Sedimentary Geology, 86 (1993) 91-109 91

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Variability of the sequence stratigraphic model: effects of local

basin factors

H e n r y W. Posamentier *'a and G e o r g e P. Allen b

a ARCO Exploration and Production Technology, 2300 West Plano Parkway, Plano, TX 75075, USA
b Total Centre Scientifulue et Technique, 78470 St.-Remy-les-Chevreuses, France

Accepted June 3, 1993

ABSTRACT

Henry W. Posamentier and George P. Allen, 1993. Variability of the sequence stratigraphic model: effects of local basin
factors. In: S. Cloetingh, W. Sassi, F. Horvath and C. Puigdefabregas (Editors), Basin Analysis and Dynamics of
Sedimentary Basin Evolution. Sediment. Geol., 86: 91-109.

The basic parameters that control stratal architecture in depositional sequences are sediment flux, rate of change of
sediment accommodation (i.e., eustasy and sea-floor subsidence/uplift) and physiography. Of these parameters, only the
eustatic component associated with the generation of sediment accommodation is globally significant. Consequently, local
factors within a particular basin can play a relatively dominant role, vis-a-vis eustasy, in determining the internal
organization of depositional sequences. In general, eustasy and sea-floor subsidence/uplift determine the timing of sequence
bounding surfaces, whereas sediment flux and physiography are most effective in determining the stratal architecture between
those bounding surfaces.
Basin physiography exerts an important control on the internal organization of sequences by determining, for example,
whether deep-water turbidite systems will be a major part of the lowstand systems tract and whether or not fluvial incision
will occur. On ramp-type basin margins with low shelf gradients, little or no fluvial incision and no deep-water turbidite
deposition will occur. Lowstand depos!ts in this setting will consist of shoreline sands scattered at many locations within the
basin. If, however, relative sea-level fall exposes a shelf/slope break, deeper fluvial incision as well as deep-water turbidite
deposition will be likely.
Basin physiography also plays an important role in the stratal architecture of the transgressive systems tract. The
relatively deeper water setting that lies just seaward of the last clinoform of the underlying progradational wedge is the site
of a depositional unit referred to herein as the "healing phase". These early transgressive systems tract deposits commonly
are relatively sand-poor and are derived primarily from eroded delta plain/coastal plain sediments.
The role of sediment supply varying as an indirect response to relative sea-level change can be significant in deep water
environments. Within lowstand systems tracts that form in physiographic settings characterized by discrete shelf/slope
breaks, the stratigraphic expression of depositional units that accumulate in deep-water settings primarily will be a function
of s a n d / m u d ratio of sediments supplied, as well as the physiography of the slope and basin. Commonly, the highest
s a n d / m u d ratio delivered to the deep water occurs early within the lowstand systems tract. This results in stratigraphic
successions that typically grade from relatively widespread tabular-bedded sand-rich turbidite deposits early within the
lowstand systems tract, to confined flow leveed-channel turbidite deposits late within the lowstand systems tract when the
incoming s a n d / m u d ratio is lower.

Introduction model occurring in response to local physio-

graphic, tectonic, and sedimentological condi-
T h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s p a p e r is t o a d d r e s s s o m e
tions. In some cases these variations represent
variations of the basic sequence stratigraphic
significant departures from the generalized mod-
els presented in Vail et al. (1977), Posamentier et
* Corresponding author. al. (1988), and Posamentier and Vail (1988). Se-

0037-0738/93/$06.00 © 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

92 H.W. P O S A M E N T I E R A N D G.P. A L L E N

lected aspects of lowstand and transgressive sys- a function of accommodation. Accommodation,

