle is designed so that the fuel is finely

Figure 13.41
atomised as it mixes with the air. A calibrated
restricto r known as the "jet" regulates the amount
A piped outlet from the fuel chamber forms a of fuel flowing up the U-tube.
U-tube, exiting in the carburettor's "throat" or
"choke". When the engine is stop ped, the fuel As engine power increases, the speed of the air
levels in the chamber and the U-tube are the flowing through the throat increases, causing a
same, because both are exposed to atmospheric further drop in pressure. This causes more fuel
air at the sa me pressure. to be drawn through the nozz le. In this way the

13 Piston Engines
mixture of fuel and air is naturally regulated at all

power settings.
Some points about this basic principle of

operation need further emphasis :
• The throttle butterfly valve controls the

amount of air passing through the throat. If
the valve is opened , the flow of mixture to
the cylinders will increase and the engine will
accelerate.
• When the fuel level drops in the float chamber

Pressure can rise
the float will also drop. This opens the fuel above atmosphere at
inlet needle valve , allowing more fuel to flow high forward speed
into the chamber. Figure 13.43
• The fuel is pumped under pressure to the
carburettor to prevent it vaporis ing in the The duct ensures that the pressure in the intake
supply line , causing vapour lock. and float chamber remain the same.
The carburettor's basic principle of operation is To summarise: the purpose the pressure balance
relatively straightforward but , as we shall see in duct is to ensure that the correct mixture ratio is
the following sections , this isn't quite the whole maintained across a range of airspeeds and flight
story. conditions .
Additional Fuel Metering The Diffuser

Requirements
The fuel flow from the nozzle will increase with
The simple system we have so far described increased airflow through the throat but the
takes no account of air density , and ignores the relationship isn't linear. In fact , doubling the mass
fact that the fuel flow from the nozzle doesn't vary flow through the throat would cause a fourfold
linearly with the amount of air flowing through the drop in pressure and a correspondingly large
throat. addition of fuel , resulting in an excessively rich
mixture . The solution to the problem is to fit a
In practice this simple system would result in a diffuser immediately after the main jet , figure
progressively richer mixture as engine speed and/ 13.44.
or altitude increases . Furthermore , because of
the ram air effect in the inlet, the mixture would Air from the pressure balance duct is fed though
become progressively weaker with increased a perforated tube called the diffuser. Fuel enters
airspeed. the diffuser from the main jet. At idle RPM the
levels in the diffuser and float chamber are almost
The system also fails to provide the special equal.
mixture settings required at very low and very
high power settings. So a practical carburettor When the engine is running , the fuel level in the
must have a number of additional refinements. diffuser falls because of the slight restriction
caused by the jet. This uncovers some of the
The Pressure Balance perforations in the diffuser allowing air from the
pressure balance duct to flow in. This reduces
At high airspeeds the intake pressure will rise , this the pressure at the nozzle so reducing the rate of
is because of the ram effect of the air entering it. fuel flow.
This increases the pressure in the throat , causing
a drop in the fuel flow from the U-tube resulting
in a weaker mixture. To avoid this problem a
pressure balance duct connects the intake and
the float chamber , figure 13.43.

Piston Engines 13
Pilot's mixture control
Fwdk
=Rich
' sack
= Lean
/ Weak
The perforations in the diffuser are very precisely Automatic systems invariably have a manual
sized to ensure that the correct mixture ratio is override. Manual mixture control levers are
maintained across the whole speed range of the coloured red.
engine.
The mixture control is not j ust used to
The diffuser has an added advantage. The compensate for reduced air density. It is a lso
increased mixing of air and fuel aids atomisation, used to set a leaner mixture, for example
helping to produce a good emulsion of air and during an economy cruise . This can produce a
fuel. significant reduction in fuel consumption.
To summarise: the purpose of the diffuser is to To summarise: the purpose of the mixture
maintain the correct mixture ratio across a wide control is to adj ust the mixture to take account
range of engine speeds. of changes in air density and to reduce fuel
consumpt ion.
Mixture Control
Slow Running Jet
A ir density decreases with altitude. So the mass
of air passing through the throat will reduce with
altitude. This results in a progressively richer
mixture as the aircraft climbs.
Idle fuel flow
;;;;:;1
Mixture to
idle c rt (ICO)
To compensate for the barometric effect of
changing air density a mixture control valve is
fitted, figure 13.45. The valve is eithe r manually
controlled or operated automatically by an aneroid
capsule.
There are many designs for mixture control, the

exa mple shown here regulates the flow of air from
the pressure balance duct to the diffuser thus
varying its effectiveness.
Alternat ive methods include connecting the float

chamber to the venturi to lower the float chamber Figure 13.46
pressure, or using a needle, to vary the size of the
jet. In all var iants the systems adjust the fuel flow At very small throttle openings the pressure
- not the air flow . drop in the venturi is negligible , resulting in an
insufficient flow of fuel from the main je t . The

13 Piston Engines
solution is to insert an additionaljet specially At high throttle settings the cam forces down
designed to cater for low power conditions. a piston which allows fuel to flow to the power
jet. The power jet shuts off during all but high
The slow running jet is placed just at the edge power settings and for this reason it is sometimes
of the almost closed butterfly to take advantage confusinglyreferredtoasaneconomisersystem.
of the strong pressure drop in the constriction
caused by the valve . This jet is designed to To summarise : the purpose of the power jet or
provide a rich mixture at idle. "economiser" is to provide a rich mixture at high
power settings to assist cylinder cooling.
As the butterfly opens the constriction
disappears. With no venturi effect the fuel ceases
to flow from the slow running jet. The Accelerator Pump
The system usually includes a cut-off valve linked When the throttle is opened rapidly the air flow to
to the mixture control lever. The cut-off valve the engine increases almost instantaneously. But
ensures that all fuel flow to the engine ceases there is a slight delay before reduced pressure
when the pilot shuts down the engine . The in the throat causes more fuel to be added to the
shut-off valve is operated by moving the mixture mixture. This can cause the engine to hesitate or
control lever rearwards to the "idle cut off" (ICO) even stop - a phenomenon known as "weak " or
position. "lean" cut. The solution is an accelerator pump.
To summarise: the purpose of the slow running The throttle lever is connected by a suitable
jet is to ensure a sufficiently rich mixture at low system of links to a small piston type pump in
RPM. The purpose of the cut-off valve is to assist the carburettor. When the throttle lever is moved
engine shut-down . rapidly forward, the accelerator pump injects a
quantity of fuel directly into the venturi.
Power Enrichment Accelerator pump

jet cam operated
At high power settings a power enrichment by pilots throttle
system is required to provide the rich mixture
needed to cool the cylinders .
There are two ways this can be achieved. A

variable size main jet can be used or, more
commonly, a second jet is brought into play by a
cam linked to the throttle, figure 13.47.
Figure 13.48
Figure 13.47

Piston Engines 13
Induction and Carburettor Icing Ice formation in the intake and throat restricts
the amount of air that can enter the engine,
causing a marked reduction in engine power in
fixed wing aircraft. In helicopters, the result is
Causes
often that the engine will stop. For this reason,
The carburettor throat has one potentially some helicopters are equipped with an intake
disastrous flaw. As well as inducing a drop in temperatu re indicator.
pressure it also produces a drop in temperature.
The risk of carburettor icing varies principally
A further temperature reduction is caused by fuel
with humidity, ambient temperature and throttle
evaporating as it emerges from the nozzle. At low
position as the graph in figure 13.50 shows.
power settings, with the throttle butterfly forming
a tight constriction, the drop in pressure and With a relative humidity (RH) in excess of 60%
temperature is more pronounced. In the worst carburettor icing may be expected in virtually all
case the temperature in the throat can drop by as flight conditions at ordinary ambient temperatu res.
much as 25°C. So, when flying in fog or cloud, i.e. in saturated
air, intake heating must be used. Mist (visible
It is a common mistake to assume that carburettor
moisture in the atmosphere) generally implies a
icing only occurs at low ambient temperatures.
relative humidity of 95% so again , intake heating
A much more relevant factor is the amount of
is prudent.
moisture in the air.
With an ambient temperature of 18°-25°C and a
At moderate or high levels of humidity, ice will
relative humidity of only 30%, serious carburettor
form in the intake duct or throat, whenever the
icing is likely if the throttle is closed for prolonged
temperature drop is sufficient to reduce the intake
periods for example, during a prolonged descent
temperature below zero.
or whilst tax iing. Carburettor icing is not confined
Ice may somet imes form around the throttle to cold conditions. In fact, the most dange rous
butterfly, causing it to stick. If this happens conditions occur when cruise or descent power is
when the butterfly is closed, for example during set on relatively warm days with moderate or high
a prolonged descent , the result could be rather humidity.
embarrassing.
Figure 13.49

13 Piston Engines
Risk of carburettor icing in air free of Dew

cloud fog or precipitation point
(•C)
Risk is maximum in cloud fog or precipitation. 30°

The temperature range can be taken from the
100% humidity line.
20°
- Serious· any power
Moderate • cruise
power
Serious • descent power
- Serious • descent power
Light
-20°
Temperature (OAT) •c -20• 10° o• 10° 20° 3o• 40°
Figure 13.50
Sym ptoms Using heated air has five potential disadvantages:
The symptoms of induction or carburettor icing • It reduces engine power.

may include some or all of the following:
• In cold ambient conditions the hot air may
• Loss of RPM. raise the temperature of air in the ventur i from
a point well below that likely to induce icing, to
• Reduced performance. the optimum temperature for icing to occur!
• Reduced inlet manifold pressure. • Using carburettor heating to clear ice which
is already we ll established may cause further
• Decreased exha ust gas temperat ure (EGT). problems as the ice breaks off and is ingested
by the engine.
• Rough running.
• The use of heated air at high power settings
• Jammed throttle.
can cause detonation .
In ext reme cases ice accretion can cause the
engine to stop altogether. • Because hot air is less dense it will enrich the
mixture.
Carburettor Intake Heating The carburettor heat system must be checked

before flight. This is done by checking for a
Carburettor heating systems offer reasonably temporary drop in RPM (usually around 100-200
good protection against icing. Whenever RPM) whi lst carburettor heat is selected on, with
carburettor icing is likely the pilot manually selects the engine running at about 75% of max RPM.
an alternative air source, which uses hot air
drawn from a heat exchanger wrapped around
the exhaust system. The alternate air source is
usually unfiltered so care must be taken when
using it on the ground - especia lly on dusty or
grassy surfaces.

Piston Engines 13
Exhausts
Heater shroud
around exhausts
Carburettor
air filter Hot air to
carburettor air box
Carburettor heat on Carburettor Carburettor

'unfiltered air' air box heat valve
Figure 13.51
Fuel Injection Indirect Fuel Injection

Continuous-flow injection systems deliver fuel
Fuel injection systems are replacing the traditional continuous ly to the inlet ports. They pay no
carburettor on modern piston engines. Injection attent ion to intake-valve opening or crankshaft
systems provide even and reliable fuel delivery, position. The system has five basic components:
better icing protection and quicker throttle
response. • An engine driven pump (EDP) which supplies
fuel at pressure to the injector assembly.
Because injection systems deliver fuel under
pressure to the engine they don't need to use a • An electrically driven pump which also
venturi in the air intake. This makes them much supplies fuel to the injector assemb ly.
less susceptible to air intake icing.
• An injector assembly which adjusts the fuel
There are two types of fue l injection system; flow according to throttle position and mixture
direct and indirect. Both deliver a carefully setting.
measured amount of fuel under pressure to the
• A manifold valve which distributes fuel from
engine. Indirect injection systems deliver fuel
the injector to the fuel nozzles.
to the inlets, usually just before the inlet valve.
Direct injection systems inj ect precisely measured • Fuel nozzles which spray finely atomised fuel
quantities of fuel directly into the cylinders. into the inlets of each cylinder.
Amongst other thing s this requires an extremely
accurate timing mechanism to ensure that t he fuel Fuel is delivered under pressure to the injector
is delivered at precisely the right moment in the unit. The output pressure of the engine driven
firing cycle. pump is determined by engine speed . Normally
its output considerably exceeds the pressure
Most aircraft engines use the low pressure required by the injector assembly so the excess
continuous flow indirect system because this pressure is dumped by a relief-valve. This
eliminates the need for complex injection timing arrangement ensures that the injector assembly
devices . The downside is reduced fuel efficiency. is always supplied with sufficient fuel pressure
throughout most of the engine's operating range.

13 Piston Engines
The electric pump also provides fuel under Metered fuel from the injector is then fed to
pressure to the injector assemb ly. It has two the manifold valve. The manifold valve has
functions. Firstly it provides pressure in the event two functions. Its primary purpose is to divide
that the engine driven pump fails. Secondly, it is the metered fuel between all the cylinders. Its
used to prime the engine prior to start . secondary function is to provide a positive means
of stopping all fuel flow when the mixture control
The injector assembly or "fuel air control unit" is set to idle cut off.
controls the amount of fuel directed to the
manifold valve. It comprises a mixture control Fuel from the manifold va lve is fed to each of
valve and a metering valve. the fuel nozzles through stainless-steel injector
lines. The injector nozzle has a calibrated orifice
Pressurised fuel enters the assembly where it first in its upper chamber, control ling the amount of
encounters the mixture control valve. This va lve fuel injected. The lower portion of the nozzle is
is directly controlled by the mixture control lever used as a mixing chamber. Here the metered
and determines how much fuel is delivered to the fuel is combined with air to help to ensure that it is
metering valve. completely atomised before it enters the cylinder.
Normally aspirated engines use ambient air.
From fuel tank Turbocharged engines use boost pressure.
Figure 13.52
The metering valve is connected to, and Figure 13.53

controlled by, the throttle assembly which is
also directly connected to the throttle butterfly Fuel injection systems are usually monitored by
valve. When the throttle lever is moved towards measuring fuel pressure at the outlet of the fuel
full power, the throttle butterfly opens and so manifold. Since there is a direct relationship
also does the metering valve, to allow more fuel between pressure and flow this sensor also
to flow. The ratio of movement of the metering serves to provide information on fuel flow.
valve to the movement of the throttle butterfly
valve is precisely determined by the mechanical
relationship of the operating gear. Direct Injection
It is important to appreciate that the mixture Larger more powerful engines , and diesel
control va lve is the only means of adjusting the engines use direct fuel injection systems. In
otherwise preset ratio of fuel to air. this system the fuel is delivered directly into the
cylinder. Direct fuel injection produces better fuel
efficiency. The subject is covered in detail in the
section on diesel engines.

Piston Engines 13
Engine Priming Systems will not show a drop in RPM when alternate air is
selected.
To help engine starting, particularly from cold,

a very rich mixture is needed to ensure that EGT Gauges
sufficient fuel is vaporised On a carburetted
engine neat fuel is usually injected into the inlet Some engine installations also measure the
manifold. This is achieved in one of three ways: temperature of the exhaust gases. Like CHT
devices, exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
'" A manually operated plunger forces down the
measuring systems use thermocouples.
float in the carburettor float chamber flooding
the carburettor. The temperature of combustion, and hence
the temperature of the exhaust gases, is
'" The throttle is exercised to activate the
affected by the ratio of fuel to air in the mixture.
accelerator pump.
Consequently, EGT is often used as a method
'" A manually or electrically operated priming for accurately adjusting the mixture ratio in cruise
pump is used. flight.
'" Manual priming pumps are usually operated The highest combustion temperature occurs at
by a plunger type priming control. After an air/fuel ratio of 15:1. Combustion is cooler at
use, the primer control must be locked off to richer mixtures because of the cooling effect of
prevent over fuelling. the excess fuel. It is also cooler when the mixture
is very lean, this time because of the excess air
Injector systems automatically supply fuel as in the mixture. So, in theory at least, peak EGT
soon as the booster pump is switched on and coincides with the ideal air/fuel ratio of 15:1.
consequently need no additional priming system.
Care must be taken not to over prime and flood Piston Engine Power and
the engine. Excess fuel can cause a fire in the Performance
engine intake, foul the spark plugs, or may wash
the lubricating oil off the cylinder walls.
There are two operational descriptions of power
output:
Engine Air Induction Systems
Take-Off Power. Take-off power is the maximum
power the engine can produce. It cannot be used
Air is drawn into the carburettor or injector continuously and is normally limited by time or
through an intake air filter. The filter removes altitude.
potentially damaging dirt particles.
Rated Power. Rated power is the power
Air intakes are susceptible to impact icing caused available under specified conditions, normally a
by droplets of super-cooled water freezing as particular MAP or torque setting. Rated power,
they impact the intake. The symptoms of intake also known as 'maximum continuous power', can
icing are the same as for carburettor icing, which be used continuously.
can occur on both carburetted and fuel injected
engines. Carburettor heat may not be able to The power developed by a piston engine depends
clear intake icing. on the mass of mixture drawn into the cylinder
"the charge". The charge mass depends on the
Fuel injected engines have an alternate air source density of the air and the pressure in the inlet
which also bypasses the intake air filter. On manifold. At full throttle on a normally aspirated
both types care should be taken when using the engine, the pressure in the manifold will be just
unfiltered air source. less than atmospheric pressure.
Both carburetted and injected engines should Density varies with temperature, altitude and
be checked before flight for satisfactory humidity, so the relationship between pressure
operation using alternate air. However, unlike and density is not constant. The most direct
the carburetted engine, fuel injection systems

13 Piston Engines
determinant of engine power is the density artificially maintain the mass of charge air
altitude. entering the cylinders. Or, to phrase it more
accurately, we can increase the volumetric
Density altitude is the altitude in the International efficiency of the engine.
Standard Atmosphere at which the air density
would be equal to the actual air density at the Compressor systems which help to maintain
place of observation. In other words it is the normal power output during the climb are known
pressure altitude adjusted for any temperature as "altitude boosted" superchargers. This type
deviation from ISA. of supercharger requires some form of control
system to ensure that its doesn't overboost the
Pressure altitude is the altitude displayed with engine at sea level.
1013 mb set on the altimeter.
Generally superchargers are designed also to
In ISA conditions sea level temperature is 15'C increase the maximum power available at sea
decreasing by 2'C per 1000 ft. level. These are known as "ground boosted"
The density altitude can be calculated superchargers and usually require the engine
approximately using the following formula: to be strengthened to withstand the greater
combustion pressures.
Density altitude = pressure altitude + (the
difference in ISA temperature x 120). Two types of compressor system are used: the
supercharger and the turbo-supercharger, which
Consider an airfield at an altitude 4000 ft. is more commonly known as the turbocharger.
The OAT is observed to be 21'C. The ISA
temperature for this height should be 15°C- 8°C Superchargers are fitted downstream from
(2°C per 1000 ft) i.e. JOC. So the difference the carburettor and so compress the mixture.
between actual and ISA temperature is 14°C. Turbochargers are fitted upstream from the
carburettor and so compress only air.
The density altitude is 4000 + (14 x 120) = 5680 ft
Superchargers are more accurately known as
In other words, the maximum power produced internal superchargers because they obtain power
by the engine at this airfield on this day will be internally from the crankshaft. Turbochargers
equivalent to an engine operating at almost are powered by the exhaust gases so are often
5700 ft. described as external superchargers.
Engines produce the most power when the air is

cold, dry and dense i.e. in winter high pressure Internal Superchargers
conditions at sea level.
Principle of Operation
Supercharging
Superchargers most commonly use a centrifugal
or "radial" compressor. This design is light,
On a normally aspirated engine the mass of
strong, robust, simple and easy to manufacture.
charge entering the cylinder decreases with
It comprises a rotating section called an impeller
increasing density altitude. To maintain maximum
and a stationary diffuser.
continuous power as the aircraft climbs, the pilot
must progressively open the throttle. Eventually The impeller rotates at very high speed about
the point will be reached where the throttle can 6-12 times engine speed. As it rotates it draws
be opened no further. From this point on, power mixture from the carburettor into its central "eye".
output will inevitably and steadily reduce.
The impeller vanes impart energy to the
In fact, by 20 000 ft a normally aspirated engine mixture and accelerate it towards the impeller's
will have lost 50% of its maximum available circumference. The velocity of the mixture is
power. sustained by the energy imparted from the vanes.
However the vanes are arranged to diverge.
We can delay the point at which this drop in
This causes the mixture to increase in velocity,
power begins by using an air compressor to