tems tracts that have been problematic also will in turn, is a response to relative sea-level change,
be discussed. which is defined as being a function of both sea
Recent studies have shown that the local stratal surface movement (i.e., eustasy) and sea floor
architecture of sequences and systems tracts can movement * (i.e., caused by tectonics, sediment
be highly variable as a function of local physiog- compaction, isostasy, and flexural loading)
raphy, subsidence rate, eustasy, and sediment flux (Jervey, 1988; Posamentier et al., 1988). All basin
(Macdonald, 1991; Loucks and Sarg, 1993; Posa- margins, regardless of their structural framework,
mentier et al., 1993; Weimer and Posamentier, are characterized by relative sea-level change oc-
1993; Bertram and Van Wagoner, 1993; Bhat- curring at varying rates. The extent to which
tacharya and Posamentier, 1993). The number of relative sea-level change varies between basins, or
variations on the general sequence stratigraphic even within a given basin, will be the extent to
model is limited only by the imagination! The which local sea-floor subsidence/uplift varies
lowstand systems tract, for example, has been from place to place. Sea-floor movement along
shown to be radically different depending on basin margins can be highly variable, ranging
whether basin margins are characterized by a from uplifting to rapidly subsiding. In subsequent
ramp physiography or a s h e l f / s l o p e break phys- discussions the focus will be on basin margins
iography (Posamentier et al., 1990, 1992; Van experiencing downward sea-floor movement or
Wagoner et al., 1990; Posamentier and Allen, subsidence.
1993a). In a ramp setting, deep-water submarine- O f significant importance is the way in which
fan turbidite systems are unlikely to form. Rather, total subsidence changes along the dip direction
basinally isolated shorelines or deltas associated on a basin margin. Three major trends occur: (1)
with the process of forced regression may be the rate of subsidence increases seaward, (2) the
common (Plint et al., 1986; Plint, 1988; Posamen- rate of subsidence increases landward, and (3)
tier et al., 1992; Posamentier and Chamberlain, the rate of subsidence is constant along a dip
1993). The stratigraphic expression of the trans- profile. The first case is common on intracratonic
gressive systems tract also can be highly variable. or passive continental margins as well as along
This systems tract comprises backstepping shore- some leading-edge or active continental margins.
l i n e / d e l t a i c deposits, transgressive lag deposits, The second case is most common in foreland
and "healing phase" deposits laid down subse- basins on the margin adjacent to the orogenic
quent to a prolonged interval of progradation belt, as well as within half-graben basins. The
(Posamentier and Allen, 1993b). The latter com- cratonic side of a foreland basin behaves much
ponent has not been well documented nor well like a passive margin, at least from the perspec-
integrated into a sequence stratigraphic frame- tive of subsidence trends. The third case can
work in siliciclastic deposits. characterize any basin where local tectonic activ-
ity is dormant and where the crust has cooled
Sea level and subsidence along basin margins sufficiently so that little differential subsidence
occurs.
The basic premise of sequence stratigraphy is
that cyclically varying rates of relative sea-level Tectono-eustatic zones
change result in varying rates of new space added
to accommodate sediment influx; this, in turn, With a given trend of eustatic change, the
results in cycles of deposition that are punctuated rates of relative sea-level and thus accommoda-
by sequence boundaries and maximum flooding
surfaces (Vail et al., 1977; Posamentier et al.,
* Sea-floor movement is no! entirely independent of sea-
1988; Galloway, 1989). Changes in accommoda- surface movement. A eustatic rise will result in isostatic
tion, however, are independent of sediment flux. lowering of the sea floor just as a eustatic fall will result in
Rather, the thickness of potential sediment fill is isostatic uplift of the sea floor.
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 93