Piston Engines 13
pressure and temperature as it moves from the If further compression is required more impellers,
eye to the circumference. "stages", must be added .
Diffuser vanes The impeller is driven mechanically by the engine

crankshaft and uses engine oil for lubrication.
• Modern supercharged engines are usually ground
boosted whic h requires them to be strengthened
and to have improved cooling systems. Such
engines are normally equipped with a MAP
gauge, capable of displaying pressures in excess
of 30 in Hg .
Older supercharged aircraft are fitted with a boost

pressure gauge. Boost pressure is measured in
the same way as MAP but is displayed as lb in2
(psi) above or below ISA sea level pressure.
Figure 13.54 Remember that MAP is closely correlated to the

pressure created by combust ion, so the MAP or
As it leaves the impeller, the mixture enters boost gauge, provides a reliable and accurate
indicator of the power being generated.
the diffuser which trades velocity for a further
increase in pressure and temperature. The When the engine is stopped on the ground MAP
diffuser section sometimes comprises a series and boost gauges indicate atmospheric pressure.
of vanes as shown here or, more simply, can This is known as "static boost". The term boost,
be formed from an expanding duct, as shown in technically only applies to the boost gauges but it
figure 13.55. is often used to express a value of MAP.
W hen the engine is running, manifold air pressure

will initially drop but then quickly return to the
static boost value as RPM are increased. The
point at which this happens is known as the
reference RPM. Reference RPM will be displayed
in a placa rd on t he instrument panel, which is
Engine
driven used when checking the power of supercharged
shaft engines.
Automatic Boost Control

The amount of boost supplied to the engine
must be very carefully controlled. Excessive
boost, or "overboosting" can cause detonation
and can severely damage the engine. To avoid
Figure 13.55
this problem internally driven superchargers use
an automatic boost cont rol unit (ABCU) which
This type of system typically produces a rise in controls the amount of boost by restricting the
pressure of about 1.5:1 up to a maximum of about amou nt of throttle butterfly movement.
4:1. The amou nt of compression achievable
depends on: Rated Altitude and Full Throttle Height
• The diameter of the impeller As the aircraft climbs , the ABC U progressively
• The speed of rotation of the impeller. opens the helicopter butterfly valv e to maintain
the boost level selected by the pilot. Eventually
• The shape of the impeller vanes an altitude is reached where the ABCU must

13 Piston Engines
set the throttle butterfly fully open. Beyond this Advantages and Disadvantages of an
altitude boost pressure wil l begin to fall. The point
at which the selected boost can no longer be
Internal Supercharger
sustained is known as the "full throttle height". An internally driven supercharger requires a
significant amount of energy to power the impeller
Of course, the throttle lever itself may not be
and its drive mechanism. So this type of system
set fully forward. Consequent ly, there wi ll be
is normally only used on more powerful engines.
a different full thrott le height for each throttle
position. But in practice only one thrott le position It has a further disadvantage. At low altitudes,
is likely to be used. where supercharging isn't necessary, the
supercharged engine is actua lly less efficient than
The maximum power at which the engine can
a normally aspirated engine.
be operated continuously is known as the "rated
power". "Rated boost" is the manifold pressure On the other hand, like normally aspirated
allowed at rated power so usually the pilot will set engines, superchargers enjoy an increase in
the throttle to achieve rated boost for the climb. volumetric efficiency, and thus power, with
altitude. This is because the thinne r air at height
If the helicopter is climbed at rated boost to the
reduces the exhaust back pressure. This makes
full throttle height , it is said to have reached its
exhaust scaveng ing more efficient , allowing a
"rated altitude" or "rated height".
relatively greater charge to enter the cylinder.
In other words rated altitude is the maximum
altitude at which maximum continuous power can Turbochargers
be maintained on a supercharged engine.
The most common method of boosting

manifold pressure is to use an externa lly driven
supercharger, better known as a turbocharger.
Rated boost
The principa l advantage of the turbocharger is
Rated power that it uses energy that would otherwise have
Rated altitude \ been lost to drive its impeller. The energy in
g l_ 2,4:0 0R;P M ( no m a l)== ::? question is contained in the exhaust gases.
co .. ...
The turboc harger unit compr ises a turbine
linked to an impeller by a short shaft. Like the
supercharger , the turbocharger's bearings are
lubricated by engine oil.
Exhaust gas exiting the engine drives the turbine

which in turn drives the impeller.
Figure 13.56

Piston Engines 13
Compressor
impeller
Turbine wheel
Beca use the system uses exhaust gas it quickly

becomes very hot. This means that it cannot be Cont rolling Turbocharger Output
used to compress the mixture. So unlike, the Like t he supercharger, the amount of boost
supercharger, the tur bocharger compresses inlet delivered to the engine must be controlled to
air only. Fuel is then added to the compresse d air prevent overboosting. On a turbocharge r the
to create the mixture. boost level is controlled not by modifying the
throttle butterfly position, but by controlling the
Advantages a nd Disadva nta ges of speed of the turbocharger impeller. This is done
Turbochargers by restricting the amount of exhaust gas directed
The turbocharger has a number of advantages onto the turbine.
over the internally driven supercha rger : Very simple turbocharger control systems use
• No power is taken from the engine to drive the a fixed restrictor and a pressure relief valve
turbocharger. fitted in the induction manifold. This dumps
excess pressure to atmosphere . When the valve
• The drive train is less complex and the whole operates it triggers an overboost warn ing light in
system is lighter. the cockpit.
• As engine RPM increase, the velocity of the On more sophisticated installations, a waste gate
exha ust gas will increase so increasing the controller is used to direct some of the exhaust
speed of the impeller and thus the amount of gas through a duct wh ich bypasses the turbine.
boost.
The waste gate is a butterfly valve positioned in
The turbocharger has one principal disadvantage. the ex haust upstream of the turbocharger. By
Because the turbine is driven by the exhaust controlling the amount of gas directed to the
gases it takes a short but finite time to spool up turbine the output pressure of the impeller can be
as engine RPM are increased . This can lead to a maintained.
slight lag in delivering the extra boost required, a
phenomenon known as "turbo lag." Note that:
A typical turbocharger installation is shown here. • The waste gate is fitted in parallel with the
Notice t hat it is considerably smaller and lighter turbocharge r.
than a conventional supercharger . • The waste gate is upstream from the
turbocharger.

13 Piston Engines
Using this method the controller maintains a

constant pressure in the inlet manifold up to the
throttle butterfly. However, it takes an appreciable
time for any drop in manifold pressure to be
translated into an increase in compresso r output.
Consequently it takes a finite time to achieve a
new power setting demanded by the throttle. This
is the cause of turbocharger lag.
CriticalAltitude
For a given power setting , the point will eventually
be reached where the waste gate controller has
completely closed the waste gate, in its attempt
Figure 13.59 to sustain manifold pressure. A bove this altitude
manifold pressure, and thus engine power, will
reduce.
The waste gate is controlled by an hydraulic
waste gate actuator. Engine oil is permanently Critical altitude is reached when the turbocharger
supplied under pressure to the actuator and can no longer sustain the maximum outlet
returns to the engine via a variable restrictor. pressure from the turbocharger compressor.
This is the turbocharger equiva lent of full throttle
When the variable restrictor is closed, pressure height.
builds up in the actuator. This forces the actuator
piston to move, closing the waste gate. All the There is a further complication. Because all the
exhaust gas is now directed to the turbine causing exhaust now has to enter the turbine, exhaust
it to accelerate. back pressure increases wh ich causes a
reduction in volumetric efficiency. Engine power
When the variable restrictor opens, the pressure for a given value of MAP will decrease, this is
in the actuator reduces. The piston returns the opposite to what happens in a internally
under spring pressure and the waste gate opens. supercha rged or normally aspirated engine.
Exhaust gas is now directed through the bypass.
Less gas reaches the turbine so it decelerates.
Operation During Various Flight
In its simplest form the variable restrictor is Phases
controlled by a sealed aneroid capsule which is
exposed to manifold pressure. Engine Star t: During start the waste gate is held
open because of the spring pressure acting on
When manifold pressure increases the aneroid the actuator piston.
capsule contracts. The restrictor opens, the
piston returns under spring pressure and the Idle Power: At idle power manifold pressure is
waste gate opens. Turbocharger output is low and there is little exhaust gas. The waste
reduced. gate moves to the fully closed position. A ll
available pressure is directed to the turbine but
If the throttle is opened, pressure in the inlet there is insufficient exhaust to achieve maximum
manifold drops. The aneroid capsule expands compressor output pressure.
to close off the restrictor. Pressure builds in the
actuator and the piston moves to close the waste Take -Off: At take-off the waste gate is partially
gate. More exhaust gas is now directed to the open.
turbine whic h increases speed.
Climb: During a climb at constant power, the
This process continues until a point of equilibrium waste gate will tend close as the air density
is reached between oil and spring pressure in the decreases. Turbine RPM will increase .
actuator.
Critical A ltitude: The waste gate is fully closed.
The turbine is at maximum speed.
13.42 v6.1.2 A ircraft general knowledge

Piston Engines 13
Above Critical Altitude: The waste gate is fully

closed, compressor outlet pressure cannot be
maintained and the maximum value of MAP will
reduce .
In the simple system described above the waste

gate controller is known as a single controller or
absolute pressure controller (APC). The APC
prevents turbocharger pressure from exceeding Turbo
charger
the design maximum pressure. unit
A more sophisticated version of the single

controller uses a variable pressure controller. A
throttle-operated cam modifies the effect of the
aneroid capsule to produce a manifold pressure
that is related to power setting. Figure 13.60
Dual Pressure Control Unit System The two controllers operate independently to
The single controller system is inefficient. It control the turbocharger operation at all throttle
is designed to maintain a constant discharge positions. At less than full throttle the differential
pressure from the turbocharger regardless of the controller also reduces the possibility of an
actual MAP required. So at MAP values lower unstable operating state known as "bootstrapping "
than maximum the turbocharger may be running in which undemanded power changes can occur.
faster than it needs to.
Intercoolers
To overcome this problem, a second controller
is normally added. This controller is sensitive One of the drawbacks of any supercharging
to the difference in pressure across the throttle device, is that the compressed air entering the
butterfly. In other words the difference between engine, is significantly hotter than ambient. This
the compresso r outlet pressure and manifold increases the risk of detonation. To overcome
pressure. Its purpose is to eliminate any this disadvantage, an intercooler is sometimes
difference between outlet and manifold pressure. fitted at the induction manifold.
A diaphragm in the controller senses Cold ram air is ducted from the atmosphere and
turbocharger outlet pressure on one side and passed over the induction manifold. Heat from
manifold pressure on the other. The diaphragm is the manifold air is absorbed by the ram a ir and
connected to a bleed valve. If manifold pressure exhausted overboard thus cooling the mixture.
drops below turbocharger outlet pressure, the
diaphragm distorts and opens the bleed valve . Engine Management
Oil pressure drops and the waste gate opens,
until turbocharger outlet pressure reduces The operating temperature of a supercharged
sufficiently to restore the diaphragm to its neutral engine is much higher than that of a normally
position. aspirated engine. Consequently the oil and
cylinder head temperatures must be monitored
The differential controller controls the waste gate carefully.
at a ll thrott le positions except fully open. This last
task falls to the density controller. Power changes should always be made slow ly
and smoothly. Rapid throttle movement can
The density controller is sensitive to both cause serious damage.
temperature and pressure and prevents the
turbocharger from exceeding the upper limit of To prevent thermal shock when shutting down,
manifold air pressure below the critical altitude at the engine should be left to run at low power for
the full throttle position. long enough to allow its temperatu re to stabilise.
Normally this period is significant ly longer than

13 Piston Engines
that required for a normally aspirated engine. A "' Carburettor Heat Control: which selects the
turbocharger is particularly prone to damage if alternate, hot, source of air for the carburettor.
the engine is shut down before it has had time to Carburettor hot air is unfiltered.
cool.
• Alternate Air. Can be selected on injected
engines if the normal filtered air supply
Engine Instruments becomes blocked.
'" Ignition switch In the OFF position the switch

Piston engine instrumentation may include the
is closed. This earths the magnetos' primary
following:
circuits. The circuit is connected to ground.
11 RPM Gauge: which measures crankshaft
• Engine Priming Pump: which is used to pump
RPM.
neat fuel into the inlet manifold to assist
11 Manifold Pressure Gauge: which measures engine starting.
manifold pressure in Hg in.
• Engine Prime Switch: which controls an
11 Boost Pressure Gauge: which measures electric pump which injects fuel into the inlet
manifold pressure in PSI. manifold to assist starting.
• Oil Pressure Gauge: which measures the oil

pressure just after the pressure pump.
Engine Handling
• Oil Temperature Gauge: which measures the Handling techniques for piston engines vary
oil temperature in the oil return line. slightly with engine type, however, the underlying
principles are applicable to all piston engine
• Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge: which
operations.
measures the temperature of the hottest
cylinder.
Pre-Start Inspection
• Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge: which
measures the temperature in the exhaust gas The fuel must be checked for water
stream. contamination. The water contamination check
involves taking fuel samples from one or more
• Fuel Pressure Gauge: which monitors fuel drains situated at the lowest point in the fuel
pump outlet pressure on carburettor engines system (water is heavier than fuel). The sample is
and manifold output pressure on injected drawn off into a transparent container and visually
engines, both being proportional to fuel flow. checked for water. Any water in the sample is
unacceptable.
• Induction System Temperature Gauge: which
measures the temperature at the carburettor On inverted or radial engines, the engine should
inlet. be turned by hand a number of times to check for
possible hydraulicing.
Engine Controls
Starting Procedure and Precautions
Piston engine controls may include: • If the starter warning light remains on for 30
seconds or more after start, the engine must
• Throttle Twist Grip: which controls MAP and
be shut down.
engine RPM by altering the position of the
throttle butterfly valve. • Positive engine oil pressure should be
indicated within 30 seconds of engine start.
• Mixture Control: which adjusts fuel flow from
the carburettor or fuel injection system. '" In very cold conditions it may become difficult
to start the engine. The low temperature
increases the viscosity of the oil making the
engine more difficult to turn over.

Piston Engines 13
After-Start Checks and Testing Diesel Engines

• Individual magnetos should be checked after
start to ensure that both ignition circuits are
working normally.
Design and Construction
Diesel engines use the heat generated during the
• Because heated carburettor air is unfiltered,
compression stroke to ignite the charge. This is
the carburettor heat should be off when the
why they are sometimes known as "compression
engine is running on the ground.
ignition" engines. Because ignition occurs
• Prolonged idling shou ld be avoided because it spontaneously there is no need for spark plugs,
causes excessive fouling of the spark plugs. distr ibutors and magnetos.
The other main difference between diesel and

Shutdown Procedure petrol engines is the way in which the mixture
is created. Diesel engines always use direct
• The engine should be allowed to cool by
fuel injection whereas petrol engines may use a
running at relatively low RPM for a few carburettor, direct or indirect fuel injection system.
minutes before shut down. This significantly
reduces thermal shock. To produce a sufficiently high tempe rature for
spontaneous fuel combustion to occur, diesel
• A dead cut check should always be made
engines operate at much higher compression
before shut down to confirm that both ignition
ratios than petrol engines; typically from about
circuits are being properly earthed.
14:1 up to about 28:1. This compares with a
maximum ratio of about 9:1 for a petrol engine .
Engine Running Faults This higher compression ratio increases the
power output from a given quantity of charge and
improves the engine's thermal efficiency.
• An excessively weak mixture could cause
excessive cylinder head temperatures. This
increases the risk of detonation and/or engine
damage.
Cylinder head Fuel
injector
• Rough running could be caused by
carburettor icing, moisture in the ignition
circuit, problems with fuel delivery or uneven
compression in the cylinder - for which there Valve
may be a number of possible causes.
Block
• Black ·smoke from the exhaust indicates an Pre-chamber
excessively rich mixture. Black smoke just
after start, may indicate over priming , or an Piston Combustion
unlocked manual-priming pump. chamber
• Blue smoke from the exhaust is caused by oil

burning. This may indicate worn or broken Figure 13.61
piston rings.
Diesel Fuel
Diesel engines use a form of kerosene (Jet A1) for
fuel. Gasoline can't be used because it detonates
uncontrollably at such high compression ratios.
Diesel fuel is heavier than gasoline -with a
specific gravity of about 0.8 to 0.9. It is less
volatile and has a higher flash point than AVGAS
which makes it a safer and more stable fuel. Its

13 Piston Engines
only real disadvantage is that it is a poor lubricant. Compression

Consequently the fuel pump has to be specially
designed to cope with kerosene. The air is compressed. Its temperature and
pressure rise significantly. The temperature rise
Kerosene fuels are sometime categorised is so great that it would quickly exceed the flash
according to their cetane number. This indicates point of the fuel. If mixture had been used it
the ignition delay which is the time interval would detonate. So a diesel has no option but to
between start of injection and the start of introduce the fuel at the very last moment. This is
combustion. The higher the cetane number the why all diesel engines use fuel injection.
shorter the ignition period.
At the very top of the compression stroke, at TDC,
Advantages and Disadvantages a precisely metered quantity of fuel is injected
into the cylinder. It immediately ignites. Again
The higher operating pressures require stronger this differs from the petrol engine where ignition
construction which increases the weight of the begins before TDC.
engine. This has traditionally been a problem
because weight is usually of paramount Power
importance. However, the invention of strong,
light alloys has allowed designers to create diesel Compared to the power generated by a similar
engines with much less weight penalty. sized petrol engine the force exerted on the piston
of a diesel engine is very much greater. This is
In consequence, modern relatively light diesel because, at the point of ignition, the charge is
engines offer a number of advantages: very much more compressed and contained in a
much smaller volume.
• They are inherently more fuel efficient than
gasoline engines. Because fuel is introduced right at the last
moment, there is no risk of detonation. So,
• Their heavier build makes them more robust,
unlike petrol engines, diesels don't normally
so they require less scheduled maintenance.
operate close to the correct stoichiometric ratio;
• Their more robust build also makes them they operate much leaner. With a normally lean
ideally suited to supercharging. mixture and no risk of detonation, diesel engines
don't require a mixture control lever.
• Without the need for an ignition system they
are simpler and more reliable. The power output of the diesel engine is
controlled by the amount of fuel injected into
• They use kerosene which is not only cheaper the cylinder (though some designs may also
than AVGAS but is less prone to the risk of have a throttle butterfly). Th"1s differs from the
fire or explosion. petrol engine where power is set by adjusting the
amount of fuel and air introduced into the cylinder.
Exhaust
The four stroke diesel engine operates in a
manner very similar to the four stroke petrol The exhaust stroke operates in exactly the same
engine. way as a petrol engine.
Induction
During the induction stroke air rather than mixture
is drawn into the cylinder.

Piston Engines 13
Diesel Fuel Injection Systems Direct Fuel Injection Systems

Direct fuel injection systems on diesel engines Direct fuel injec tion systems compr ise an engine
must cope with the very high pressures driven high pressure pump and an injector for
exper ienced in the cylinder. Typically the injectors each cylinder, figure 13.62.
must operate at anything up to 24 000 psi and still
be able to deliver a fine mist of exactly the right The pump must deliver an exact ly metered
quantity of fuel at exactly the right time. As with amount of high pressure fuel to the injector, at
other injected piston engines, diesel engines do exactly the right point in the cycle. To do this it
not require intake heating. must be able to:
Two types of injection system are used on aero • Sense engine RPM.
diesel engines:
• Sense air density.
• Direct Injection. In this system high • Provide a means fo r advancing and retarding
pressure fuel is fed from a high pressure the timing of the f uel pulse.
pump directly to each injector.
• Rapidly generate a series of fuel pulses of
• Common Rail. Here, a high pressure pump
sufficient pressure and deliver them in the
supplies fuel to a common rail from where fuel
appropriate sequence to each injector.
is distributed to each injector.
Older diesel engines produce soot from the

exhaust due to fuel droplets from the atomiser not
burning completely. Most modern diesel designs
use the common rail system because it results in
more efficient combustion, cleane r emissions and
quieter operation.
From fuel tank
PRV
Throttle lever
Injectors
Figure 13.62

13 Piston Engines
The injectors (figure 13.63), are mounted in the Common Rail Injection Systems
cylinder head. They incorporate a mechanically
operated spring loaded poppet valve, which The common rail system comprises four major
opens momentarily, whenever the fuel line components , figure 13.64:
pressure exceeds the opposing force of the
spring. • A high pressure pump with a pressure
regulator and metering valve.
• A common rail acting as an accumulator for

high pressure fuel.
• Electromagnetically operated injectors.
• An engine control unit (ECU) which monitors

engine conditions and then precisely controls
the pressure in the common rail and the
opening and closing of the injectors.
A high pressure pump supplies a constant output

of high pressure fuel to the common rail. Unlike
the injection pump in direct injection system , it
doesn't have to generate a series of pulses; nor
does it need to time the fuel delivery. Its sole
Figure 13.63 purpose is to pressurise the common rail.
The common rail acts as a reservoir which

provides a constant supply of high pressure
fuel to each injector. Excess fuel from the rail is
returned via a cooler to the aircraft fuel system .
The injectors are electrically controlled. A

solenoid valve in each opens and closes on
command from the engine control unit.
The engine control unit monitors the key engine

parameters , including the speed and position of
the cam and crankshafts , to calculate and adjust
the output of the high pressure pump and the
timing of the injectors .
The great advantage of this system is that the

two functions: generating high pressure fuel and
delivering metered quantities to the cylinders are
now separate. This greatly simplifies the pump
design .