tion change can be shown to vary according to the ture (Schlager, 1992, 1993). Type 1 sequences will
three scenarios outlined above. Posamentier and occur (Figs. 1A, 2B) on the orogenic margin of
Allen (1993a) have shown that each type of basin foreland basins if sufficient sediment supply is
margin may be subdivided into two tectono-eu- available so that shorelines can prograde into
static zones for the purpose of predicting stratal zone B. For passive margin basins, the opposite
architecture (Fig. 1). Zone B is characterized by can be true, i.e., if sediment supply is insufficient
rates of subsidence sufficiently low such that some to allow progradation to extend far enough sea-
time during a sea-level cycle the rate of subsi- ward so that the result is the occurrence of the
dence is exceeded by the rate of eustatic fall shoreline within zone B (which, in contrast with
producing an interval of relative sea-level fall the foreland basin situation, lies inboard of zone
(Posamentier and Allen, 1993a). Zone A is char- A), then type 1 sequences will occur, i.e., charac-
acterized by rates of subsidence always greater terized by lowstand, transgressive, and highstand
than the rates of eustatic fall. Within zone A , systems tracts (Posamentier and Vail, 1988).
relative sea-level rises throughout an entire eu- Type 2 sequences will characterize foreland
static cycle, although at varying rate (Fig. 1). basin margins where insufficient sediment supply
This zonation, based on the integration of eu- is available to allow shorelines to migrate into
stasy and subsidence, is useful in the prediction zone B. This may be a common occurrence dur-
of stratal architecture on basin margins. The max- ing the period of active thrusting and consequent
imum seaward position of shorelines relative to rapid subsidence of the foreland basin during
these zones during any given sea-level cycle, de- which time sediment supply cannot keep pace
termines whether type 1 or type 2 sequences and with the rate of accommodation added. Again,
sequence boundaries will form. During a cycle of the opposite would occur on passive margins (Fig.
eustatic change, if the maximum seaward location 1B). Here, sufficient sediment supply must be
of the shoreline occurs within zone B, type 1
sequences will develop; if the maximum seaward
location of the shoreline occurs within zone A, A
Zone A .-.~l-~-- Zone B T
then type 2 sequences will develop (Posamentier
and Allen, 1993a) (Fig. 2). The positions of zones
A and B are reversed on passive margins relative
to the tectonically active side of foreland basin
Landward Seaward
margins (Fig. 1).
Even if no zone A exists within a given basin,
i.e., if the maximum rate of eustatic fall is every- B Zone B ""~l''" Zone A
where greater than subsidence, regional differ-
ences will occur due to different rates of subsi-
dence. Areas with higher subsidence rates will be
characterized by shorter hiatal breaks at the se- Fig. 1. Schematic depiction of subsidence profiles characteris-
quence bounding unconformity, less fluvial inci- tic of the active margins foreland basins (A) and passive
sion, and as suggested by Galloway (1989), an margins (B). On the active margins of foreland basins subsi-
dence due to flexural loading by thrust sheets typically in-
enhanced transgression at the maximum flooding
creases in the landward direction. The opposite characterizes
surface. subsidence on passive margins, where subsidence increases in
the seaward direction in response to increased subsidence due
Role of sediment supply to crustal cooling in that direction. Z o n e A (that area where
no relative sea-level fall occurs within a sea-level cycle due to
high rates of subsidence a n d / o r low rates of eustatic fall) lies
Given the apparent importance of the shore-
landward of zone B (that area where relative sea level fall
line position relative to these two tectono-eustatic
does occur sometime during a sea-level cycle) in foreland
zones, the role of sediment supply becomes an basins whereas the opposite is true on passive margins (from
important factor in determining stratal architec- Posamentier and Allen, 1993a, reprinted by permission).
94 HW. POSAMENTIER A N D G.P. A L L E N

available to allow shoreline progradation to reach architecture can exist for coeval sequences devel-
zone A so that type 2 sequences can occur. On oping within the same basin or in different basins.
passive margins, however, because of the gener- Sediment supply also plays an important role
ally lower subsidence rates, the zone A - B bound- with regard to deep water sedimentation. With a
ary commonly though not always may lie seaward sufficient sediment supply ( a n d / o r relatively long
of the continental shelf edge. Type 2 sequences intervals of relative sea-level highstand) the de-
are characterized by a succession comprising pocenter on passive margins will reach the shelf-
shelf-margin, transgressive, and highstand sys- slope break prior to the initiation of relative
tems tracts (Posamentier and Vail, 1988). sea-level fall. Consequently, when relative sea
The location of the boundary between zones A level starts to fall, the depocenter is at the shelf
and B can vary greatly with eustasy and total edge and deep-water sedimentation on the slope
subsidence and the stratal architecture can be and in the basin is initiated rapidly. This is in
variable through time at any given locale or even contrast to the situation that arises when relative
can vary along strike within a single eustatic cycle sea-level fall is initiated before shoreface deposits
along the same basin margin (Fig. 2). When vary- have prograded to the shelf edge. Under these
ing rates of sediment supply are superimposed on circumstances, when relative sea-level fall begins
this, it is clear that a broad range of stratal and the depocenter is still at an inner- to

Eustasy
High,

f *mo "(

ttigh l High l [Intervalof Relative

I / Sea-level Fall]

Low ~ v e l
Low
Time i Time
, D

ISlaorellae Wlrht- Zone A I [ Shoreline Within Zone B ]

TST
r~ _ Type 2 TST Type 1
I,

~ Boundary

A
Fig. 2. Stratal architecture for sequences where shoreline is within zone A or zone B. Sequences where shorelines lie within zone A
are characterized by progradation, followed by aggradation and retrogradation, without development of zones of sedimentary
bypass, unconformities, and lowstand deposits (A). Sequences where shorelines lie within zone B are characterized by lowstand
shorelines, zones of sedimentary bypass, and possible incised valleys (B). L S T = lowstand systems tract, T S T = transgressive
systems tract, S M S T = shelf-margin systems tract, and H S T = highstand systems tract. Note that the zone A-B boundary can vary
in its position along strike in a single basin margin as sediment flux and subsidence vary along strike (from Posamentier and Allen,
1993a. reprinted by permission).
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 95

Relativesea-level reached the shelf edge prior to relative sea-level

fall. Ultimately, if sea-level fall continues, the
depocenter may eventually reach the shelf edge
by the process of forced regression (Posamentier
et al., 1992).

~Lowstand systemstract
(incisedvalleyfill) Role of Physiography
Relativesea-level
Another important factor in the development
of stratal architecture is the physiography of the
basin margin. Of major importance is whether
(shelf-perchedlowstanddelta) ~ / shoreline progradation is occurring across a ramp
Lowstandsystemstract margin or whether progradation reaches a dis-
(deep-waterturbldite) crete shelf/slope break. In ramp margin settings,
Fig. 3. Schematic depiction of the effect of different physiog- deep-water turbidite systems do not occur within
raphy on Iowstand deposition. Two systems are contrasted:
the lowstand systems tract. Rather, the lowstand
one that has reached the shelf edge during sea-level high-
stand, and the other reaching only a mid-shelf position before
systems tract commonly is characterized by the
relative sea-level fall is in initiated. In the former scenario occurrence of basinally isolated shoreline de-
canyon cutting and deep-water turbidite deposition occur, posits associated with the process of forced re-
whereas in the latter, mid-shelf lowstand s h o r e l i n e s / d e l t a s gression (Posamentier et al., 1992) (Fig. 4). These
and no deep-water turbidites are deposited. lowstand shoreline deposits may be scattered in
linear pods across the basin. Incised valleys com-
middle-shelf location, the only deep-water sedi- monly do not occur unless a relatively steep slope
mentation that occurs is that which is derived (i.e., steeper than the equilibrium fluvial profile)
from de-stabilized shelf edge deltas that were has been exposed by the relative sea-level fall
deposited during the preceding lowstand (Fig. 3). (see discussion in Posamentier et a[., 1992). On
In this situation the sediment supply to the deep margins where regression of the shoreline reaches
water environment is significantly less than in the shelf-slope break, the lowstand systems tract
instances when the highstand depocenter has is characterized by the occurrence of incised val-

systems tract
Lowstand systemstract

I ~-"--=~~Lowstand sea level

SequenceBoundary
Unconformlty
CorrelatlveConformity
Fig. 4. Lowstand deposition on a ramp margin characterized by deposition of basin-isolated lowstand shorelines associated with the
process of forced regression. Note that the sequence boundary is expressed as a subaerial unconformity correlative with a
subaqueous unconformity and a subaqueous correlative conformity.
96 H.W.POSAMENT1ERANDG.P.ALLEN

Icy fill deposits on the shelf and deep-water tur- and distally as a correlative conformity and a
bidite systems on the slope and basin floor (Fig. downlap surface (Fig. 5).
3) (Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Van Wagoner et The upper bounding surface of these early
al., 1990). lowstand systems tract deposits commonly is a
sharp, readily identifiable surface of erosion. Ero-
Lowstand deposits sive processes affect this surface at two different
Ramp margins times within a relative sea-level cycle. The first
time is during the interval of relative sea-level
During intervals of relative sea-level fall, depo- fall, when successive sedimentary wedges are de-
sition of seaward-downstepping depositional units posited, each slightly lower than the one that
occurs (Fig. 5) (Curray, 1964; Busch, 1974; Plint, preceded it. With each such lowering of the delta
1988; Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Posamentier et plain/coastal plain, sub-aerial erosion and non-
al., 1992). These deposits comprise the early low- deposition affects this upper surface resulting in
stand systems tract and are associated with devel- a seaward-expanding zone of sedimentary bypass.
opment of a zone of sedimentary bypass land- Thus, higher-order unconformities overlie these
ward, and consequently a sequence-bounding un- early lowstand systems tract deposits; nonethe-
conformity (see fig. 9 in Busch, 1974). This un- less, the "master" sequence boundary underlies
conformity continues to develop as long as rela- these deposits (see fig. 12 in Posamentier et al.,
tive sea level continues to fall and the zone 1992).
landward of the coastal onlap remains a zone of The second time that erosion affects the upper
non-deposition. As discussed in Posamentier et surface of these early lowstand systems tract de-
al. (1992), the sequence boundary underlies these posits is during transgression when erosive near-
downstepping deposits and is expressed proxi- shore marine processes, pass across these sedi-
mally as an unconformity and an onlap surface mentary wedges. This transgressive erosion pro-