Piston Engines 13
Pressure
sensor
Pressure
Common rail limiter
Fuel
filter
Solenoid injectors
ECU
Fuel tank Sensors
Figure 13.64
Glow Plugs for long periods of time. Consequently this type

of glow plug is more heat resistant and longer-
Diesel engines can be difficult to start when lasting than the sheathed type.
cold. This is because in cold conditions the
temperature rise on the compression stroke may
not be enough to raise the air temperature above
the flash point of the fuel.
To overcome this problem some diesel engines

are fitted with glow plugs to increase the
temperature in the combust ion chamber. There
are two types of glow plug:
Sheathed Glow Plug. The sheathed glow plug

contains an electrically heated coil encased in
a sheath filled with magnesium oxide powder.
The powder protects the coil from vibration and
the damaging environment of the combustion
chamber.
Figure 13.65
Ceramic Glow Plug. The ceramic glow plug,
figure 13.65, comprises a special heating element
wit h a very high melting point encased in silicon Glow plugs are powered from the battery. A
nitrite. Silicon nitrite is a particularly good heat cockpit warning light illuminates to indicate their
conductor, so the preheating time is very short. operation.
The material can also withstand rapid heating

13 Piston Engines
Power to Weight Ratio

Compared to a gasoline engine of similar size the
aircraft diesel engine has a lower power to weight
ratio.
Diesel Engine Cooling Systems

Diesel engines require more cooling than their
petrol engine equivalents. Although air cooling
can be used, most modern design uses a liquid
cooling system.
Liquid coolant systems use a mixture of water and

antifreeze. Coolant is pumped around passages
within the engine and returned to a storage tank
via a thermostatically controlled valve. An air
cooled heat exchanger located in the intake helps
to disperse the heat energy absorbed by the
coolant.

14
Gas Turbine Engines
Some of this chapter seems to relate to fixed-wing aircraft, rather than

helicopters. However, you do need to learn its contents as there may be
examination questions on these topics.
Propeller driven aircraft are limited to a practical balloon achieving any thrust by "pushing" against
top speed of about 400 KT. Beyond this speed the air. If we released our balloon in the vacuum
propellers are unable to impart a sufficiently of space it would still move forwa rd.
large acceleration to the air to generate thrust
effic iently. Remember that thrust force is Tension in rubber of the balloon
provides the energy to expel the When released
the product of the mass of the air, times t he the air exits
mass of air at high velocity
acceleration given to it. from the neck of the balloon at high velocity
The only efficient way to achieve higher speeds is /

to impart a greater acceleration to the air. This is
the purpose of the jet or "gas turbine" engine.
Modern gas turbine engines produce huge

quantit ies of thrust by accelerating very large
masses of air rearwards . For example, on take-
off a Rolls-Royce Trent engine ej ects 1000 kg
of air every second! Gas turbine engines also
produce power. Internal turbines continuously
drive comp ressors and, of course, on turboprops
they also drive the propeller, either directly or Figure 14.1
indirectly.
Helicopters do not generally use the thrust of a

gas turbine. The energy from the gas stream is
The Simple Gas Turbine Engine
extracted to drive the rotor. The big advantage The simple gas turbine engine generates thrust
is the power to we ight ratio of a gas turbine is far much like the balloon. By expelling air rearwards,
superior to that of a piston engine. it produces an equal and opposite reaction
forw ards. But unlike a balloon, the gas turbine
Creating Jet Thrust uses heat, rather than tens ion, to expel the gases .
Like all aircraft propulsion systems, the jet engine As in the piston engine, four operations are
creates thrust by giving momentum to a mass of carried out on the air: compression, combustion,
air or gas. According to Newton's 3rd law, if we expansion and exhaust. When all four processes
expel a mass of air rearwards there will be an occur continuously, as in a jet engine, this is
equal and opposite reaction forwards . called the Brayton cycle. When they occur one
after the other, as in a piston engine, it is called
Jet propulsion in its simplest form is seen when the Otto cycle.
an inflated balloon is released. The rapid
expulsion of air from the neck of the balloon Air is drawn in through an intake and enters a
results in an equal and opposite reaction force compressor. The compressed gas leaves the
on the inner surface of the balloon. This force compressor and enters a combustion chamber
is called thrust and causes the balloon to be where fuel is added and the mixture is burned.
propelled forward. The hot gases generated by combustion then
rapidly exit through the exhaust sect ion. As they
It is important to appreciate that this propulsive exit they pass through a turbine which extracts
force is solely the result of the reaction to the some of the energy from the gas stream to power
mass of air exiting the balloon. In no sense is the to the compressor.

14 Gas Turbine Engines
Where A is the nozzle area , p is the nozzle static

pressure and Po is atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, total thrust of this engine is:

Thrust= M x (Viet- Vm h 1)+ A(p - Po)
9
Jet thrust and power must not be confused.

Power is the rate of doing work and is calculated
by multiplying force x speed. Just before t he
Intake Compressor Combustion Turbines Exhaust take-off roll begins the aircraft is stationary. The
chamber
engine may be creating very high thrust but the
aircraft is producing no power!
Figure 14.2
Pressure. Temperature and Velocity

The aft section of the exhaust pipe usually forms in the Working Cycle
a conve rgent duct known as a propelling nozzle
or j et nozzle. This duct increases the speed of Figure 14.3 shows how pressure , temperature
the gas flow exiting the engine. and velocity change in a typica l turbojet engine.
The amount of thrust produced depends on two Propelling noule

factors: the mass of air that is accelerated a nd the
acceleration given to it. This can be expressed
as an equation:
Thrust = mass x velocity or T = MV Compression Combuslion Expansion Exhaust
Understand that V represents the difference in 2000 2000 100

velocity between air entering the engine and air 1500 1500 75
leaving the engine. So a more accurate rendition 1000 1000 50
of the formula is:
500 500 ======,;_,--'- __:; ;:-... 25
Thrust= M X (VJet - vflight )
Temperalu re (•C) Pressure (lb/in>)
Velocity (ft/sec)
Whe re M is the mass of the air, VJet is the speed
of the j et exhaust and Vmgh t is the speed of the air Figure 14.3
entering the engine (i.e. the forward speed of the
aircraft).
There are a number of important points to note:
Notice from this formula that we can achieve
the same thrust (at slow airspeed), either by Compressor: The pressure increases as air
accelerating a large mass of air relatively slowly, travels through the compressor . Air cannot
or a small mass of air very quickly. normally flow from a low to a high pressure area,
so to ensure that flow is maintained , the entire
If the propelling nozzle is choked (i.e. no further unit is contained within a convergent duct. The
increase in velocity can be obtained unless increase in velocity caused by the convergence
there is a temperature increase), then the static overrides the tendency of the air to flow back to
pressure of the gas st ream at exit increases the intake.
above atmospheric pressure. This pressure
difference gives what is known as known as Diffuser: A divergent duct is created between
pressure thrust. the compressor and combustion sections . This is
the area of highest pressure in the engine. The
This thrust can be calculated using t he equation: primary purpose of the diffuser is to reduce the
axial velocity of the air for combust ion.
Pressure Thrust= A(p - Po)

Combustion Area: Combustion is continuous • Speed. Aircraft speed also affects the mass
and takes place at approximately constant flow. At high speeds (greater than M0.4) the
pressure. For this reason gas turbines are engine benefits from a ram effect. At these
sometimes known as constant pressure engines. speeds air becomes compressible producing
an area of relatively high pressure in the
The pressure in the combustion chamber is lower intake. The ram effect more than offsets
than the pressure of the air exiting the diffuser. any reduction in thrust caused by drag. As
Otherwise the flow through the engine would pressure rises so does temperature and
reverse. eventually temperatures at the turbine will
limit maximum thrust. On a turboprop engine,
The highest engine temperatures are generated
increased air mass flow causes engine shaft
in the combustion chamber.
power to increase with speed.
The exit from the combustion chamber forms a
• Ambient Temperature. Temperature affects
convergent duct. Gas velocity increases as it
the mass of air entering the engine and the
exits the combustion chamber and enters the
operating temperature of the turbine. High
guide vanes.
ambient temperatures reduce thrust and
Turbine: One or more stages in the turbine engine power. On a very cold day the engine
extract energy from the gas stream. The overall may produce more thrust or power than it, or
effect is a decrease in temperature, pressure and the airframe can safely take. Such engines
velocity. are flat rated. Below a certain tern perature
fuel flow to the engine is restricted. Flat rated
Exhaust Section: In the particular exhaust engines are limited at temperatures below ISA
design shown in figure 14.3, pressure continues +15" c.
to fall whilst velocity rises slightly. As we shall
see later, this is not necessarily typical of a • Engine Bleed. Air taken from the engine to
modern exhaust system. However, this is the power other aircraft systems will reduce the
diagram currently shown in exam papers. mass flow through the engine and thus reduce
thrust.
Propelling Nozzle: Velocity increases markedly
at the propelling nozzle. • Intake Heating. Heating systems will reduce
the air density and so reduce mass flow
through the engine.
Factors Affecting Thrust
Maximum thrust is produced when the aircraft is
The most obvious way of increasing thrust is to
stationary on the ground "static thrust". This is
increase engine RPM. The faster the engine
beCaUSe the differenCe between VJot and V F"got iS
turns the greater the mass flow through the
at its greatest, as is the air density. The imperial
engine.
unit of thrust is the pound (Ib). The Sl unit of force
But because thrust depends, in part, on the mass is the Newton (N).
of air being accelerated, anything which affects
Like the pressure volume diagram for the piston
the mass of the air will also affect the thrust
engine we can create a graphical representation
produced.
of volume against temperature. The area
• Altitude. Air density varies directly with bounded within these lines represents the total
humidity, altitude and temperature so less work done on the air and corresponds to the
thrust will be produced at high altitude and thrust being produced.
in hot and humid conditions. At altitude the
reduction in density is the predominating
influence; more than offsetting any benefit
gained from the lower temperature. Above
the tropopause where temperature is constant
the rate of thrust loss increases.

efficiently at higher altitudes. As pressure altitude

increases , air density reduces. As a result, the
A ir expands during combustion mass flow reduces, and so maximum thrust
B C
Air expands
reduces with increased pressure a ltitude. You
Ihrough turbine & need to understand this, even though it does not
propelling nozzle at fir st seem relevant to helicopters, as you may
be examined on these facts.
Compressors wo rk more efficiently at higher

rotational speeds. Therefore , to maintain a given
A Air enters engine intake D va lue of thrust as altitude increases, compressors
must rotate faster. Less fuel is required to spin
the compresso r faster as the less dense air
reduces the resistance to turning .
Volum e
Figure 14.4 There is an optimum altitude for a jet aircraft to
operate efficiently in respect of its speed and
thrust required. This altitude increases as aircraft
Burning more fuel would increase the temperature
weight reduces. Maintaining a constant TAS as
and accelerate the air faster. This would extend
altitude increases results in a reduction in fuel
the combustion line (B-C) increasing the area
flow and SFC from sea level up to the optimum
and thus increasing thrust. But in practice it is
altitude.
very difficult to achieve higher temperatu res,
as the jet engine is already operating close to Figure 14.5 shows the effect of altitude and speed
the thermal limit of the turbine blades. The only on thrust and SFC.
practical option is to increase the capacity and
compression ratio of the compressor section .
The Drive for Greater Engine

Efficiency
Profit margins are thin in commercial aviation
so huge effort has been devoted over the years
towards making jet engines more efficient .
Before we look at why they have evolved into
their current designs , we must first understand
the causes of and remedies for, gas turbine
inefficiencies.
Specif ic Fuel Consumption

The overall efficiency of the engine is
usually expressed in terms of its specific fuel
consumption (SFC) and its propulsive and
thermal efficiencies. SFC is the ratio of fuel mass
consumed to produce a unit of thrust per unit of
time or, in the case of the helicopter, SFC is the
ratio of fuel mass consumed to produce a unit of
shaft horsepower per unit of time. The lower the
SFC the better. Engines with higher compression
ratios have lower SFC.
Modern jet transport aircraft cruise at much

higher a ltitudes than piston aircraft , or helicopters.
This is because gas turbine engine work s more

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Figure 14.5
Thermal Efficiency At low speeds the high velocity exhaust from a

turbo-jet wastes considerably more energy than
Thermal efficiency describes the efficiency with the slow slipstream from a propeller. Propeller
which fuel energy is converted to kinetic energy. systems are therefore more efficient at low
Thermal efficiency is determined by combustion speeds . At higher speeds the situation changes.
temperature and pressure ratio. A long trail of The ex haust gas velocity remains high but its
hot exhaust gas left in the wake of a jet airliner speed compared to the relative airflow is much
represents thermal inefficiency; work has been reduced.
done to heat the atmosphere rather than drive the
aircraft forwar d. Gas t urbine engines are a bout Jet engines become much more efficient as
30% therma lly efficient. forward speed increases. Some modern engine
designs can achieve propulsive efficiencies
between 80-90%.
Propulsive Efficiency
These considerations result in different engine
Propulsive efficiency describes the efficiency with designs to suit different operational requirements.
which kinetic energy is translated into propulsive You will recall that thrust depends on the extra
force. This is affected by the amount of kinetic velocity added to the air stream. So to achieve
energy wasted by engine. The turbu lent energetic very high forward speeds, military fast-jet aircraft
air left in the wake of a jet engine is an example require engines that produce a high-speed jet
of propulsive inefficiency. Work has been done to exhaust.
agitate the air rather than propel the aircraft. The
propulsive efficiency of an engine is expressed At the more moderate speeds required by
as: conventional airliners there is considerable scope
for the engine designer to increase propulsive
wo rk done efficiency by reducing the kinetic energy given to
work done + work wasted in the ex haust

the exhaust stream. In other words , by applying a frontal area produces low drag for high speed
relatively small acceleration to a large mass of air. flight .
This has another key advantage . Small

accelerations can be produced by propellers or, in
the case of the modern jet engine, by large fans
driven by a jet core. The wake produced by the
fan is cold and relatively free of turbulence and
noise so the mechanical and thermal efficiency
of the fan is an order of magnitude better than a
turbojet. Hence the almost universal popularity of
Intake Compressor Combustion Turbines Exhaust
designs which use a fan or a propeller. chamber
Propulsive 80
Efficency%
60 Figure 14.7
40
20
Twin Spool Bypass Turbojet
A irspeed m.p.h 0 200 400 600 800 1,000
By-pass turbo-jet By-pass turbo-jet The bypass engine improves efficiency by giving
(high by-pass ratio) (low by-pass ratio) a smaller acceleration to a larger mass of air. In
Propulsive 80 this design some of the air bypasses the inner
Efficency %
60 section, the core of the engine, and is given only
40 a relatively small acceleration by the low pressure
20
(LP) compressor , the fan .
Airspeed m.p.h 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 To work efficiently the LP compressor must
operate at a relatively low rotational speed. By
Figure 14.6 contrast the high pressure (HP) compressor in the
core needs to rotate at high speed .
Types of Gas Turbine Engines To cater for these differing needs the two
compressors are mounted on separate spools,
For historical completeness we will start with each driven by their own turbine section . Notice
the single-spool axial flow turbo-jet. This type that the HP compressor is connected to the HP
of jet was typical of early designs and is really turbine and the LP compresso r is connected
only efficient for very high speed flight. No to the LP turbine. The slower rotating LP
commercial airliner uses this design. It is compressor requires less energy, so it is powered
inherently inefficient at airliner cruise speeds by the rear (LP) turbine. The high speed HP
and the very high velocity exhaust gases create compressor requires very high energy gas, so it
unacceptable noise levels. is driven by a turbine stage , located immediately
behind the combustion chamber.
Single Spool Axial Flow Turbojet
The term 'spool' is used to describe an assembly
comprising a compressor and turbine connected
by a shaft . "Axial flow" describes the passage of
air through the engine -directly from front to rear
along the engine's axis.
In this example three turbine rotors are connected

by a single shaft to the eight rotors of the
compressor to form a single spool. This simple
design produces a very high velocity exhaust
from a relatively small mass of air. Its small

Twin-spool bypass turbojet drives the fan which may now produce as much
as 75% of the thrust.
Mass flow core
Triple spool turbofan engine

HP HP
compressor turbine
Mass flow bypass duct
Figure 14.8
IP compressor IP turbine
The proportion of air entering the bypass, LPfan N1 LP turbine

compared to that entering the core, is known as Figure 14.9
the bypass ratio. In this particular design, the
proportion of air by-passing the core is relatively
small. This engine has a low bypass ratio. With multiple spools a single term "engine RPM"
can no longer be used because each spool
Bypass engines have a number of advantages: rotates at a different speed. Most turbofan engine
controls have indicators to show the speed of the
• The bypass air does not need to be LP fan and at least one of the core spools.
combusted to achieve its acceleration. Since
no fuel is needed to heat the air, the design is The Sl symbol for rotational speed is the letter N.
inherently more thermally efficient. So the speeds of the var ious spools are labelled
from N1 at the front of the engine to N3 the HP
• The bypass air is given a smaller acceleration compressor in the core.
so its propulsive efficiency is greater at lower
speeds.
Turboprop and Turboshaft Engines
• The two compressor sect ions are more
At airspeeds up to about 300 KT and at medium
efficient because both run at their optimal
speed. altitudes a conve ntional propeller is more efficient
than a turbofan engine. So, for slow speed
• As less air enters the core, this section is aircraft , gas turbine engines can be used to drive
smaller and so reduces overall weight. a propeller. This requires extra turbine stages
which extract almost all the energy contained
• The bypass air shrouds the high velocity core in the exhaust gas. These are "turboprop " or
air resulting in a significant reduction in noise. "turbo-propeller " engines. The same design logic
can be used to extract power to drive a helicopter
The Triple-Spool High Bypass Ratio rotor. These are known as "turboshaft " engines .
Turbo Fan You may be wondering why these engines bother
The triple spool high bypass ratio turbo-fan to use a gas turbine core at all. Remember that
develops the bypass concept almost to its logical gas turbines operate on a process of continuous
conclusion. The engine has a very high bypass combustion and consequently have a much
ratio- occasionally exceeding 5:1. A third spoo l greater power-to-weight ratio than a piston
is added to power a very large diameter fan. An engine .
intermediate pressure (IP) compressor and an Gas turbine engines rotate at very high speed,
HP compressor are located in the core. The core so, this type of turboprop design uses a reduction

gearbox to drive the propeller in its optimum helps to relieve the load on the engine during
speed range. start.
On early designs centrifugal compressors were

used. These are still used on some helicopter Free power turbine engine
turboshaft designs where overall engine length is Free power turbine
an issue. Drive to gearbox
for helicopter rotor
or propeller
Most of the energy is extracted by the turbines to
produce torque measured as "shaft horsepower":
the power delivered to the shaft driving the
propeller or rotor. But some residual thrust may
be obtained from the gases leaving the exhaust.
The overall contribution of shaft horsepower and
residual thrust is measured in units of equivalent
shaft horse power (ESHP).
Compressor & turbine
Centrifugalcompressor turbo propeller arrangement of gas generator
section Exhaust
Reduction gearbox to Figure 14.11
reduce propeller speed
The pilot's power lever controls fuel flow,

gas temperature RPM and torque of the gas
generator. The propeller control lever controls the
RPM of the free turbine. If a free power turbine
overspeeds, it can result in bursting of the free
power turbine disk .
Shaft Horse Power+ Jet Thrust= Equivalent Shaft Horse Power (ESHP) Components
Figure 14.10
The principal components of the jet engine
installation are the:
Figure 14.10 shows an early turboprop engine
with two centrifuga l compressors on a single • Air inlet or "intake".
spool. The type is known as a "direct couple"
engine because the single spool is mechanically • Compressor.
connected to the propeller or rotor. This has
some inherent disadvantages. The propeller • Combustion chamber.
produces significant rotational drag, which can • Turbine.
lead to problems maintaining the flow of air
through the engine when it tries to accelerate. • Exhaust and propelling/jet nozzle.
For the same reason engine starting may be more
problematic Each section usually forms a self-contained
unit. This modular construction method makes it
Twin spool turboprop engines help to get around possible to change sections without dismantling
this problem. One of the most common types is the entire engine.
the free turbine engine . The propeller is driven
via the LP ("free" or "power") t urbine allowing
greater flex ibility in operation of the HP spool.
The mechanical link between the gas generator
and the propeller turbine is removed, so each
element is free to rotate at its optimum speed.
This results in improved power generation and

Principal components of a gas turbine engine The inner surface is usually profiled as one
smooth continuous curve to minimise the risk of
Compressor generat ing turbulent flow.
Turbine
Combustion Exhaust
Inlet chamber
Figure 14.12
The Air Inlet Figure 14.13
The air inlet or "intake" is technically not an

engine component but is part of the airframe or When the aircraft is at rest with the engine
engine installation. However, its function is so running, air is drawn in from directly ahead ,
crucial to the engine's performance that we must abeam and even behind the plane of the intake
consider it. The purpose of the inlet is to ensure lip.
under all operating conditions that:
• The engine receives the correct quantity of

air. Low speed
• A ir is delivered to the engine with the
minimum energy loss.
• The airflow to the engine is uniform and free

of turbulence. Design mach number
• The compressor receives air at a uniform

pressure, evenly distributed across the entire
inlet area. High subsonic speed
• The installation causes minimum drag.
Figure 14.14
Subsonic Inlet
Subsonic aircraft use a short pitot-type inlet
because this shape makes full use of the
pressure rise caused by the ram air effect. The
inlet comprises three sections: the lip, the throat
and the diffuser.
The lip is shaped to reduce the risk of flow

separation in crossw inds and when operating at
high incidence angles . The throat forms a slightly
convergent duct which leads to the diffuser. The
diffuser forms a slightly divergent duct to gener ate
an increase in pressure at the compressor inlet.

Bell-mouth Intakes There are various ways that sand filters can work .
The Sea King shown below has an example of
A bell-mouth inlet duct forms a convergent inlet one system .
air duct, and is extremely efficient. The bell-
mouth shape allows the maximum amount of air
to be drawn into the duct with a minimum of loss
and is used where there is little ram pressure
available to force the air into the engine . Bell-
mouth ducts are used in engine test cells and on
engines installed in helicopters .
I
Figure 1 4.16
The sand filter is installed over the cockpit

forward of the engine air intakes to provide
protection against ingestion of foreign objects ,
ice, snow and sand . The unit is a box structure
with filter panels at the top, front and sides. Each
Figure 14.15
panel contains vortex generator tubes which
remove solid particles from the air before it enters
Debris entering the suction zone can be drawn a plenum chamber and then the engines .
into the engine. Even very small debris can
cause catastrophic damage to the compressor Any small solid particles are ejected overboard by
and turbine blades. Foreign object damage , or two electrically-driven scavenge fans .
FOD as it is more commonly known, is a serious Two conical wire mesh screens in the plenum
operating hazard for jet engines. Strenuous chamber, each forward of an engine intake, also
efforts are made to keep the aircraft manoeuvring serve as further protection against heavier or
areas as free as possible from loose debris . denser debris.
All personnel involved with jet engine operations
must be aware of the danger posed by the suction Compressors
effect of the intake. On some aircraft a diagram
showing the shape and dimensions of the danger The purpose of a compressor is to increase the
area is painted onto the engine nacelle. mass flow through the engine by pressurising
the air. During compression , energy (pressure
Helicopters have a unique problem with FOD, as energy), is added to the air and its volume is
downwash from the rotors can disturb any debris reduced. A well designed compressor will
on the ground, allowing it to be sucked down perform this work efficiently and minimise the
the engine. They also often land on unprepared load on its associated turbine. The less work the
surfaces , where fine debris such as sand can turbine has to do to drive the compressor, the
cause erosion in the engine. To overcome this, more energy will be left in the gas stream to drive
a sand filter can be fitted in front of the intake, the rotors.
although the downside of this is that it makes the
intake less efficient.

Impeller
Diffuser
Compressor performance is usually described in The impeller rotates at very high speed (as
terms of its pressure ratio. Pressure ratio is the much as 40 000 RPM). Air enters the "eye" of
ratio of compressor delivery (output) pressure to the impeller where it is picked up by the rotating
compressor inlet pressure . The very latest axial vanes, then propelled rapidly outwards from the
flow compressors typically achieve a pressure centre by centrifugal force. As it moves from the
ratio of 35:1. eye to the circumference of the impeller the air
increases in velocity, pressure and temperature.
Two types of compressor are used: the axial flow
and the centrifugal compressor. The air leaves the impeller tangentia lly and
enters the diffuser vanes. These form a series
An axial flow compressor is so named because of divergent ducts which trade some of the air's
air flows parallel to the axis of the engine. In a kinetic energy for pressure energy.
centrifugal compresso r the air flows radially from
the centre of the compressor to its perimeter The impeller and diffuser each account for about
which is why it is sometimes known as a radial half the overall rise in pressure. The pressurised
compressor. air is then ducted either direct ly to the combustion
chamber or to the eye of a second impeller, to
Both types of compressor have advantages and generate a further rise in pressure.
disadvantages. It is not uncommon to find both
used in the same engine. It is important to appreciate that the centrifugal
compressor uses mechanical rather than
Centrifugal Compressors aerody namic forces to compress the air. This
has one very important implication. Centrifuga l
A centrifugal compressor is similar in appeara nce compresso rs cannot stall - at least not in any
and principle of operation to the impeller found aerodynamic sense of the word.
in a supercharger. It comprises three main
components: The clearance between the rotating impeller and
the stationary diffuser section is very carefully
• An impeller controlled. If it were too small it would generate
buffeting, if it we re too large, pressure would be
• A diffuser lost.
• A casing which houses both the impeller and
diffuser.

To achieve a greater mass flow the impeller can Rotor Stator

be double-sided. Air is introduced simultaneously
to the eyes of the front and rear impellers and
is propelled into a single diffuser section. This
design is known as a "double entry" impeller.
Figure 14.20
As the air passes across each set of rotors ,

velocity, pressure and temperature increase . As it
Double entry Impeller Single entry impeller passes over each set of stators velocity reduces,
and pressure and temperature increase.
Figure 14.19
Across the multiple stages of the compressor the
overall effect is a steady increase in pressure and
Axial Flow Compressors temperature whilst velocity remains approximately
constant.
The disadva ntages of centrifugal compressors Rotor Stator
outweigh the advantages. Almost all large
commercial designs use an axial flow
compressor.
Principle of Operat ion

Like cent rifugal compressors axial flow
compressors add kinetic energy to the air and
then converts the kinetic energy into pressure
energy. A series of aerofoil sect ion blades
or "rotors" mounted on a rotating rotor disc rises
accelerate the air towards a set of stationary Velocity
"stator" blades. The stator blades are arranged rises and falls
to form a series of divergent ducts w hich convert Figure 14.2 1
kinetic energy to pressure energy. Each set of
rotors and stators is called a "stage". A n axial
flow compressor comprises many stages. The stato rs have a second function. Just as in a
conventional wing section , the air flowing over the
aerofoil shaped rotor is slightly deflected. In the
context of a wing we would call this downwash.
The stators correct the deflection to ensure that
the air is presented at the correct angle to the
next stage of rotors.
The pressure rise across a single stage is

usually only about 10% or 20%. (1.1 to 1.2:1) The
rise is small because both the rate of diff usion
14.12 v6.1.2 Airc raft general knowledge

and the angle of deflection, must be kept quite Rotors Stators

low, otherwise the blades might stall or cause Relative
unacceptable levels of drag. This is why an axial
a useable level of compression. Compressors
flow compressor requires many stages to achieve

r7'"""-- vB
ello
acdiety
usually achieve pressure ratios of up to 35:1 with

outlet temperatures up to 600° C.
Absolute
To keep the flow moving against the steady rise Relative elocity out
velocity in Blade
in pressure, the entire compressor assembly is
located in a convergent duct - the "air annulus".
This means the rotors and stators at the high-
pressure end of the compressor must be much
Absolute
""Y "'--
shorter than those at its inlet. Figure 14.22 shows
velocity in
the overall arrangement for a multi-stage axial
flow compresso r. Figure 14.23
Because the tips of the compressor blades have

a higher tangential velocity than the roots, the
angle of attack on the blade will differ f rom root to
tip. To maintain the optimum angle over its entire
length the blade is twisted. The root is set at
higher angle than the tip . The amount of twist is
known as the "stagger angle".
Compressor Aerodynamics
The axial flow compressor has one disadvantage.
Because the rotor is an aerofoil, it is susceptible
to stalling - in much the same way as a wing can
stall. If a stage stalls , the disruption to the airflow
can cause further stages to stall. This can lead
to an oscillating breakdown of flow "a surge", or
Figure 14.22
even a complete reversal of the airflow through
the compresso r "a deep surge".
Compressor Blade Twist Gas turbine engines have a very narrow operating
band, limited by the air mass flow and the overall
The speed and direction of the air approaching pressure ratio. Beyond this operat ing band the
each compressor blade is determined by factors: compressor becomes unstable. A we ll designed
the rotational speed of the blade speed (the compresso r provides an adequate safety margin,
"circumferential" or "tangential velocity ") and between the normal and unstable operat ing
the speed of the air flowing along the axis of the
regions.
engine (the "axial velocity").
These two vectors are summed together to give

the "absolute velocity", which is the velocity of the
air in relation to the rotating blade. The absolute
velocity determines the blade's angle of attack.
These vector components are often depicted in a

velocity triangle like the one shown here.
A "compressor map" is a useful way of graphically stage at precisely the correct angle across all
illustrating the operating margins. Under normal operating conditions.
steady-state operat ion the compressor operates
on the "working line". But, during accelerations, On some engines the same principle is applied
the compressor's operating point can move above to the stator vanes. Variable stator vanes (VSVs)
the working line towards the region of instability. ensure that the air leaving one compressor stage
The area of instability is bounded by the "stability arrives at the next at precisely the correct angle -
line". Figure 14.24 shows a typical compressor over the entire operating range of the engine.
map.
Inter-Stage Bleed
Unstable area Safety margin
In large multi-stage comp ressors it is also
sometimes necessary to include inter-stage
bleed valves . During start, whilst the engine
is attempting to accelerate, the valves open to
vent excess pressure and increase the axial flow
\ across all the stages. This reduction in pressure
reduces the load on the compressor by reducing
Constant the blade angle of attack in the early stages. This
RPM lines effectively brings the compressor away from the
60% 70% 80% 90% 100% stability line and towards the working line.
Air mass flow
Multiple-Spool Designs
Figure 14.24
Triple spool systems are now a common feature
of modern jet engines. Multiple spool designs
Notice that the safety margin is significantly have two major advantages: they allow high
smaller at low mass flows . pressure (HP), intermediate (IP) and low pressure
(LP) compressors to run at their indiv idual optimal
Some compressor maps may show an speeds and they help to reduce t he need for
"acceleration line", which sits between the
complex air control systems to ensure stable
work ing and stability lines. This shows the
airflow.
expected operating conditions as the engine
accelerates.
Compressor Stall
Variable Inlet Guide Vanes and Despite all these precautions compressor blades
Variable Stator Vanes can and do stall. Blades stall can be triggered by:
Each rotor blade is an aerofoil, so its efficiency • Damage to the blades, usually caused by
depends entirely on achieving the optimum ingesting debris .
angle of attack. Angle of attack is a function of
the rotor's rotational speed and the axial speed • Ice formation on the blades.
of flow. At low axial speeds and high rotational • Extreme incidence angles, usually caused by
speed , the angle of attack will be high. The strong crosswinds on take-off or high sides lip
rotor blades are fixed to give an optimum angle angles.
of attack at the design operating speed of the
aircraft and engine. Consequently , during engine If the stall is severe, the consequent aerodynamic
start, with almost no forward speed component , instability can spread from one stage to the next,
the angle of attack on the first stage rotor blades until the all the stages of the compressor stall.
could exceed their stalling angle.
A stall wi ll result in reduced air mass flow through
To prevent this from happening, variable inlet the compresso r and thus reduced thrust. If fuel
guide vanes (VIGV) are fitted. These adjust their continues to be pumped into the combust ion
angle to ensure that air is directed onto the fir st chamber at the same rate, the gas temperature

will quickly rise. The principal symptoms of Avoiding Surge and Stall
compressor stall are:
The underlying principle for avoiding compressor
'" High gas temperature (EGT). stall is to preserve the optimum intake conditions.
'" Reduced thrust. Before flight, check the front and rear faces of the
fan blades and engine inlets for damage or ice.
'" Rumbling or banging from the compressor.
Ice on the blades must be removed with hot, low
111 Fluctuating RPM and fuel flow. pressure, air before engine start.
Avoid starting in strong crosswinds or tailwinds by

Compressor Surge requesting a push back into wind.
If the stall is sufficiently severe, compressor If a compressor stall occurs, restore stable intake
output pressure may fall below the pressure conditions and reduce combustion pressure.
in the combustion chamber. Hot combustion Except in cases of severe damage to the
gases now flow back through the compressor. blades these two actions will normally allow the
This can trigger an oscillating flow pattern in compressor to clear itself.
the compressor, as it alternates between being
stalled and unstalled. The oscillation frequency is
typically about 5 Hz and can be heard as a loud
"burble".
In an extreme case the compressor can

experience complete flow reversal, in which
combustion gases flow all the way through the
compressor. Flames may be seen exiting the
intake. This phenomenon is known as "deep
surge" and is often accompanied by a loud bang.
A surge is possible even when the compressor is

functioning normally. If too much fuel is pumped
into the combustion chamber, the combustion
pressure may rise excessively causing flow
reversal. This "over-fuelling surge" was common
with very early jet engines on start up, or if the
pilot attempted to increase thrust too rapidly.
Modern fuel control units have almost completely

overcome the problem by carefully monitoring
engine conditions and regulating fuel flow
accordingly.
Stall and Surge in a Centrifugal

Compressor
A centrifugal compressor is much less likely to
suffer from surge but is not immune from the
problem. Severe intake icing, damage to the
impeller or over-fuelling can cause one.
Centrifugal compressors cannot stall in any

aerodynamic sense, but they can lose output
pressure for the reasons given above.

Axial Flow Compressor Construction Centrifugal Versus Axial Flow

Compressors
The rotor blades are mounted on a disc which is
driven by one of the turbine shafts. Stator blades Axial and centrifugal compressors have
are usually bolted to the compressor casing. The advantages and disadvantages which are
tips of the stators are often joined by a shroud to summarised here.
avoid gas leaks and energy losses around the
tip, this also strengthens the blades and reduces A centrifugal compressor:
vibration.
11 Uses an impeller which is relatively easy and
Because of their high rotational velocity the rotor cheap to manufacture.
blades are subjected to huge centripetal forces.
111 Is less prone to surge.
The blades themselves are usually loosely fitted
into the disk using a "fir tree" root connection. • Is less susceptible to foreign object damage.
The loose fits allows the blade to take up a
position which depends to some extent on the • Is shorter, and thus well suited to compact
centrifugal and aerodynamic forces acting on engine designs.
it. This reduces the stresses at the blade root.
An added bonus is that individual blades can be • Is reasonably efficient over a range of
replaced more easily. operating conditions.
The loose fit is the cause of the characteristic But it has significant disadvantages compared
clicking or "tinkling" sound that a gas turbine with an axial flow compressor:
makes when it is windmilling slowly on the
• It has a low compression ratio. rarely more
ground. than 4.5:1 compared to at least 35:1 for an
axial flow compressor.
a For a given mass flow it requires a larger

frontal area.
111 It is less efficient than an axial flow

compressor.
But an axial flow compressor:
a Is more expensive to manufacture.

• Is vulnerable to foreign object damage.
a Can suffer from aerodynamic instability.

Fir tree root (with shank seals)
Figure 14.25

Axi-Centrifugal (Axi-CF) Combustion Systems

Compressors
Some aircraft engines capitalise on the benefits The purpose of a combustion chamber or
of both designs by using both types. In the "combustor " is to mix fuel with the compressed
usual arrangement an axial compressor feeds air and burn it efficient ly. The chamber must
a centrifugal compressor. This design allows be carefully designed to convert the rapidly
relatively high compression ratios from a relatively expanding volume of air into a steady steam
short engine. of uniformly heated gas, flow ing towards the
turbines. This must be accomplished with the
minimum loss of pressure and maximum heat
release. Combustion efficiencies in the order of
98% are not unusual.
Unlike the piston engine, combustion does not

result in a sharp rise in gas pressure but occurs
at constant pressure. This allows the combustor
to be lightly fabricated. There are several designs
but all of them comprise an inner chamber called
the flame tube and an outer air casing.
Air casing
Figure 14.26
Image Courtesy of Gary Brossett via the Aircraft Engine Historical Society, Inc.
Figure 14.27
Almost all modern gas turbines use a single

annular combustion chamber wrapped round
the engine core. Older designs, such as t he one
shown in figure 14.27 used multiple chambers.
The operating principle is the same for both.

Requirements for Combustion A fuel injector sprays fuel into the recirculating air.
The combination of spray pattern and turbulent air
The combustor must satisfy a number helps to atomise the fuel. An electric igniter plug
of important and sometimes conflicting starts the combustion process. Once combustion
requirements. It must: has begun it becomes self sustaining so the
igniter is switched off.
• Ensure high combust ion efficiency and
maximum heat release. Because detonat ion is not a problem in a constant
pressure combustor, air and fuel are burned at the
• Provide combustion stability across a wide stoichiometric ratio of 15:1. This results in very
range of operating conditions including hot combustion gases. Typically the combustion
ingestion of rain and hail. temperatu re may peak at 2100°C. This is far
• Promote reliable and consistent ignition during hotter than any current material can withstand,
star t. so, these very hot gases must be quickly
diluted. This is the function of the secondary air.
• Permit in-flight re-starting when air is flowing Secondary air enters through ports in the walls of
through the chamber. the flame tube into the "secondary zone".
• Ensure that the hot gas leaving the chamber

doesn't exceed the temperature limit of the Fuel Igniter
turbine blades. injector
• Promote low emissions , low fuel consumption

and high durability.
Air from the compressor leaves the last stage at
high speed. The final stator stage straightens Nozzle
out the flow and feeds into a diffuser section guide vane
at a velocity of about 150 m/sec. The diffuser Diffuser
converts some of the air's kinetic energy into Primary
zone
pressure energy, allowing the gas to exit the
diffuser at higher pressure and lower velocity Figure 14.28
(110 m/sec).
Only about 20% of the air exiting the diffuser is The combustion temperature, and hence power
introduced immediately into the flame tube this is output from the engine, is limited by the maximum
sometimes refer red to as the "primary air". The gas temperatu re that the turbine section can
remaining 80%, the "seconda ry air", flows around withstand. This in turn limits the amount of fuel
the tube and is introduced after combustion has that can safely be burned in the combustion
begun. chamber . The air in the secondary zone is
still too hot to be fed directly onto the turbine
Even after diffusion and separation the gas blades , so more is added in the last third of the
velocity at the entrance to the combustor is still flame tube, the "dilution zone". This reduces the
much too high (100 m/sec) for stable combustion. temperature of the gases leaving the combustion
This is because kerosene burns with a flame chamber to between 1000°C and 1500°C.
rate of only 3 metres per second. Consequently
the entrance to the flame tube incorporates swirl
vanes or a "swirler", to force the air to swirl into
a doughnut-shaped recirculation vortex . This
slows the air sufficie ntly to allow continuous
combustion. The area in which this recirculation
occurs is called the primary zone.