SUBAERIALUNCONFORMITY
/ INCI7 VALLEY RAVINEMENT/SURFACE .[-~-]

[]

[RAVn~ME~rr SURFACe] |

UNCONFORMITY {SEQUEN(JEBOUNDARY]
[Cor,q~ORMAat.~StraFAO~]
'x/"
#
CORRELA77VE CONFORMHT
Fig. 5. Schematic cross-section illustrating key sequence stratigraphic surfaces associated with a lowstand shoreline. Relative sea
level is assumed to have dropped from position A to position B and then rose from position B to position C. Landward of the
pinchout of the lowstand shoreline sands, the sequence boundary is expressed as a ravinement surface formed during the passage
of a transgressing shoreline. This ravinement surface replaced the subaerial surface of non-deposition or erosion that formed
earlier (i.e., during lowstand time). W h e r e fluvially incised valleys occur, the sequence boundary does not coincide with the
ravinement surface, but rather is expressed as an erosional unconformity at the base of the valley. Seaward of the pinchout of the
lowstand shoreline, the sequence boundary separates from the ravinement surface and is expressed as a submarine erosional
surface nearest the pinchout, becoming a transitional surface or correlative conformity seaward (from Posamentier et al., 1992,
reprinted by permission).
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCESTRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 97

Fig. 6. Photograph of the outcrop of the Campanian (Cretaceous) Panther Tongue Member of the Star Point Formation near
Helper, Utah. The inclined strata are interpreted as outer distributary mouth bar/delta front turbidite deposits (Newman and
Chan, 1991), sharply bounded at the top by a ravinement surface that is overlain by interpreted transgressive lag sediments. Note
that the absence of shallow water deltaic sediments suggests that significant erosion must have accompanied the passage of the
transgressing shoreface.

duces a wave ravinement surface (Swift, 1968), (Plint et al., 1986; Posamentier and Chamberlain,
which can result in removal of a significant 1993).
amount of section up to 10-20 m in thickness Early lowstand systems tract deposits com-
(e.g., Demarest and Kraft, 1987), or a tidal monly are bounded below and above by an un-
ravinement surface (Allen and Posamentier, conformity or a correlative conformity as dis-
1993), which can also remove several 10's of me- cussed earlier. The fact that the conformable part
ters of sediment. Such transgressive erosion can (i.e., the correlative conformity) of the basal
effectively remove any trace of earlier subaerial bounding surface of these deposits has signifi-
exposure (Figs. 6 and 7). Such surfaces have been cantly greater areal distribution than the uncon-
identified in the Cardium and Viking Formations formable part, can present problems of interpre-
of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin tation in some instances. Because the correlative

Erosion Shoreface Erosion

~ [Transgressing Shoreline]
~ ~ !~ : ~ : . n ~ ~ ;

r/ace

Fig. 7. Schematic depiction of the formation of a ravinement surface. Shoreface erosion occurring in conjunction with a
transgressing shoreface results in the removal of the upper part of the underlying progradational succession and deposition of
transgressive lag sediments on top of the older regressive unit (after Bruun, 1962, and Swift, 1975).
98 H.W. P O S A M E N T I E R A N D G.P, ALLEN

c o n f o r m i t y m a y have no obvious d i a g n o s t i c at- over, since the u p p e r b o u n d i n g surface will likely

tributes, it c o m m o n l y c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d only b e a significantly m o r e p r o m i n e n t surface t h a n
t h r o u g h careful c o r r e l a t i o n l a n d w a r d to w h e r e t h e c o r r e l a t i v e conformity, t h e u p p e r surface m a y
the s e q u e n c e b o u n d a r y is e x p r e s s e d as an u n c o n - well b e m i s t a k e n for a s e q u e n c e b o u n d a r y . O n l y
formity e i t h e r at t h e b a s e o f the l o w s t a n d de- t h r o u g h r e g i o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n can the true se-
posits, in the most p r o x i m a l p a r t o f the lowstand, q u e n c e b o u n d a r y b e identified.
o r as a zone o f e r o s i o n a n d s e d i m e n t a r y bypass
l a n d w a r d of t h e l o w s t a n d p i n c h o u t . W i t h d a t a Lowstand Deposits
b a s e s o f limited e x t e n t u p d i p , it m a y p r o v e diffi-
cult to c o r r e l a t e i n f e r r e d c o r r e l a t i v e c o n f o r m i t y Shelf~slope margins
surfaces to t h e i r coeval u p d i p u n c o n f o r m i t y sur-
faces. H e n c e , with such limited d a t a b a s e s , a sim- In p h y s i o g r a p h i c settings c h a r a c t e r i z e d by dis-
ple o b s e r v a t i o n o f a regressive succession m a y b e c r e t e s h e l f / s l o p e b r e a k s , l o w s t a n d d e p o s i t i o n oc-
impossible to ascribe with c o n f i d e n c e to e i t h e r curs on t h e shelf, at the shelf edge, on the slope,
l o w s t a n d or h i g h s t a n d systems tracts (see discus- a n d on t h e b a s i n floor. O n the shelf t h e s e can
sion in P o s a m e n t i e r et al., 1992) (Fig. 8). M o r e - occur as s h o r e f a c e a n d / o r d e l t a i c d e p o s i t s (Figs.

. 4 ~ Highs~nd RhOne Delta

Ravinement Surface
Pleistocene Lowstand Delta Complex

Sequence Boundary

one km

N'W SE
Fig. 8. High-resolution, shallow-penetration seismic profile of the continental shelf edge offshore of the Rh6ne Delta, southeast
France. The section shown is part of a longer seismic line that extends nearly to the modern Rh6ne Delta. At least three
progradational successions are identified. However, from the part of the section shown, it would be impossible to determine
whether these represent highstand or lowstand deposits, as progradational patterns characterize both highstand and lowstand
deposition. Only through analysis of the remainder of the seismic section could the critical observation be made that these
prograding successions were part of a basin-restricted lowstand delta complex separated from the sediment source by a significant
zone of sedimentary bypass. (Seismic section courtesy of M. Tesson.)
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE S T R A T I G R A P H I C MODEL 99

3 and 4) of the early lowstand systems tract as mine the grain size and volume of sediments
well as late lowstand incised valley fill fluvial brought to and then remobilized from staging
deposits (Figs. 9 and 10). At the shelf edge, areas at the shelf edge will be influenced by the
lowstand deposition can occur as shelf-edge deltas shift of depocenter induced by relative sea-level
as well as early canyon fill. On the slope and on change.
the basin floor, lowstand deposition can occur as Two types of end member processes character-
deep-water turbidite sediments as well as mass- ize deep-water turbidite sedimentation: confined
movement deposits (Fig. 11). flow associated with channel-levee complexes as
The specific type of deposit that will character- well as with tabular-bedded amalgamated chan-
ize deep water settings depends largely on the nel-fill complexes, and unconfinedflow associated
sea-floor physiography (e.g., its gradient and ir- with low-relief sea-floor environments. The
regularity) and the s a n d / m u d ratio of the sedi- s a n d / m u d ratio in conjunction with the physiog-
ment supplied to the deep-water environment. raphy determines which of these processes will
Relative sea-level change plays an indirect role in most likely occur. In general, the lower the s a n d /
determining the type of deposit and the order in mud ratio, the greater the efficiency of the flow
which they will occur. The processes that deter- and likelihood of developing meandering chan-

EAST

~t I ~,L! Y < t I--4]'1: oPvr~sc

I I
- I #- , , , - , ..... '~| ~h L L I tOm
JOU FoU

I" 31"T" i~ :~T3" ~ r

one kin

Fig. 9. (A) Wireline gamma ray and resistivity well log cross-section across an interpreted incised valley within the Upper Albian
(Cretaceous) Viking Formation at Crystal Field in Alberta, Canada. (B) Outcrop example of incised valley fill deposits within the
Namurian section at County Clare, Ireland (after Elliott et al., 1990). Note the sharp basal contact in each case.
100 H.W. POSAMENTIER AND G.P. ALLEN

W ff

>
¢1

§
O
o0

o i i sm
I I 1 I Verticol Exaggeration:16x
o I ~.,
Fig. 10. High-resolution, shallow-penetration seismic section across a Late Pleistocene incised valley (from Suter and Berryhill,
1985).