Combustor Design and

Construct ion
The Multiple Combustion Chamber

System
Multiple combust ion chambers were the first
type of combustor to be used on je t engines .
Individual chambers are arranged around the
engine but are interconnected to equalise the
pressure across all the tubes and to ensure that
the flame propagates to all chambers during
engine start.
Figure 14.30
This design is lighter, more compact and easier to

maintain.
Annular Combustion Chamber

The annular combustor comprises a single
annular flame tube contained within an inner and
outer air casing. It is shorter than a multiple tube
design , typically only 75% of the length of its
tuba-annular equivalent. This results in a shorter,
stiffer and lighter engine with a sma ller f rontal
area and gives a more even distribution of the
thermal loads on the turbine.
Figure 14.29
Because the wall area is reduced, the amount of
cooling air required is also reduced. This permits
Tubo-Annular Combust ion Chamber more air to be used in the combustio n process.
improving combustion efficiency and results in
The tuba-annular or "canannular" combustor is a cleaner emissions .
hybrid design comprising a number of individual
flame tubes fitted inside a single air casing.
Figure 14.31

The principal disadvantage of the annular Reverse Flow Annular Combustor

combustor is that it is more difficult to
manufacture and is not as strong as the tuba- To create a shorter engine, a reverse flow
annular design. combustor can be used. Air exiting the
compressor is first ducted around the combustor
Annular combustors may be lined with ceramic and then fed in from rear to front. This allows the
tiles to protect the flame tube from the high designer to place the compresso r and turbine
temperatures. Alternatively the flame tube itself sections much closer togethe r.
may be constructed from a laminate of material
which allows cooling air to enter a network of Forcing the airflow to reverse results in some
passages in its walls. A ir entering the chamber loss of efficiency, but the adva ntages of a
provides a protective barrier between the hot shorter engine make this a desirable option for
combustion gases and the wall of the flame tube. helicopters and small turboprop aircraft.
All types of combustion chamber have a drain

valve to remove un-burnt fuel.
Centrifugal Nozzle HP turbine

compressor guide vane
Figure 14.32
Fuel Spray Nozzles

Fuel is introduced to the combust ion chamber
through fuel nozzles mounted around the
circumference of the air casing. The function of
the nozzles is to introduce a finely atom ised spray
of kerosene or kerosene vapour into the turbulent
air in the primary zone of the flame tube.
The two principal types are pressure jets and air

spray injectors.
Pressure Jet Injectors

The simplest type of pressure inje ctor is the
"simplex " nozzle. Fuel is delivered under high
pressure through a swirl chamber and then out
through the nozzle to provide a continuous stream
of finely atomised fuel. Although it works well at
high power settings the design is inefficient at low
RPM.

A refined version , the "duplex " nozzle, delivers Ignition Systems

fuel under pressure to two orifices. The smaller
orifice supplies fuel at low RPM, the larger orifice Gas turbine engines burn fuel continuously so a
supplies fuel at high power settings. separate ignition source is usually required only
during the start. Dual ignition systems are always
Air Spray Injectors fitted for redundancy and can be powered by
either AC or DC supplies.
The air spray injector channels air from the
compressor through an inner swirl chamber and There are two types of AC igniter. The high-
outer swirl vanes, which reduce the axial velocity energy (25 000 volt) type operates in a similar
of the air. An annular fuel nozzle sits between way to the spark plugs of a piston engine. It uses
the two so that the fuel is ejected between two a capacitance high energy ignition unit (HEIU) to
turbulent air streams. This creates a finely store and they deliver about 60-100 sparks per
atomised spray which improves combustion , minute during the start sequence.
producing fewe r carbon deposits and offering The surface discharge igniter works in much
cleaner exhaust emissions. Spray injectors the same way but uses an iridium electrode and
operate at lower fuel pressures than pressure jet silicon carbide semiconductor to create a high
injectors. intensity flashover from the electrode to the body.
It requires only 2000 volt.
Two igniters are normally mounted on the air

casing and project into the flame tube.
The ignition system can work automatically with

the engine starting system or independently.
During automatic operation, ignition ceases when
stable combustion has been achieved .
To reduce the risk of flame-out, some check lists

require the igniters to be switched to "continuous
ignition" during take-off from wet runways.
Continuous ignition may also be required for
flight through heavy rain, flight in high ambient
temperatur es, in the vicinity of volcanic ash and
during the approach and landing.
Figure 14.33 The ignition system can usually operate at

two different energy outputs. The high power
(12 joule) output is used for short periods of
Fuel Vaporisers operation, such as high altitude starts and ground
starting. The low power (3-6 joule) output is used
The most basic method of introducing fuel into for continuous ignition.
the combustor is the fuel vaporiser. This very
simple system comprises a U or T shaped DC ignition systems use a "vibrato r" or "tumbler"
tube. Fuel is forced through the tube to ex it in mechanism to feed pulsed DC to a step-up
the opposite direction to the air flowing into the transformer . An alternative system uses a
flame tube. This produces reasonably good fuel transistorised chopper circuit rather than a
atomisation. Because of their relatively inefficient mechanical vibrator.
combustion characteristics they are rarely used
on commercial aircraft engines.

Turbines generates a force on each turbine blade which

causes the turbine disc to rotate.
A turbine is the most highly stressed component

in the engine. Not only does each blade endure
Types of Turbine
large centrifugal forces, sometimes as much There are three types of turbine: impulse, reaction
as 66 000 g, but it must also cope with gas and a combination of the two; the impulse-
temperatures up to 1600°C which is well above reaction system .
their melting point. In normal operation , the
blades glow red hot.
Impulse Turbine
The turbine provides power to drive the
The nozzle guide vanes form convergent ducts
compressors , front fan , and a drive shaft for
which accelerate the gas and reduce its pressure.
ancillary components .
The accelerated gas then strikes the crescent
In turboprop or turbo shaft engines the turbine shaped turbine blades causing an impulse force
also powers the propeller or helicopter rotor which drives the turbine. The velocity of the gas
blades. Turboprop and turboshaft engines extract decreases , with no change in pressure .
almost all the energy from the exhaust gas.
Reaction Turbine
The nozzle guide vanes form convergent ducts
which accelerate the gas and reduce its pressure.
The turbine blades are arranged to form
convergent ducts . The air accelerates though the
duct creating a reaction force which drives the
turbine . The velocity of the gas decreases and
there is also a drop in pressure.
Impulse-Reaction Turbine
Normally gas turbine engines use a combination
of impulse and reaction turbine blades to
generate rotation. The nozzle guide vanes form
a convergent duct. The turbine blade is shaped
Figure 14.34 to capture impulse force at its root and generate
reaction force at its tip. About half the turning
force comes from the impulse and half from the
Principle of Operation reaction.
The turbine assembly comprises a series of
stages. Each stage comprises a set of fixed
Nozzle Turbine Nozzle Turbine Nozzle Turbine
nozzle guide vanes (stators) and a rotating disc
comprising many turbine blades. The discs are
direct ly coupled to their respective compresso r
to create a spool. The entire assembly is located
within a divergent duct, ensuring that it doesn't
create so much back pressure that it might choke
the engine.
High velocity gas leaves the combustion chamber Impulse blade Reaction blade Impulse
and enters the nozzle guide vanes (NGVs) . The reaction blade
vanes direct the gas at the right speed and in
the right direction onto the turbine blades. This Figure 14.35

It is important to understand that turning force is of the blade and forms a protective film of
not derived from the aerofoil shape of the blade, cooling air across the surface.
only from impulse and reaction. So, unlike the
axial flow compressor, the axial flow turbine In this context "cooling" air is a somewhat relative
cannot sta ll. term . The air is drawn from the HP compressor
and is approx imately 700°C!
Turbine blades and NGVs are twisted along their
length. The twist ensures that gas flows with
uniform axial velocity along the entire length of
the blade or vane. The amount of twist is defined
by its "stagger angle" and is greatest at the tip.
The task of a turbine is to extract energy from

the gas stream. So, not surprisingly, there is an
overall drop in temperature, pressure and velocity
across a turbine stage.
Turbine Blade Design and

Construction
The combination of heat and stress causes
turbine rotor blades to steadily increase in length
during their operating life. This phenomenon is Figure 14.36
known as "blade creep" and sets a finite life for
the turbine. Turbine blade tips are usually shrouded to prevent
tip losses and are normally attached to the turbine
Most turbine blades are cast from high
disc using a fir tree root. The figure above shows
temperature nickel alloy which is resistant to
a blade without its tip shroud.
creep. They are somet imes coated with a
ceramic thermal barrier coating.
Turbine Disc Creep
The most exotic blades are formed from a single
crystal of nickel alloy. Single crystal blades are The turbine disc itself is also prone to creep.
even more resistant to blade creep, however, are Turbine disc creep is partially controlled by
very much more expensive to manufacture. introducing inter-stage coo ling using relatively
cool air from the compressor .
The blades operate in temperat ures which far
exceed the melting point of the materials from Multi-Spool Engine Designs
which they are constructed. Consequent ly,
sophisticated cooling mechanisms are required. In multi-spool designs the higher speed HP
There are three principa l methods: turbine is closest to the combustion chamber to
take advantage of the highest energy exhaust
• Convective Cooling. Large vented cooling gas. It powers the HP compressor. The LP
voids are created inside the blade to promote turbine is located furthest downstream and
heat transfer by convection . operates at slower speed. The LP turbine powers
• Impingement Cooling . Jets of cooling air either the front fan or, in helicopters, the rotor. On
are played onto the internal surfaces of the triple spool designs the middle IP turbine is used
blade faces . Heat is transferred to the air to power the (middle) IP compresso r.
which then exhausts from holes in the trailing
edge of the blade.
• Film Cooling . Internal air passages are fed

with high pressure cooling air. The air exits
through very fine holes drilled into the faces
Aircr aft general knowledge v6.1.2 14.23

Free Power Turbine Fatigue

In helicopter free power turbine engines, the High cycle fatigue (HCF) occurs where a large
HP turbine will drive the compressor, and is number of small stresses, typically more tha n
sometimes called the compressor turbine. The 10 000, lead to a component failure. In the
LP turbine is the free tur bine. context of gas turbines high cycle fatigue is
mainly caused by high frequency engine vibration
If the free power turbine overspeeds, it is normally and can lead not only to turbine blade failure
an indication that the drive to the main rotor but also to the failure of a range of components
gearbox has sheared. This is very dangerous , including fans and compressors .
as with no load on it, the free turbine will quickly
accelerate to very high rotational speed, with Low cycle fatigue (LCF) is caused by a lower
the distinct possibility of the free turbine disc number of larger stresses. LCF damage occurs
exploding. To prevent this, the engine will have to turbine blades following changes in stress
an automatic shutdown if a free power turbine and tensile strain and by thermal stress when
overspeed is sensed. the turbine speed , and consequently the load
on the turbine, is changed. Low cycle fatigue is
Active Clearance Control reduced by operating at cooler temperatures and
minimising turb ine load changes .
Active clearance control is a method for
contro lling turbine blade tip clearance in the The probability of both HCF and LCF failures can
turbine section. Bleed air is played onto the be calculated. This means that components can
turbine casing. By adjusting the flow of bleed air be lifed and replaced before a failure is likely.
the internal circumfe rence of the casing can be Modern alloys and careful component design
very finely controlled. help to reduce the chance of both HCF and LCF
failures.
Figure 14.37 shows a computer model of thermal

stress on the fir tree root of a turbine blade.
Figure 14.37

Exhaust Systems Temperature Measurement

The function of the exhaust system in a fixed wing Temperature measurement is an essential task in
turbojet is to straighten, accelerate and direct the gas turbine engine. The internal temperatures
the exhaust gases to maximise thrust. A second of the engine have a significant impact on the
important task is to produce minimum noise. The operating life and structural integrity of the turbine
design of the exhaust system significant ly affects section in particular.
overall performance.
Temperature sensors are located at severa l points
In a helicopter engine the main function of the in the exhaust and turbine areas.
exhaust is to expel low energy waste gas from the
engine. The most common sensor is the thermocoup le.
Thermocoup les convert heat into electrical
current. Two wires of dissimilar metal are
jo ined at a "hot" and "cold" junction to form a
loop. A small voltage is produced whenever a
temperature difference exists between the two
junctions. The voltage is translated to a visual
indication of temperature.
Thermocouples are wired in parallel so that the

failure of one does not cause a total failure of the
temperature monitoring system.
Cold junction
in the cockpit
Figure 14.38 f Current flow
A tail cone is attached to the rear of the turbine

section, which helps to prevent hot gas from
flow ing across the rear face of the rearmost
turbine. The rear struts holding the tail cone Hot junction
also help to reduce any residual whirl in the gas In the exhaust
stream.
Figure 14.39

The starter motor is usually mounted on the

Auxiliary Gearboxes auxiliary gearbox and drives the engine through
the accessory drive shaft. On a multi spool
Auxiliary or "accessory" gearboxes drive the engine, this drive must be connected to the HP
engine's fuel and oil systems. spool.
On fixed wing aircraft, auxiliary gearboxes may Non-essential components (but not the fuel or
also provide drive for the hydraulic and electrical oil pumps) are usually connected to the gearbox,
systems. Helicopters normally drive the hydraulic via a quill shaft or "shear neck". This type of
pumps and generators from the main rotor shaft incorporates a deliberate weak point which
gearbox, so that hydraulic and electric power is shears if the component seizes thus protecting
still available during auto rotation. the gearbox and drive system from excessively
high loads.
The gearbox is powered by an accessory
drive shaft which takes power from one of the
compressor shafts, figure 14.40. The drive may
be transmitted through one or more internal
gearboxes.
Internal gearbox
Drtve shaft
lntennediate gearbox
External gearbox
Figure 14.40

Oil Systems
The main purpose of a lubrication system is to
reduce friction and wear between the moving
components of the engine. The most significant
moving components are the ball and roller main
bearings of the main drive shafts. Lubricating oil
is also fed to the external drive gearboxes.
Most gas turbine oil systems are self-contained

and have their own oil reservoir, usually mounted
on the fan or compressor casing. Oil is gathered
by scavenge pumps and returned through filters
and coolers to the oil reservoir to be used again.
A Rolls Royce design is shown in figure 14.41:
Fuel-cooled oil cooler
ft'
/f
De-aerator tray
;
•Feed oil
•Return oil
•Vent air
Oil differential
pressure switch From oil tank
Figure 14.41

The Main Components of an Oil System

This diagram shows a typical oil system layout.
Pressure
relief
valve De-aerator plate
011 tank
Pressure
reducing
valve
Oil
temperature
gauge
HPOil
pump
Hot well
Air-cooled oil cooler
External
gearbox
Scavenge
pumps
Figure 14.42
The main points to note are: • Larger capacity scavenge pumps collect
the oil and return it, via a ram air oil cooling
• A gear type pump draws oil from the reservoir system, to the tank. The tank is vented to
through a coarse filter. atmosphere to prevent pressure build up.
• The oil is then fed though a fine filter. The • Fuel-cooled oil coolers (FCOC) cool the oil
filter will have a bypass system , so that the and heat the fuel to prevent icing.
engine will still be supplied with oil in the event
of filter blockage . • Oil temperature is measured on the return to
the tank.
• Oil is then pumped to individual bearings
and sprayed thr ough oil j ets onto the main • Pressure relief valves are used to protect
bearings and gearbox rotating parts. filters and cooling elements.
• The main bearings are housed in pressurised • Magnetic chip detectors in the return lines
oil chambers which serve to trap and collect collect metallic debris from the bearing
the used oil from a sump at the bottom of the chambers. They provide early warning of
housing. failure and are designed to be removed easily
during maintenance inspections.

Main Bearing Housings Type of Gas Turbine Oil System

The main bearings run at very high temperatures There are two main types of lubrication system:
and as a result their housings and the oil inside the pressure relief valve system and the full flow
them become very hot. Ordinary rubber or nylon system.
housing seals are inadequate, so an alternative
sealing method must be used. Labyrinth seals In the pressure relief valve system , a powerful
use high pressure air and a groove and thread pump provides oil pressure to the bearing
system to block any oil which tries to escape chambers. The pressure is controlled by a
across the seal. pressure relief valve. The system works we ll
when bearing chamber pressure is relatively low
High pressure bleed air is fed to the labyrinth and does not increase much with engine RPM.
seal, which prevents oil in the housing from But it is unsuitable for the high bearing chamber
leaking out across the grooved seals. This pressures found in modern engines.
method of sealing allows some movement
between static and rotating assemblies. In the more common full flow oil system, oil
flow and bearing housing pressures are directly
proportional to engine speed, this permits higher
Oil bearing pressures and ensures an optimum flow
feeds
of oil to the bearings at all engine speeds.
Gas Turbine Engine Oils

Gas turbine engines have high speed rotating
assemblies but no reciprocating parts. Internal
temperatures and pressures are very high,
but ambient temperatures at high altitudes are
very low. It is not uncommon for engine oil to
experience a temperature range f rom -40°C to
250°C in one flight. To address these conflicting
requirements low v iscosity (thin) synthetic oils are
used.
Figure 14.43
Low viscosity oil offers very little resistance to the
Bearing housing pressure is controlled by venting rotation of the main shafts and helps to reduce
the housing. the workload on the starter moto r.
This type of air sealing system results in aerated Oil System Monitoring
oil which needs to be conditioned before it can
be reused. Air is separated from the oil using a Engine oil temperature , pressure and quantity
centrifugal breather. The relatively heavy oil is are monitored and are usually displayed in the
thrown to the sides and gathered whilst the air is cockpit.
vented overboard.
The pressure drop across the HP filter and
scavenge oil filter are also monitored. An
excessive drop could indicate debris in the
system and an impending engine failure .

Engine Bleed Air Systems The internal air temperature is monitored by

sensors in the engine. Excessively hot air will
trigger an overheat warning caption.
Air is taken from several compressor stages to
be used for various internal engine tasks and Engine anti-icing uses HP air. The hot air is fed to
externally to supply hot or high pressure air to internal galleries in the intake lip and through the
aircraft systems. Air tapped from the compressor supporting struts of the front compressor bearing.
is known as "bleed air".
Bleed air is not without its disadvantages. Engine Fuel Systems

Tapping air from the compressor reduces the
mass flow though the engine. This increases The purpose of a fuel system is to provide the
the engine's operating temperature and reduces correct quantity of fuel at the correct pressure
power output or thrust. It also increases specific under all conditions of altitude, airspeed, air
fuel consumption. So when bleed air is selected temperature, engine temperature, engine speed
the pilot may notice an increase in EGT and fuel and power setting. Apart from the throttle, the
flow. fuel control system is fully automatic.
Because of their effect on performance, some The main components of the engine fuel system
external bleed air systems must not be used are the HP fuel pump, a fuel control unit (FCU)
during critical flight phases such as take-off, and a high pressure shut off valve, or "pressure
approach and landing. Future engine designs raising shut-off valve." All of these components
may do away with bleed altogether; opting instead are usually mounted on the engine, figure 14.44.
for more powerful generators to supply an "all- A fuel flow transmitter will be fitted after the
electric" aircraft. HPSOV.
An electrically driven LP booster pump ensures a

Internal Air Systems positive fuel feed to the HP pump at all times.
The main functions of the internal air system are:
• Internal engine and accessory cooling.
• Bearing chamber sealing.
• Prevention of hot gas ingestion into turbine

disc cavities.
• Engine anti-icing.
As a general rule bleed air is taken from an

appropriate compressor stage depending on the
required task. Relatively hot HP air is used to
cool the turbine nozzle guide vanes, the turbine
blades and the turbine discs. LP air is used to
cool the accessories. Air of differing pressures
and temperatures is used to seal the bearing
chambers and to control the flow of cooling air
around the turbine.

Fuel flow
regulator
Figure 14.44
High Pressure Fuel Pump

Two types of high pressure fuel pumps are used piston is determined by inputs from the engine
on gas turbines engines. These are: overspeed governor and the FCU. By moving the
swash plate the stroke can be adjusted which in
• Spur gear fixed volume pumps. turn adjusts the pump's output. At engine start
the pump defaults to full stroke.
• Multi-plunger variable volume pumps.
Both types of pump use fuel to lubricate their
Spur gear pumps are used for low pressure air- moving parts. To avoid them overheating, the
spray fuel burners. They are light and simple in engine is shut down using the HP shut-off valve.
operation . To allow for acceleration the pump This techn ique also avoids the risk of cavitation in
delivers more fuel to the fuel control unit than is the LP fuel lines.
required. A relief valve returns excess fuel to the
inlet side of the pump. A pressurising and dump valve is fitted before
the burner nozzles. On start up, this valve will
The multi-plunger pump incorporates a swash allow fuel to the burners once the pressure is high
plate . The stroke of the pump is limited by the enough for sufficient atomisation. On shut down
angle of the swash plate, which in turn is adjusted it will close and dump the fuel in the line to low
by a control piston. The extension of the control pressure, or return it to the aircraft fuel ta nks.

• Compressor discharge pressure.

Sliding shoe
Piston Drive An acceleration control unit (ACU) limits fuel flow
shaft
Inlet to prevent over fuelling when the power lever is
advanced.
A n altitude sensing unit or "barometric pressure

control unit", compensates for changes in intake
pressure caused by airspeed or var iations in
ambient air pressure.
Swash
plate The FCU automatically adjusts fuel flow to keep
Cylinder
Outlet block the engine within its RPM and temperature limits.
Port plate
There are several different types of fuel
control unit with names reflecting their design
Figure 14.45
methodology. These include mechanical
engine control units (MECU or MEC) and power
management control systems (PMC). Their
Fuel Control Units (FCU) internal mechanisms are very complex but you
wi ll not be asked detailed questions about them.
The purpose of a fuel control unit is to ensure the
correct ratio of fuel and air during all phases of
engine operation. In other words, it must keep Fuel Oil Heat Exchanger
the engine on the working line, away from the
stabilit y line during acceleration. Each engine The fuel oil heat exchanger (sometimes known
has a dedicated FCU. as a fuel cooled oil cooler), uses heat from the oil
to warm the fuel. This has two beneficial effects.
When the pilot demands more power, the Hot oil is cooled before it returns to the engine
input from the lever is sensed by the engine and cold fue l is warmed before it reaches the
speed governor in the FCU. The governor now HP fuel system. The oil in the FOHE is always
demands more fuel to accelerate the engine, and at higher pressure than the fuel. This helps to
the FCU commands the control piston in the HP ensure that fuel does not enter the oil system in
fuel pump to move. the event of an internal leak .
More fuel is delivered to the fuel spray nozzles so Fuel warming is important because it reduces the
combustion temperature increases. This causes risk of fuel waxing. For this reason the FOHE is
the gases to exit the combustor faster, increasing usually located upstream from the HP fuel pump
engine speed. The result is greater mass flow to guarantee that wax crystals do not clog the
through the engine and consequently greater inlet to the pump.
power.
In some systems however, the fuel is heated
A FCU moderates the fuel flow to the spray by bleed air before the filters, and again by the
nozzles in all flight conditions. The amount FOHE after the fuel HP pump. The fuel in the
of fuel required for a given power setting will FOHE wi ll now be at a higher pressure than the
vary according to the mass of air entering the oil, and an internal leak will result in fuel entering
combustor. the oil system , giving a rise in the level in the oil
tank.
A FCU has inputs from:
• The thrott le position.
• Air inlet temperature and pressure.
• Engine speed.
• Exhaust gas temperature.

A third type of fuel, Jet B, is still occasionally used

in Alaska and Canada , primarily because of its
OUi enhanced cold weather performance. This "wide-
cut" fuel is much lighter, spanning the gasoline
Fuel • t
and kerosene boiling ranges. Because of its
in Fuel higher volatility it is more dangerous and is only
out
Qil . exceptionally used for commercial operations.
m
Fuel Waxing
Jet A-1 has a lower maximum freezing point than
Jet A. The freezing point of Jet A is- 40°C, the
freezing point of Jet A-1 is - 47°C. Jet A-1's lower
Thermostatic freezing point makes it more suitable for long
bypass valve
international flights, especially on polar routes
Figure 14.46 during the winter. Jet B freezes at -60°C.
When it becomes very cold, jet kerosene will

form waxy depos its, a phenomenon known
Types of Jet Fuel as "waxing". Waxing is potentially dangerous
Jet fuel is a form of kerosene or paraffin oil. It because it can lead to clogged filters and pipes.
may somet imes be referred to as j et kerosene or
Jet fuel does not become solid at one
AVT UR, which stands for aviation turbine fuel.
temperature. It contains many hydrocarbons
Jet kerosene has a specific gravity between 0.62
each with their own freezing point. As the fuel
and 0.88.
cools, the components with the highest freezing
The most common jet kerosene specifications are points solidify first, forming wax crystals. The
JET A and Jet A-1. Jet A is used in the United remaining elements will form wax crystal as the
States while most of the rest of the world uses Jet fuel continues to cool. Consequent ly jet kerosene
A-1. gradually changes from containing a few wax
crystals, to a slush and then finally to near-solid
Both JET A-1 and JET A have a fairly high flash wax .
point of not less than 38° C.
The freezing point of jet kerosene is defined as
JET A and JET A-1 may contain additives to the temperature at wh ich the last wax crystal
inhibit oxidization and corrosion. Some may melts, when warmi ng a fuel that has previously
also contain anti-static agents. One of the most been cooled until wax crystals form. Thus
common additives is fuel system icing inhibitor the freezing point of fuel is well above the
(FSII). temperature at which it completely solidifies.

Engine Starting
To start a gas turbine engine three conditions
must be met:
• There must be a flow of compressed air

through the engine.
• Fuel must be supplied to the combustor.
• There must be a source of ignition.
The exact ground start sequence will vary from

type to type but will essentially follow the same
steps. The sequence is mostly automatic and is
initiated by selecting a start switch on for two to Figure 14.48
three seconds.
The igniters and starter-motor cancel
automatically , shortly after self-sustaining speed
is reached.
The engine will continue to accelerate under

its own power until it reaches and stabilises
at ground idle speed. The start sequence is
complete.
The start sequence controller usually incorporates

a time switch and an overspeed sensor.
It is quite common to hear a low frequency

resonance from the exhaust during start. This is
normal and no remedial action is required.
Figure 14.47
Peak starting TGT Idle RPM
\
This activates a starter motor which, on a multi- 60 90
spool engine, turns the HP compressor only,
'\
50
therefore requiring a smaller starter motor.
Shortly after rotation begins, the ignition units 40 70
Idle TGT 1-
are energised at their high power setting. At 0.. <.!)
0:: 1-
about 15% RPM the HP shut-off valve is opened , ><
30
><
allowing fuel to enter the combustor . "' "'
20 50
The HP shut-off valve is rarely called by its
technical name. It is more usual to refer to it by
10
the name of its control.
Start 30
Light-up occurs shortly after the shut-off valve is selected 25 30
opened, indicated by a rise in EGT.
Figure 14.49
The starter motor continues to help the engine to
accelerate until it reaches self sustaining speed
(about 30% RPM). This is the point where the
engine is generating sufficient excess power to
accelerate itself to idle RPM, without assistance
from the star ter motor.

Types of Starter Motor A hung start may often be the result of low air
pressure or voltage to the starter motor Similar
Two types of starter system are commonly used: indications can be caused by a compressor stall
or surge during the start cycle.
" Electric. An electric DC starter motor drives
the engine through a reduction gearbox. The Hot Start. Occasionally light-up is followed by
most common type of starter on a helicopter a very rapid rise in EGT This is known as a hot
is the DC starter/generator start. It is essential that you monitor the EGT
during the start sequence and abort the start
" Pneumatic. As its name suggests, the as soon as it is obvious that EGT will exceed its
pneumatic starter motor is driven by air. maximum limit. A hot start is usually caused
Compressed air is directed onto a turbine in by excess fuel in the combustor, sometimes as
the starter motor. The motor turns the HP a result of a previous failed start attempt. The
compressor via the drive shaft. In this system symptoms of a hot start are:
the starter motor can use air ducted from a
running engine or from the auxiliary j90vver • An excessively quick rise in EGT.
uAit (APU) or from an external air source.
Wet Start. If the engine fails to light-up, RPM
will stabilise at a low value, while unburned fuel is
Engine Start Malfunctions sprayed into the combustion chambers. This is
There are a number of possible start sequence known as a wet start. The start sequence must
failures, the most common of which are: be cancelled. The symptoms of a wet start are:
Nil Rotation. The compressor fails to turn. This • Low and stable RPM.
can be caused by a sheared starter drive, no air
• No EGT rise.
to the starter, or no current to the starter.
• Some indicated fuel flow.
Dry Start. Fuel fails to flow to the engine.
Light-up does not occur (no EGT rise) and the If a wet start occurs the pilot must carry out a "dry
engine stagnates at low RPM, driven only by the run" or "blow out" before attempting a re-start.
starter motor. The start must be cancelled. The
indications of a dry start are: To dry run the engine, the HP shut-off valve is
closed and the igniters are switched off. The
• Low and stagnating RPM. engine is then run using the start switch. This
rotates the engine sufficiently fast to blow out any
" No EGT rise. fuel that may have pooled in the combustor.
• No fuel flow. If a dry run is not carried out after a wet start,
Hung Start. If the engine lights-up but fails to the passengers will be treated to a phenomenon
accelerate properly the starter motor will continue known as torching when the excess fuel ignites
to turn the engine but, without assistance from the causing spectacular flames to exit from the
engine itself, the start will "hang" with the engine exhaust section!
RPM stagnating at typically less than 20%. The dry run is also used on helicopter engines
The start sequence must be cancelled. The for compressor washing, usually carried out after
indications of a hung start are: operating in a salt water environment.
" Low and stagnating RPM.
Airborne Relight
11 Low fuel flow.
An airborne re-light requires the same three
• High EGT conditions as a normal ground start: air flow, fuel
flow and a source of ignition.
On fixed-wing aircraft, the forward speed of

the aircraft is usually sufficient to windmill the
compressor at a high enough RPM to begin the

start sequence. Re-light can usually be achieved

simply by activating the igniters and ensuring that
Gas Turbine Operation and
the HP shut-off valve is open. Helicopters are Monitoring
normally started using the normal start sequence,
using the starter motor. Before we describe the various indicators used
to monitor engine performance and health, we
An airborne re-light will only be successful if there
first need to look at the common notation used to
is sufficient air mass flow through the engine.
describe the various parts of the engine.
This depends on airspeed and altitude. It may
first be necessary to descend and slow down to Numbering starts from zero at the f ront of the
ensure that the start is carried under optimum engine. Lettering denotes the parameter being
conditions. In other words, within the "re-light monitored: P for pressure, T for tempe rature and
envelope". N for rotational speed. The typical notation for a
twin spool engine would be:
The maximum re-light altitude is usually defined
as the altitude at or below which a satisfactory re- • PO, TO: ambient pressure and temperature .
light may be obtained within a given speed range.
• P1, T1: compressor inlet.
Engine Shutdown • P2, T2: LP compressor delivery
The engine should be allowed to run at ground • P3, T3: HP compressor delivery
idle for a period of time, to decrease the thermal
shock. If this is not carried out, problems can • P4, T4: Turbine entry.
occur with the rotating assemblies due to differing
cooling rates within the engine. • P5, T5: HP turbine exit outlet.
• P6, T6 : LP turbine outlet.
• P7, T7: exhaust.
• N1: speed of the fa n or LP spool.
• N2: speed of the HP spoo l.
On a triple spool engine N2 describes the IP

spool and N3 the HP spool.
Figure 14.50

On some helicopter free power turbine engines, Temperature may be measured at a variety of
the engine compressor speed can be termed N1 different positions, but ultimately all relate back
or Ng (gas generator speed). The speed of the to turbine temperature. There are at least six
free power turbine can be termed Nf, or N2. measurements in common use:
On more sophisticated engine installations TGT Turbine gas temperature

many of these values are recorded and digitally
stored for trend analysis. Trend analysis looks TOT Turbine outlet temperature
for undesirable trends in engine operation which
EGT Exhaust gas temperature
could indicate a developing problem, and also to
enhance maintenance planning. TIT/ITT Turbine inlet temperature
TET Turbine entry temperature

Handling Considerations
JPT Jet pipe temperature.
Gas turbine engines are most efficient when
operating at high RPM and at constant power The most common on free power turbine engines
settings. is TOT, which is measured between the gas
generator turbine and the free power turbine.
Frequent changes in RPM (and hence operating
temperature) increase engine wear and low cycle
fatigue. The turbine is the component most Torque
sensitive to high EGT.
On a helicopter engine power output is usually
measured in terms of the torque produced at the
Engine Speed engine or gearbox output. Torque is a turning
force, usually indicated as inch pounds or as a
Engine speed is usually measured as a
percentage of total power.
percentage of maximum RPM. The actual shaft
horsepower (SHP), or torque delivered for a given Torque is measured either by hydraulic or
N1 value will, of course, reduce with altitude. electronic sensors usually at the reduction
Changes in temperature and humidity will also gearbox. Some systems use the electronic strain
affect the relationship between SHP and engine gauge sensors.
speed.
During flight, the lowest speed the engine Engine Limits

operates at is flight idle. Flight idle is faster than
It is normal to specify various engine limits,
Ground Idle which means that the engine will
in terms of RPM, temperature or torque. For
be quicker to accelerate. It will also be able to
example:
sustain greater quantities of bleed off-take before
reaching its limiting temperature. Max Take-Off: this is the maximum allowed
under normal circumstances. Its
Engine Temperature use is usually limited by time.
The temperature of the exhaust gases is a Max the maximum power that can be
reliable indicator of the performance and health Continuous: used continuously.
of the engine. EGT is often used on fixed-wing
Transient: above max take-off, usually for a
aircraft to adjust thrust settings, and may indeed
be the limiting factor in high ambient temperatures time period of a few seconds.
on any type of aircraft. If the temperature limit
is reached on a helicopter, it can cause the rotor
speed to decay (also called rotor droop).

Vibration
Because a gas turbine engine has no
reciprocating components, its levels of vibration
are usually very low. Consequently, raised
vibration levels can indicate impending problems.
High frequency vibration, in particular, can
indicate serious damage. Vibration indicators
display levels of vibration on a scale of relative
amplitude. The signal is filtered to remove
unwanted frequencies and amplified before being
transmitted to the vibration indicator.
Engine Overheat Indication

Engine overheat sensors are positioned around
the engine and in the outlets of the vents to
atmosphere. Excessively hot internal air indicates
a serious engine malfunction which is why engine
overheat captions are usually coloured red.

15
Transmission

Transmission 15
The transmission system transmits the engine power to the main and tail
rotors. Engines usually operate at higher RPM than the rotors, therefore
reduction gearboxes are required. Ancillaries such as hydraulic pumps are
usually driven from the main rotor gearbox (MGB), so that during autorotation
after engine failure , hydraulic power is still available.
The transmission system can consist of such Engine torque is transmitted through the main
items as drive shafts , clutch, freewheel units, drive shaft, or a belt assembly, to the input drive,
main gearbox , main rotor drive shaft, tail rotor which drives the main transmissio n gear trains.
drive shafts, dampers, intermediate and tail rotor
gearboxes, and possibly a rotor brake.
A typica l main transmission performs a number

of functions. It wi ll drive the main rotor mast
assemb ly, provide RPM reduction , provide
a means of driving the tail rotor and the
transmission accessories , and support the main
rotor assembly.
1. Piston engine 5. Tail rotor supercritical propulsion shaft

2. Belt drive 6. Tail rotor gearbox
3. Main propulsion shaft 7. Damper
4. Main gearbox
Figure 15.1

15 Transmission
Typical transmission layout twin turbine
Free-wheel unit
Ancillary
drives
2 • Stage epicyclic --------...,..--
reduction gears
Starboard
engine
Free-wheel unit
Input gear
Port engine
Figure 15.2
Clutches Flyweight Cylindrical

pin
A clutch is required between a piston engine,

or direct drive gas turbine , and the main rotor
gearbox so that the engine can be started Tension
without turning the MGB and rotating assemb lies, spring
therefore reducing the load on the engine and Hub
starter.
A free power turbine engine does not need a

clutch, as there is no direct drive to the MGB.
Lining Clutch
drum
Clutch Types
Centrifugal Figure 15.3
A centrifugal clutch is an automatic system Centrifugal mercury clutches utilise the weight
using a set of shoes and a drum. The shoes
of the mercury to provide the centrifugal force to
are splined to the drive from the engine. As the
act on the clutch shoes. Part of their uniqueness
engine speed increases, the shoes are moved
is that the clutches build this torque gradually,
outward by centrifugal force, making contact with
because the flow of mercury takes time.
the drum which drives the transmi ssion.

Transmission 15
Belt with Tighteners

Helicopters which use a belt drive use a tightener Sprag
as clutch. The tightener increases the tension
of the belts until the pulleys on the transmission
will rotate. This is not an automatic system, and
has to be selected by the pilot, either electrically
or manually, therefore the pilot must be careful
to engage and disengage the drive at the correct
power settings.
Figure 15.5
The drive shaft from the engine is made of steel ,

and has a flexible coupling and gimbal system to
allow for minor misalignment.
The pilot must ensure that the engine is

accelerated smoothly to prevent a snatch
engagement of the freewhee l, which can cause
the engine driveshaft to shear.
Main gearbox
connection
\
Engine
Figure 15.4 connection
Flexible
coupling Engine
connection
Input Drive
On systems not using a clutch assembly, a
Drive shaft
freewhee l coupling is provided in the input drive
assembly, wh ich automatically engages to allow Main gearbox
connection
the engine to drive the rotor or disengages the
idling engine during autorotational descent. The Figure 15.6
freewhee l unit is usually of the sprag clutch type,
although a roller unit can be used. It is normally
located in the main gearbox so as to utilise the
gearbox lubrication system . On dual-engine,
single-rotor power train systems , the transmission
has two input drive assemblies.

15 Transmission
Main Gearbox
The main gearbox (MGB), also called the main
transmission , can be mounted in a variety of ways
according to a particular manufacturer 's design.
Some transmissions contain a support case.
The case is an integral part of the transmission
mounted directly to the transmission deck. The
transmission may be mounted to the transmission
deck on an anti-torque plate which reacts to the
torque load and support struts which react to the Figure 15.8
lift load. In the power train system of a piston
engine powered helicopter, where neither shafting
Accessories , such as hydraulics and electrics are
from engine to transmission nor drive angle
usually driven from the MGB.
change is necessary, the main transmission can
be mounted directly on the engine.
Main Gearbox Oil System
The most common material used in the
construction of gearbox casings is magnesium Most MGBs are lubricated by a wet sump oil
alloy, although aluminium alloys can also be used. system which is separate from the engine oil
system , so that in the event of engine failure, the
The MGB has an output to the main rotor drive gearbox and accessories will still have lubrication.
shaft, and also to the tail rotor so that the speed Oil supply from the sump is circulated under
ratio between the two will remain constant. pressure from a gear-driven pump to an oil cooler
with a separate thermal bypass valve. The cooler
If an engine fails on a twin engine arrangement,
has a driven fan to ensure airflow across it under
then there will be a limit on the torque that can
all conditions. The oil then passes through a filter,
be used, due to the fact that all of the power is
also with a bypass valve, then to a manifold on
delivered through one engine input .
the MGB main case. This manifold is equipped
with a relief valve to regulate system pressure and
distribute oil through jets and internal passages .
This lubricates bearings and gears inside the
gearbox where the oil drains back to the sump.
Figure 15.7
The MGB is a reduction gearbox , using either a

planetary (figure 15.7) or spur gear arrangement
(figure 15.8). The drive is taken up to the main Figure 15.9
rotor by the main rotor drive shaft, also known as
the main rotor mast. This is a tubular steel shaft
At least one magnetic chip detector will be in the
fitted with bearings which support it vertically in
oil system for condition monitoring.
the MGB.

Transmission 15
Tail rotor drive shafts are made from aluminium

or steel tubing and run at fairly high speeds ,
Pressure therefore lower torque, to allow for a lighter
transmitter
const ruction. Some shafts run at supercrit ical
speed, i.e. they normally run at a higher speed
than the speed correspondi ng to its natural
frequency.
A supercritical shaft requires some form of

damper assembly to damp out v ibration as it
accelerates or decelerates through the natural
frequency speed. The drive is made up from a
number of short shafts, jo ined together by flexible
couplings to allow for flexing of the airframe in
flight, and changes in lengths of the shafts due to
Figure 15.10 temperature variations.
If part of the shaft runs between two engines , that

Tail Rotor Drive part shou ld be protected by a firewall.
Drive is tra nsmitted from the main gearbox to

the tail gearbox by means of drive shafts and an
intermediate gearbox.
Tail rotor
shaft & hub Tail
rotor
Gearbox
Inclined
drive shaft
Intermediate
gearbox
Oil level
sight glass
Front section
Front bearing and intermediate shaft
intermediate
coupling
assembly
Figure 15.11

15 Transmission
Intermediate Gearbox Rotor Brake

An Intermediate Gearbox (1GB) is required if the Most helicopters use a rotor brake to bring the
tail rotor is mounted at the top of the tail boom. rotor to rest after engine shutdown , ensuring that
The 1GB provides a change in angle of the drive. there is no blade sailing , especia lly in high wind
On some helicopters it also changes the speed to conditions. The rotor brake is normally a disc
prevent vibration. The 1GB is splash lubricated, brake, made from steel or carbon fibre, often
with air cooling of the oil in the sump using located on the tail rotor drive shaft
cooling fins.
The actuating mechanism can be either by cable
or hydraulic. The cockpit indication will vary from
Output flange a simple rotor brake on light, to indications of on/
off/inhibit, depending on the complexity of the
system . Some helicopters have interlocks so that
the rotor brake cannot be applied in the air.
Input
The rotor brake should not be applied at a higher
rotor speed than the aircraft manual states , as
this can cause excessive wear or overheat of
Centre housing the rotor brake, possibly leading to a fire. On
helicopters with free power turbine engines,
the rotor must not be stopped with a rotor blade
above the jet pipe of a running engine.
Drain plug and
chip detector
1
.,
Figure 15.1 2 . ..
r r;
. ...-
Tail Rotor Gearbox
I
/
- -
r ;,·
A tail rotor gearbox changes the direction of the I ,
L .
•. • t
drive by approximately 90°, and most reduce
the speed, however, there are some helicopters
where the speed is increased. It also houses the
"'
· 'IfF "./ .. . .
) r ''\ J'
pitch change mechanism for the tail rotor blades.
Most tail rotor gearboxes are splash lubricated,
with air cooling in the sump using cooling fans
_
-· I
'i .i.r ': .

I o..-.. .\:
/
/
Figure 15.14
Figure 15.13

Transmission 15
Torque Measurement
Torque is an indication of the power output of
an engine. One system , based on oil pressure,
measures the torque in the reduction gearbox.
An alternative , electrical, system measures the
torque on the shaft between the engine and the
reduction gearbox.
Torque Measurement Using Oil

Pressure
Figure 15.15 shows the arrangement of helical
reduction gears, called epicycloida l reducers,
in the reduction gearbox. The helical threads
produce an axial thrust proportional to the
torque which is transmitted by oil pressure to an
indicating system.
The torquemeter measures hydraulically the axialload produced by the helical gears when
transmitting a driving torque to the rotor.
Main rotor
shaft
Helical
gear
Torquemeter
piston
Q Ax ialthrust
• Gear box oilpressure
• Torquemeter oil pressure
Figure 15.15

15 Transmission
Electrical Torque Measurement The indicating system measures the change in

phase relationship, computes the va lue of torque
Most modern engines use an electrical torque produced , and displays it on a cockpit gauge.
meter. Torque is detected by two concentric
shafts. One, the drive or torque shaft, transmits
the torque from the engine to the gearbox while
the second is only connected at one end, at the
engine.
Each shaft has a serrated ring gear fitted which ,

during operations , rotates past a magnetic pickup
and induces an AC voltage. As output torque is
increased, the torque shaft twists as it drives the
gearbox . This changes the position of its serrated
gear in relation to that of the reference shaft and
produces a difference in the phase relationship of
the voltages produced.
Serrated ring gears
\
\
,_
\ Torque meter assemble
Torque meter
magnetic pick-ups
AC output
J1 Torque shaft and exciter wheel Change in phase relation
Reference pick-up
Torque pick-up
L_ Reference shaft and exciter wheel
Figure 15.16

16
Rotors
Rotors 16
Helicopter rotor configurations are classified as side by side, coaxia l, tandem

and single.
Side by side The Russian manufacturer, Kamov, are best

know for coaxial types; most other examples are
This system , which does not require a tail rotor, experimenta l types.
was developed during the early days of helicopter
flying but fell into general disuse. However,
there is a modern specialist helicopter called
the K-MAX which has overlapp ing side-by-side
rotors.
Figure 16.2 - Kamov KA-32
Tandem
Figure 16.1 -The Russian Mii-V12 is the largest Normally used on large cargo helicopters, the
helicopter ever built (just 2 prototypes were built) tandem-rotor configurat ion has two main rotor
systems, one mounted on each end of the
fuselage . The aft rotor is usually mounted higher
Coaxial than the forwa rd one. Each rotor operates
the same as the main rotor on the single-rotor
Coaxial helicopters use two rotors turning in helicopter. Advantages of the tandem -rotor
opposite directions. One benefit arising from system are a larger centre of gravity range and
a coaxial design is increased payload for the good longitudinal stability. Also because the
same engine power - a tail rotor typical ly wastes rotors counter-rotate this removes the need for an
some of the power that would otherwise be anti-torque rotor, therefore full engine power can
devoted to lift and thrust, whereas with a coaxial be applied to load lifting. Disadvantages of the
rotor design , all of the available engine power is tandem-rotor system are a complex transmission
devoted to lift and thrust. and more drag due to its shape and excessive
A principal disadvantage of the coaxial rotor weight.
design is the increased mechanica l complexity of The best known example of a tandem rotor
the rotor hub. helicopter is the Boeing Chinook
Coaxial types sometimes have aux iliary thrust
engines, using turbojet engines, or rear-mounted
propellers, such as the Sikorsky X2.

16 Rotors
Main Rotor
The main rotor is driven from the main rotor
gearbox, the drive being transferred by the main
rotor driveshaft.
The main hub can be made from titanium or

alloys. Modern hubs are made from composite
materia ls, wrapped w ith glass fibre .
The main rotor blades need to flap, feather and

drag. How this is accomplished will determine the
Figure 16.3 - Boeing CH-47 Chinook type of main rotor head.
Fully Articulated
Single Rotor
In the fully articulated rotor system, the blades
Helicopters designed to use a main and tail rotor are attached to the hub with multiple hinges. The
system are referred to as single-rotor helicopters. blades are hinged in a way that allows them to
The main rotor provides lift and thrust while the move up and down and fore and aft, and bearings
tail rotor counteracts the torque made by the provide for motion around the pitch change axis
main rotor. This keeps the aircraft from rotating (feathering). Rotor systems using this type of
in the opposite direction of the main rotor. The arrangement typically have three or more blades.
tail rotor also provides the directional control for The hinge that allows the blades to move up and
the helicopter during hovering and engine power down is called the flap hinge, and movement
changes . Power to operate the main and tail around this hinge is called flap. The amount of
rotors is supplied by the power train system. The blade flap can be limited by a flap limiter.
single-rotor configuration has the advantage of
being simpler and lighter than the tandem-rotor The hinge that allows the blades to move fore
system, and it requires less maintenance . and aft is called a drag or lag hinge. Movement
around this hinge is called dragging, or lead/
The majority of helicopter types are single rotor. lag. To reduce blade oscillations around the drag
hinge, dampers are fitted. Incorrect damping is
one of the main causes of rotor vibration.
To keep the hinges and bearings wo rking

correctly, they are lubricated or greased at regular
intervals. This is called a wet rotor head.
Figure 16.4 - Eurocopter AS-320
Figure 16.5

Rotors 16
Changes in blade pitch are effected by the pitch Hingeless

change rods. The pitch change rods attach to the
rotating swashplate at one end, and to the pitch There are no flap and lead-lag hinges , wh ich are
change horn at the other, which is connected to replaced by flexible elements (elastomerics) at the
the blade. root of the blades which allows the flapping and
the lead-lag movements. The feathering bearing
The rotor head will also have droop stops to allows the feathering of the blade.
prevent the blades from drooping too far at very
low RPM, ensuring they do not strike the airframe.
The droop stops are ineffective at normal
operating RPM.
Teetering
Used on a 2 blade rotor. The two blades are
connected together (like a beam). The hinge
is on the shaft axis. This central hinge allows
the entire rotor head to tilt left and right in order
to allow the blades to flap. When one blade
flaps up, the other flaps down. A teetering rotor
is sometimes called see-saw or semi-rigid. A
variation is the gimballed hub; the blades and the
hub are attached to the rotor shaft by means of a
gimbal or universal joint. Figure 16.7
When parked on the ground, wind gusts have a

large adverse effect on teetering rotors due to Bearingless
their see-saw flapping.
There are no hinges or bearings. The flapping
and lead-lag are obtained by flexing the flex ible
elements (elastomerics) and the feathering by
twisting the element.
Figure 16.6
Figure 16.8

16 Rotors
Elastomeric Bearing the purpose of which is to ensure the rotating

swashplate rotates at the same speed as the
Elastomerics replace conventional hinges and head.
bearings. They are made of layers of elastomer
(synthetic rubber based polymer) and metal. The pitch control rod attachment bolts are
Their size and shape is dependant on the forces secured to the swashplate by self-aligning
they will be required to absorb. This type of bearings, thus eliminating any load on the
bearing does not require lubrication. swashplate when rotating in an inclined attitude.
The non-rotating swashplate is attached to the

main gearbox by the non-rotating scissors.
Pitch controlhom
Pitch operating ann
Rotating
swash plate
Control rods
Non rotating
Figure 16.9 swash plate
Figure 16.10
Swashplate Assembly
The purpose of the swash plate assembly is to
transmit control movement from the collective Main Rotor Blades
lever and cyclic lever to the pitch change horns,
by means of the pitch control rods.
Rotor blades have to support the weight of the
Collective pitch changes are achieved by raising helicopter and withstand high aerodynamic and
the swashplate assembly bodily up and down centrifuga l forces. The blade must possess good
in the horizontal plane, thus changing the pitch torsional stiffness so that the pitch angle is not
angle of all rotor blades the same amount, changed by the aerodynamic twisting moments.
whereas cyclic pitch changes are made by tilting
the swashp late assembly, thus inclining the whole Root Leading edge Tip
swashplate assembly. With the rotor turning, any
pitch control rod will now move down the incline,
_ l_
I r
reducing the blade pitch. Whereas any pitch
control rod moving up the incline will increase the
Trailing edge : Chord
blade pitch.
+------------- Sp-
an------------+ i
So with the blade pitch decreasing on one side of
the rotor disc and increasing on the other, a tilt of
the rotor disc in the direction of increasing pitch is Leading edge Trailing edge
achieved.
The swashplate assembly is made up of a rotating

swashplate and a non-rotating swashplate.
The rotating swashplate is attached to the Figure 16.11

rotor head by means of the rotating scissors,

Rotors 16
Helicopter rotor blades must be manufactured

to a high degree of accuracy because the mass, Erosion shield Spar
Foaming adhesive
lift and balance of each blade must be equal to
prevent vibration. Early rotor blades were made
of wood, usually spruce. No two pieces of wood,
even if they are from the same tree, are identical.
Therefore it is the most difficult material from
which to manufacture a homogeneous series of
blades i.e. it is difficult to make wooden blades
the same size and shape which are also the same Foam core Honeycomb
weight and will balance at the same point. Heater mat
Metal blades replaced wooden construction. The

blade is made of aluminium alloy, with hollow
leading edge spars and a light trailing edge. This
makes it much easier to match blades during Figure 16.13
manufacture.
Rotor blades are balanced both chord wise and
span wise at the manufacturer, so that all blades
should perform the same.
Chord wise balancing is done to prevent

unwanted twisting moments on the blade, by
keeping the centre of pressure(CP), aerodynamic
centre(AC) and centre of gravity(CG) as close as
possible to each other, with the CG being level or
slightly forward of the CP. This is done by fitting
we ights internally forward of the main spar. This
is called mass balancing and prevents blade
flutter and oscil lations.
Spanwise balancing is done to keep the spanwise

CG position consistent by adding weight close to
Figure 16.12 the blade tip.
A rotor blade section has one point around which

Most modern blades are made from composite it rotates as a result of a torque applied to this
materials. section. This point is called the elastic centre.
The main spar can be made of metal or The line along the rotor blade at which the blade
composite material filled with a foa m core. bends without being twisted when a normal fo rce
Normally the main spar is positioned at 25% of is applied to this line is called the elastic line.
the chord. The tail is a honeycomb construction.
The skin is made from carbon fibre reinforced The tip of the rotor blade will trave l further than
plastic. Aluminium mesh can be manufactured the root in the same time; therefore it is travelling
in the skin to protect against lightning strikes. faster than the root. This means that the tip will
Erosion strips, made of nickel, titanium or be producing more lift/thrust than the root. This
stainless steel, are fitted to the leading edge. will produce unbalanced forces along the length
of the blade.
Some blades can have a heater mat fitted to the
leading edge for de-icing.

16 Rotors
To equalise the blade lift/thrust alo ng the length of Tail Rotors

the blade we can do several things.
• Reduce the pitch angle from root to tip. This Tail rotors counteract the torque of the main rotor
is called washout. Because the pitch angle and provide directional control.
changes along the length of the blade, the
pitch is measured at a point 75% from the root
to the tip
• Tapering the blade. This reduces the aerofoil

area from root to tip.
• Change in aerofoil section from root to tip.

Due to the complexity of this, it is only used
on modern composite blades.
Some rotor blades have swept tips to increase

Merit' allowing a higher tip speed before the effects
of compressibility are felt.
Controlrod
Figure 16.13
The pitch change mechanism changes the pitch

of all of the tail rotor blades simultaneous ly.
The pitch on the tail rotor blades range from a
negative angle setting to a positive angle setting.
Tail Rotor Hubs

The tail rotor hub is used as a centring fixture
to attach the tail rotor blades so that they rotate
about a common axis.
Figure 16.12
Figure 16.14

Rotors 16
Some tail rotors incorporate a delta 3 hinge, Ducted Fan

which automatically decreases the pitch angle as
the blade flaps up. A variat ion of the tail rotor is the fenestron or
ducted fan. A ducted fan is a tail rotor which is
Delta-3 hinge
fitted within an aerofoil shaped housing, creating
1
I
thrust. The aerofoil shape produces lift (thrust).
therefore reducing power demand from the
fenestron as forward speed increases.
A ducted fan performs similar to a conventional

tail rotor but there are design differences.
A ducted fan has between 8 and 18 blades,

which are shorter and spin faster compared to
a standard tail rotor. The blades also have a
8 D
smalle r chord than a conventional tail rotor.
No change In a a decreases
Figure 16.15
In general, tail rotors are not fitted with dragging

hinges as the blades have a relatively high
stiffness and can absorb the bending loads due to
lead/lag.
Tail Rotor Blades

Tail rotor blades have evolved in a similar fashion
to main rotor blades. Origina lly blades were
made from wood, then metal, and now composite
materials. Figure 16.17
Static Pitch Advantages include:
-: A balance change
• Safety - these are much safer for ground
operations because the tail rotor is enclosed
in a housing.
Static balance weight
Erosion shield
I A
- d
=======:mmillii'T':rmmrr-,--.-_ core
Honeycomb
Root
l l l l i·/ 1 JII I I i1Pil l l l C3rrnn=-

• More protected - less likely for foreign objects
to get into the tail rotor and cause damage
• Reduced noise.
Disadvantages include:
Spar
Section A-A
• Higher weight and higher air resistance which
leads to increased fuel consumption .
Figure 16.16 • More expensive to produce.

16 Rotors
NOTAR Vibration
A variation on the single rotor is the NOTAR , Helicopters are prone to vibration due to their
which is short for no tail rotor. The NOTAR large rotating assemb lies. Vibrations may be
system provides directional control the same expressed in speed as well as in acceleration.
way a wing develops lift, using the coanda effect, High frequency vibration is linked to high speed
which is the tendency of a fluid jet to adhere to a rotating assemblies , i.e. engines or tail rotor.
solid wall even when the wall curves away from
the jet's axis or direction. Some of the inherent vibration can be reduced by
using flexible mountings on rotating assemblies.
The NOTAR system takes advantage of this effect
by using a variable pitch fan enclosed in the aft Additionally, vibration absorbers can be fitted
fuselage section immediately forward of the tail which decrease the vertical vibrations that the
boom and driven by the main rotor transmission. main rotor causes . These are both passive
This fan forces low pressure air through two measures .
slots on the side of the tailboom, causing the
Active measures can also be used. This involves
downwash from the main rotor to hug the
using accele rometers at various locations around
tailboom , producing lift, and thus a measure of
the helicopter, feeding vibration information
directional control. This is augmented by a direct
into a computer. The computer then activates
jet thruster which is controlled by pedal input and
responses into hydraulic actuators fitted in the
vertical stabilisers.
main rotor gea rbox mounting struts. These
responses will dampen out the vibration .
Once the helicopter is set up correctly, vibration

will be minimised. However, any changes to
the rotating assemblies , especially the main
rotor head and blades, can give an increase in
vibration levels.
Figure 16.18
Advantages include:
• Reduced noise levels - around 60% of the

noise from conventional helicopters normally
comes from the tail rotor.
• Safety- there is no tail rotor to strike

a nything .
• A significant reduction in the helicopter's

vibration.
Disadvantages are:
• it isn't as efficient as a ta il rotor; and
• less manoeuvrability

Rotors 16
Blade Track and Balance A lateral vibration is the result of an unequal

distribution of mass in the main rotor disk. It can
A vertica l vibration is a result of unequal lift also be caused if the blades are out of track. This
produced by the main rotor blades. A blade vibrat ion is a result of the airframe rolling with t he
running out of track will give a vertical vibration mass effect caused by the unequal vertica l lift
once per revolution. Blade tracking is carried out component.
to ensure that all of the blades have the same
tip path plane. On older systems, the track of The most common way to balance the main rotor
the blades was checked on the ground by using disk is to place weight on the main rotor hub at
different colour chalk on the tip of each blade, specific locations, norma lly at the blade mounting
then, with the rotors running, using a flag to bolts. This is also called dynamic balancing.
touch the tips of the blades as they rotate past
Anothe r way is to "sweep" the main rotor blades .
it, therefore making coloured marks on the flag.
Sweeping the blades can be defined as moving
This will show which of the blades is flying the
the blade forward or aft of its angular position.
highest/lowest.
When sweep ing the blades , it is safer to sweep
Modern systems use an electro optical system, a blade aft, as sweeping a blade forward may
or a strobe system. The main advantages are cause the blade to be unstable. There are
that variations in lead/lag, caused by worn lag airframe types that utilise only main rotor weights ,
dampers , can be detected , and that it can also be only blade sweeps, or a combination of both to
used in the air, at varying airspeeds. correct for a lateral imbalance.
There are two primary adjustments used to

correct for vertical vibration. The first is adjusting
the length of the main rotor pitch operating arm,
also called pitch change links (PCL). The PCL
controls the angle of each main rotor blade
individually. This adjustment is typically used to
correct for the blade track on the ground and in
the hover.
The second adjustment available is the main rotor

trim tab. Trim tabs are located on the trailing
edge of each blade. Adjust ing the trim tab wi ll
indirectly provide a corrective force by causing
the pitch angle to change, thus altering the blade
lift in the appropria te sense. Bending the trim
tab up will cause the blade to track up. The trim
tabs are adjusted until the rotor blades are all
flying in the same plane of rotation. Incorrectly
adjusted trim tabs will give vertical vibration at
high speeds.
Leading edge
Inner trim tab r Outer trim tab

Trailing edge
Figure 16.19

16 Rotors
Intentionally blank

0
Rotors 16
17
Flying Controls

Flying Controls 17
The collective and cyclic controls affect the main rotor head to control
attitude and altitude , and the anti-torque pedals affect the tail rotor.
The control runs can be cables , rods or a combination of both.
------ Control attitude

,....,..,...... Control and altitude
I
/
/ heading
'/
(-
\
'
.........
-------
.....................
........................
Figure 17.1
Main Rotor Control Pitch control hom
Pitch operating arm

On the main rotor, the pitch angle of the blades
is controlled by the swashplate assembly. The
swashplate assembly is made up of a rotating
swashplate and a non-rotating swashplate. The
non-rotating swash plate can move vertica lly up Rotating
swash plate
and down the main rotor mast, or tilt around it.
The rotating swashplate rotates wit h the mast and
follows the plane of the non-rotating swashplate. Control rods
Non rotating
swash plate
Figure 17.2
Aircraf t general knowledge v6.1.2 17.1

17 Flying Controls
Control movements from the collective lever and Control rigging

cyclic lever are transmitted to the non-rotating
With so• advance angle
swashplate by a combination of push pull rods,
bell cranks, cables and pulleys, operating control
the other 30° taken up
in control rigging
re
rods or hydraulic actuators . Friction controls are so• ######
usually fitted to both collective and cyclic controls. _-# "\# Con!rol
Normally only the collective friction is adjustable #
_ - -' nggmg
Jo• ---------
in flight, however, Robinson helicopters have a --------
cyclic friction which can be adjusted in flight.
The non-rotating swashplate will be moved at

3 different points around its circumference to
achieve full articulation.
Collective pitch changes are achieved by raising

the swashplate assemb ly up and down in the Figure 17.3
horizontal plane, thus changing the pitch angle
of all rotor blades via the pitch operating arm an
A synchronised elevator can be located near t he
equal amount.
aft end of the tail boom on some helicopters ,
Cyclic pitch changes are made by tilting the and is connected to the fore and aft cyclic
swashplate assembly, thus inclining the whole control system . Fore and aft movement of t he
swashplate assembly for pitch and roll control. cyclic control stick produces a change in the
synchronised elevator attitude, thus increasing
With the rotor turning , any pitch operating arm will controllability of the helicopter.
now move down the incline, reducing the blade
pitch. Whereas any pitch operating arm moving
up the incline will increase the blade pitch.
Due to aerodynamic forces and inertia , when

the pitch of a rotor blade is increased, the blade
does not immediately rise but has to rotate for
approximately another goo before it reaches the
highest flapped position; thus , there is a lag of
approximately goo, between the point at which
the pitch is increased or decreased and the point
where the full effect registers on the blade. This
is called phase lag.
To achieve the correct control sense for the pilot,

the blade pitch must be changed goo before the
required effect. This is overcome by control
rigging and having the blade pitch control arm
forward of the leading edge of the blade. The
angle that the pitch change arm is in advance of
the feathering axis of the blade is known as the
advance angle.
Figure 17.4

Flying Controls 17
Mixer Unit Tail Rotor Control

On some more complex helicopters the cyclic Control movements from the anti-torque pedals
and collective may be linked together by a mixing are transmitted to the tail rotor pitch change
unit. The mixing unit consists of a system of bell mechanism by a combination of push pull rods,
cranks and linkages that combines the inputs bell cranks, cables and pulleys. On some
from both and then sends the "mixed" input to helicopters , the mixing unit can change tail
the control surfaces to achieve the desired result. rotor blade pitch automatically with changes in
This prevents cyclic inputs changing the collective collective setting.
inputs, and also allows collective inputs to change
cyclic output. The pitch change mechanism on the tail rotor is
much simpler than on the main rotor, as all of the
For examp le, on the Sea King, raising the blades will change pitch by the same amount at
collective lever will increase the pitch of the the same time using a spider assembly.
blades, but due to the construct ion of the mixing
unit results in tilting the rotor disc to port. This is
known as lateral lead, the purpose of which is to
prevent the aircraft drifting to starboard due to tail
rotor drift.
The control runs will have primary stops fitted to

prevent the pilot from moving the controls further
than their designed limit. These stops are often
located in the mixer unit.
Spider Control System

A variation on the main rotor control is the spider
system used on the Lynx.
Controlrod
Figure 17.6
Hub disc
assembly Some helicopters have an asymmet ric aerofoil
section vertical fin, which reduces the thrust
requirement of the tail rotor as forward speed
Pitch increases, thus reducing the engine power
control
rod required.
Spider
arm
Throttle Control
As the pitch angle of the main rotor blades is
changed, the changing angle of attack changes
the drag on the rotor blades, therefore changing
rotor and engine RPM. Since it is important that
Figure 17.5 the rotor RPM remain as constant as possible, on
some helicopters a throttle twist grip is fitted to
the collective. On others there is a linkage, either
The spider is mounted on a gimballed shaft mechanical or electrical, on the collective lever
running inside a hollow main shaft. A collective to the engine fuel control, which automatically
beam underneath the gearbox moves up and increases engine power when the collective pitch
down for collective inputs, and sideways/fore and lever is raised, and decreases engine power
aft for cyclic inputs. when the lever is lowered.

17 Flying Controls
Power Assisted/Powered Flight They have full range authority over flight controls,
operating slowly so that the pilot can give timely
Controls
intervention in the event of malfunction.
Most large modern helicopters use hydraulically
Small trim adjustments are carried out using a
powered or power assisted flight control systems.
'beeper' switch, commonly known as a 'coolie
The pilot actions move hydraulic control valves, hat'. The collective has a 2 position switch, and
which will direct pressure to actuators which move the cyclic has a 4 way switch. Operating the
the flight cont rols. beeper switch will trim the control to a new datum,
or neutral, position.
In a power assisted flight control system the pilot
still has a physical input to the flight controls. As
the name of the system suggests , hydraulic power
will assist the pilot in moving the controls.
In a fully powered system there is no physical

connect ion between the pilot's controls and the
rotor blades , therefore the helicopter cannot be
controlled without hydraulic power.
Artificial Feel
Helicopters with hydraulically boosted controls
lose the feel of movement. Therefore feel is
artificially added. The simplest artificial feel
syste m is a gradient unit or spring feel , in which
the spring in the unit is compressed and released Figure 17.7
as movement of the control is made.
If a large control input is required the control will
Trim Actuators be heavy to move due to fighting against the trim
actuator. To overcome this problem , the pilot
Trim actuator s, also known as parallel or rotary will operate a force trim release switch, which
actuators , provide anchoring , friction damping disconnects the trim actuator. Once the pilot has
and pilot functions, relieving the pilot of much finished the manoeuv re, force trim is reinstated
of the physical strain normally attendant with by releasing the switch. There is normally a flight
helicopter operations. deck indication of trim motor position.
The trim actuator includes: The anti-torque system can also have a trim
• a feel spring which provides a feed-back feel actuator, with the force trim release usually a
load to the pilot. micro switch on the pedals.
• a magnetic friction used to provide an anchor The trim system is also used by the AFCS for
point of the control and to connect/disco nnect changes in aircraft attitude, heading and stability
the feel spring. control.
• position senso rs to provide a feed-back Series Actuators

position signal of the control to the A FCS
(automatic flight control system). These electronic actuators , also known as linear
actuators, are used in stability augmentation
• an electrical motor to convert ACFS electrical systems (SAS) for small, fast corrections of
signals to mechanical output on the control. the controls . Due to their fast action, they are
normally limited to around 10% range authority so
• a damper used to reduce vibration on the that if the system malfunct ions, the pilot will not
control due to engagement/disengagement of lose control of the helicopter.
the anchor point using the feel spring.

Flying Controls 17
Autoflight
The automatic flight control system (AFCS) is
covered in the instruments section of this course.
Ground Locks
It is generally considered to be inadvisable for the
pilot to leave the helicopter whilst it is running.
However, there are several occasions when a

pilot might need to do this:
• Escort passengers to and from the machine

safely
• To accomplish quick task {load/unload/refuel)
• Other extenuating circumstances such as the

risk of the weather changing quickly and not
being able to start the helicopter again in such
a hostile environment
If this is necessary, then the pilot must lock

the controls, so that the helicopter will not
inadvertently leave the ground.
This is normally achieved by applying the friction

lock to the cyclic and collective levers.

17 Flying Controls
Intentionally blank

18
Fire and Smoke: Detection and Suppression
The prospect of fire on board an aircraft in flight is very serious. The first line
of defence is in the design and the materials used to construct the aircraft.
The second line of defence is to detect the fire early enough for it to be
fought and suppressed successfully.
There are three methods of detecting a fire: Smoke Detection

11 Visually.
Smoke detection can be used in cargo and
11 By detecting smoke.
baggage compartments.
11 By detecting high temperature.
lon Detection Systems
As the old saying goes "there is no smoke without
fire". People are excellent smoke detectors,
especially a plane full of passengers. Places ion detection systems contain a small quantity of
that are permanently staffed, such as flight decks radioactive material that bombards the oxygen
and passenger cabins, do not require smoke atoms in the air with alpha particles to create
or fire detecting units; these are called Class A ions, charged gas molecules, in a small chamber.
compartments. The ions that have been created allow a small
current to flow through the air from one side of the
chamber to the other.
Automatic Systems
When smoke particles are present they absorb
There is a requirement for duplication of the alpha particles without ionising and cause the
automatic smoke and fire detection systems. current to fall. The fall in current is sensed and a
Each detector is able to operate independently warning light or audio alarm is set off.
but they are normally operated in parallel to
prevent spurious warnings. Both detectors have Optical Systems
to register the smoke or fire before the warning
is given. To achieve this each pair of smoke The second, and probably most common system,
detectors share a common air supply and two relies on the idea that smoke particles scatter
firewires or capillary tubes run side by side to light, this is the labyrinth smoke detector.
form two loops for each fire detector. This makes
use of an "and" logic gate.
A fault protection circuit inhibits the system when

a detector line is connected to ground (earthed).
Aircraft fire detection and suppression systems
are DC powered.
Aircraft general knowledge v6.1 .2 18.1

18 Fire and Smoke: Detection and Suppression
The unit is located in an air extraction duct where

a fan draws a constant flow of air through it. A
beacon lamp is located upstream of the 'labyrinth'
with a photoelectric cell at the other end.
Under normal circumstances the labyrinth

prevents the light from the beacon lamp reaching
the photoelectric cell. In the event of a fire
starting in the protected area, smoke and fumes
are given off. As these pass through the labyrinth
they allow the light to reflect and refract on to the
photoelectric cell creating a current. Detection
of this current sends a fire warning signal to the
flight deck.
To test the smoke detector the pilot closes the

test switch. This operates a relay switch that
routes the power to a test lamp located behind
the photoelectric cell. With test selected, the
lamps are wired in series so the complete circuit
is tested.
Pulsed infra-red Photo-electric

LED cell
Alarm
Light proof chamber
Smoke
Figure 18.1

Fire Detection Pipes in Hot Zones

If a combustible fluid or gas has to pass through a
Areas that have fire detection systems are: hot zone then it must be routed through a double
skinned pipe (a pipe inside a pipe).
• Jet engine bays
Resistive Fire Detection

Jet Engine Zones
A fire detection system is made up of two
Jet engine bays, nacelles or pods are divided into independent loops of firewire supported by a
three zones, figure 18.2: central structure, either a piece of thicker wire
or a more rigid tube. The two loops are usually
Zone1
referred to on control panels as Loop A and
Zone 2 Loop B, both have to be activated for a fire to be
reported.
A cross section of each resistive fire wire shows a

fine central electrode surrounded by filler material
inside a capillary tube. The two ends of the w ire
are brought together at a jun ction which is linked
to an arrangement of diodes , called a diode
bridge or a "wheatstone bridge". The capillary
tube is earthed to the aircraft's structure.
When the system is switched on, a 28 volt DC

electrical potential will be present in the central
core, but as this is an endless loop no current will
Figure 18.2 flow. When the area to be protected is within its
normal operating temperature range this is how
Zone 1 is the area surrounding the hydraulic the system will remain.
pumps, ancillary gear box, engine lubrication
oil reservoir, fuel control unit and so on. This
is the most likely place for a fire to start and
is the only zone that has fir e detection and
remotely operated fire extinguishers. To reduce
the chance of fire spreading the zone is kept
at a lower pressure than the other bays by a
ventilation system.
Zone 2 is the area where the compresso r blades

could touch the engine case and create a metal
fire. This would be indicated via the engine
vibration monitoring system . This zone is hotter
than zone 1.
Zone 3 is the hottest zone, as it is the area

surrounding the engine and jet pipe aft of the
combustion chamber. Zone 3 is separated from
zone 1 by a stainless steel fire bulkhead.

As the temperature increases in a fire the

resistance of the filler material drops , it is
sometimes described as having a negative
coefficient of resistance, and there is an
increased leakage of current to ground via the
capillary tube. This flow of electricity unbalances
the wheatstone bridge, which allows a signa l to
be sent to the appropriate logic circuit.
If the fire wire is crushed in any way and the

central electrode earthed , it can cause a false fire
warning .
When system test is selected, the detection

loop is earthed out and a continuous red light
illuminates on the appropriate panel; the aural
warning sounds. The test is for the electrical
continuity of the system , it does not test for heat
operation .
To fire
warning
circuit
Continuous fire wire detection loop
Capillary Filler material resistance

tube broken down allowing the
Central electric ity to track earth
I electrode
8/ Resistive
filler
material
Support Tube
Figure 18.3

Capacitance Fire Detection The capacitive system is generally preferred to

the resistance system on the basis that no fire
The fire wires in the capacitance system look warning is better than a spur ious one, a fire wi ll
identical to those in the resistance system. In probably show itself in other ways . The system
this system, however, the central electrode is test , when operated , alters the capacitance and a
connected to a charging and measuring unit. continuous red light illuminates on the appropriate
The charging unit charges the central electrode panel. The aural warn ing sounds.
for a set length of time then discharges it into
the measuring unit, where its capacitance is
compared with a reference value.
In a fire the capacitance of the system increases

as the temperat ure increases, a positive
coefficient of capacitance. The measuring unit
senses this and sends a signal to the logic circuit.
Once again, if the fire wire is crushed it will earth

out, but now the loss of capacitance will prevent
a fire warning from being given. A fault protection
circuit inhibits the detector line. This is called a
no fault fire detection system.
Electrical To fire
Charging Measuring warning
supply unit unit circuit
Continuous fire wire detection loop
Central Capillary tube Support tube

electrode l /
Insulating
filler
material
-008 Insulating filler material's
resistance remains,
capacitance increases
Figure 18.4

Systron Donner Fire Detection System

The Systron Donner Fire Detector is a gas
pressure activated system. It consists of a
responder unit that incorporates two pressure
switches and a capilla ry tube with a fine central
core of titanium hydride. Around the core and
acting on one of the pressure switches is 7 psi
of helium gas; this is referred to as the averaging
gas. This pressure holds an integrity switch
closed.
Any drop in pressure will cause the switch to

open, giving a failed signal. In a fire situation
the titanium hydride gives off hydrogen gas, this
raises the pressure to 40 psi, which closes the
alarm switch.
If the capillary tube is crushed the system will

operate provided that there is a gas path to the
responder unit. The system test checks the
responder unit's electrical circuit and also tests
the sensor by heating it electrically, from the test
circuit.
To flight deck Averaging

Alann switch gas
fire warning closes
circuit
r at40 PSI
helium Titanium
hydride
I )' I I I
Responder
unit
rs ill
I
I
I Capillary tube
Integrity switch
held closed at 7 PSI
Crushed capillary tube still

allows system to function
if there Is a gas passage
Figure 18.5

Overheat Sensors Thermocouples

Many aircraft have both fire and overheat Thermocouples are loops of wire made of
warn ings originating from the same engine two different metals joined end to end. One
fire detection system, the distinction between join is placed where the temperature is high,
warnings being only one of temperature . the hot jun ction, and one in the cockpit where
the temperature is low, the cold junction. The
Separate overheat sensors are used in ducts difference in temperature causes a current to flow
carrying hot bleed air, typically for airframe through the loop of wire.
anti-icing, landing gear bays and occasionally in
engine zone 3, around the jet pipe. If there is a fire the current flow will increase for
those thermocouples with their hot junction in the
fire. The difference in current between these and
a reference thermocouple is enough to operate a
relay that , in turn, activates the warning system.
t
Heat causes
tube to expand
The weakness with this system is that should the
fire burn through the interconnecting cable, the
system will fail completely. Testi ng is carried out
by heating one of the thermocouples.
Low expansion
rate springs
Fire Warnings
When the detecting units sense a fire, a signal is
sent to the flight deck. The warning given wi ll be
..
one or more of these :
,, To flight deck
overheat warning
• Red flashing attention-getters.
circuit
• A warning bell.
• A continuous red light on the central warning

Detectors panel or, on an EFIS aircraft, a master fire
wired in parallel
warning light in front of the pilots.
Figure 18.6
• A continuous red light in the appropriate panel
or fire handle.
Overheat senso rs work on the principle of
differential expansion as heat is applied. A tube • Crew alert system warning messages.
which expands easily has a pair of low expansion
• A red light on the appropriate engine control
rate spring strips inside (bi-meta llic strips), each
lever.
with a contact . These remain open until the outer
tube gets hot. As it expands it stretches and pulls The engine fire warning consists of a warning light
the springs together to close the contacts and for each engine and a single alarm bell common
make the warning circuit. If this type of detector to all engines.
is used for fire detection, a delay circuit is used to
avoid false alarms due to vibration. The detectors Attention getters and aura l warnings can be
are wired in parallel. cancelled but the continuous red lights wi ll remain
on until the fire is out.

Master Fire Warnings Pressing the push button also arms the firing
circuit to the extinguisher squibs . In some aircraft
Most aircraft have a master fire warning light in the audible warning may silenced .
clear view of the pilots. When any fire warning is
set off the master fire warning light will illuminate In this example, to operate the extinguisher select
and a bell will sound . Pressing the light silences the 'FIRE EXTING' switch to 'BTL 1'.
the bell.
There is normally sufficient discharge from one
Once the bell is silenced the checklist for the bottle to put the fire out and prevent re-ignition as
appropriate fire warning is actioned . When the the area cools. When the fire is out the light in
fire goes out the master fire warning and the the fire handle and the master fire warning light
specific fire warning lights will also go out . will also go out.
If one bottle fails to extinguish the fire then,

Engine Fire Extinguisher Operation normally after 30 seconds, the second bottle
can be fired. In this case selecting the 'FIRE
The engine fire extinguisher panel is usually EXTING' switch to 'BTL 2'. Even if one bottle has
located in front of the pilots. An example is put out the fire the pilot may discharge the second
shown at figure 18.7. Systems vary from type to bottle into the engine bay as a precaution just
type. before landing.
Some helicopters use fire handles, not push

buttons. These normally need to be pulled and
turned to operate the extinguisher.
Test functions are available for each engine fire

warning system. When selected, the fire handle
will be illuminated and the audible warning will
sound . The overheat warnings can also be
tested .
Figure 18.7
The first of the immediate actions is to close the

throttle, then turn the fuel and ignition off, then
press the guarded fire extinguisher push button.
Pressing the fire extinguisher push button isolates

the engine from :
• fuel by closing aircraft (LP) and engine (HP)

fuel valves ;
• hydraulics by closing shut off valves , if the

pumps are engine driven;
• electrics by opening the GCB and excitation

breaker ; and
• the pneumatic system by closing the bleed air

shut off valves.

Fixed Fire Extinguishers with Squibs

Squibs The BCF is stored in the bottle as a liquid under
pressure, sealed in by a piston in the operating
Fixed fire extinguishers consist of bottles made of head. A small black powder charge , the squib,
copper or steel alloy filled with a fire-suppressant. is fitted into the operating head and wired to a
Attached to the neck is an operating head. switch in the cockpit . Operating the switch will
cause electricity to detonate the squib, pushing
A single operating head will only deliver the fire- the piston down and allowing the liquid to escape,
extinguishing agent to one area. To save weight changing into a gas in the process.
by reducing the number of fire bottles carried, a
dual-operating head may be used so one bottle Heads that are accessible have a small pin which
can protect two areas. Fixed extinguishers are will protrude from the base of the head indicating
used for the suppression of fire in the jet engine when the bottle has been fired in the normal way.
bays.
Where the operating heads are not clear ly visible
The preferred fire-extinguishing agent is BCF an indication that the squib has been fired and the
(bromo chloro difluoro methane). This is also extinguisher discharged is displayed on the flight
known as Halon 1211 or Freon. BCF acts as a deck .
flame inhibitor by absorbing the oxygen in the air.
Squib Test
Fixed Fire To test the firing circuit a small electrica l current
Bottle
is passed through the squib, a green light on the
test panel indicates that the circuit is serviceable .
Over Pressurisation
To prevent the bottle from exploding when
Squib subjected to excessive heat, a pressure relief
valve is fitted to the bottle. This consists of
a frangible disc that ruptures and dumps the
contents overboard. As it does so it blows out a
green plastic disc leaving a red bowl visible.
A switc h on the flight deck will

cause the squib to detonate.
Forcing the piston down to
allow the liquid to escape and
turn into gas.
Figure 18.8
Figure 18.9

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AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE –

Gas Turbine Engines 14

Composites "soft fa il" as the fibres break ,

Combat aircraft are designed to have a safe

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 1.1

Modern airliners are also designed to be damage

The designers now assess the stress and the S/ N

1.2 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Materials operating above the speed of sound where

11 high operating temperature In summary, the advantages of Duralumin are:

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys Magnesium Alloys

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 1.3

Electrolytical, or wet corrosion, requires an

1.4 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Helicopter Configuration Box airframe construct ion

The structure of the conventional helicopter

Later versions of the braced fuselage used steel

The Semi-Monocoque Fuselage

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 1.5

Monocoque The Reinforced Shell Fuselage

As the skin carries more of the load in

Machined inner skin

1.6 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Helicopters often use sliding doors for the cabin,

The different rotor types are described later in a

The tail plane is designed to give down lift to

The vertical fin can be designed as an

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 1.7

1.8 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Hydraulic systems use fluid in a pipe to transmit and multiply force or to

The shape of the container does not

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 2.1

• Pressure is pounds per square inch (psi) i

This means an input force of 100 lb applied to an

Finding the Input or Output Distance

1. Using the formula :

An input force of 100 lb is acting on a piston of

2.2 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

For the input piston

Volume = area x length

For the output piston

If the force is required, use F = A x P Figure 2.5

Although imperial units have been used in the

A perfect fluid cannot be compressed

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 2.3

Components of an Active A modern aircraft hydraulic system is designed

2.4 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Spur gear pumps force fluid between the

Electrically driven pumps are used as backup Figure 2.8

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 2.5

Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic Motors)

In addition to driving ramp and undercarriage

Force = 3000 lb 1000 PSI

Double Acting Unbalanced Actuators

2.6 v6.1.2 Aircraft general knowledge

Internal leaks cause a rise in fluid

Aircraft general knowledge v6.1.2 2.7

The Open Centred System Valves

At normal working pressure the valve remains