nels and channel-levee complexes (Mutti, 1979, If the s a n d / m u d ratio is high, there is a greater
1985, 1992; Damuth et al., 1983; Flood and likelihood of developing a complex of shallow
Damuth, 1987; Bouma et al., 1986). In these dendritically branching channels such as that de-
situations the main body of the flow remains scribed on the outer Mississippi Fan by Twichell
confined to the channel, but periodic overbanking et al. (1992). In this situation, the inefficiency of
constructs levees, which further confine the flows the flow due to the relatively high sand content
(Normark et al., 1980). The channels form nar- results in sand "clogging" the channels, causing
row, sinuous sand bodies comprising relatively avulsion. This process apparently produces a rela-
narrow amalgamated successive channel sand tively widespread sand sheet of amalgamated
units (Fig. 12). channel fills (Fig. 13). An alternative response to

Submarine Canyon

~ O~b'ank

Fig. 11. Schematic depiction of deep-water depositional systems. Physiography varies from steep-sided submarine canyons
proximally, to gently sloping, very subtly downlapping lobes distally.
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPH1C MODEL 101

Sand prone channelized deposits

y ~--~ _ ~ - - -

li t
Fig. 12. Schematic depiction of a transverse section through a
leveed-channel deposit such as shown in Fig. 11. Note that the
sand-prone channelized deposits of this system are shown to
Fig. 13. Schematic depiction of a transverse section through a
leveed-channel deposit such as shown in Fig. 11. This type of
stratal architecture would characterize the types of deposits
observed in Twichell et al. (1992). A "blocky" well-log re-
be migrating laterally as the system aggrades. Because of this
sponse would typically be associated with these types of
lateral migration a variety of log responses is possible ranging
deposits. Note that the lateral continuity of these types of
from apparent coarsening upward to apparent fining upward.
deposits would be significantly greater than that of the chan-
Consequently, due to such non-unique well-log responses,
nel-levee complex shown in Fig. 12.
interpretation of stratal architecture from individual well logs
must be done with great caution.

To a certain extent the s a n d / m u d ratio and

a high s a n d / m u d ratio is the occurrence of un- volume of the flows will vary predictably within a
confined flow. This response tends to be facili- cycle of relative sea-level change. Sediments that
tated by low-relief bathymetry. Unconfined flow comprise gravity flows can be derived from a
also yields tabular-bedded deposits comprising number of locations on the shelf and at the shelf
sheet-bedded rather than channelized turbidites edge. These include: (1) concurrently excavated
(Mutti, 1992). valleys, (2) concurrently excavated canyons, (3)

TABLE 1
Timing of deposition, typical bedding style, areal distribution, and thickness, associated with differently sourced sediment gravity
flows on the slope and on the basin floor, as a function of s a n d / m u d ratio and sediment volume (sediment supply from the
hinterlands is assumed to remain constant and tectonism is assumed to be quiescent)

Provenance Sand/mud Sediment Areal distribution Bedding Systems

ratio volume and thickness style tract
Older lowstand Moderate-high Low Low Tabular bedded Early LST
shelf-edge deltas Early TST

Excavated valleys Moderate Low-moderate Low-moderate Tabular bedded Early LST

Excavated canyons Low Low-moderate Low-moderate Channelized Early-late

(sinuous distribution) LST

Concurrent Low-moderate High High Channelized Early-late

lowstand deltas (sinuous distribution) LST

Older highstand Low-moderate Low Low Channelized Early LST

deltas (sinuous distribution)

LST = lowstand systems tract.

TST = transgressive systems tract.
102 H . W . P O S A M E N T I E R A N D G.P. A L L E N

failed older lowstand shelf edge deltas, (4) con-

Early " ~ " Late t~-.~ "~
current lowstand shelf edge deltas, and (5) failed HST "- Lowstand Systems Trac TST ~ .~
Max I ~_c~
older highstand shelf edge deltas. Each source
Primary [ I t II I --- I.I ~i
generally can be characterized by a different Sediment Source [iI m [ i i i l ] ill Ill . ~~
s a n d / m u d ratio and volume (Table 1). Figures 14
and 15 illustrate two suggested scenarios of how
ar.~.i~aa ........ 7 ............................... \ ) ~ T - t ....... A,
the sand abundance and sediment volume may
vary with time during a cycle of relative sea-level I
S.and:Mud
/-C'\
-'!/-,,--.
l~.~s Sech'ment Flux
,i'/,
tt
ill
.<
change in settings characterized by high and low
s a n d / m u d influx, respectively.
At the onset of relative sea-level fall there is
an abrupt increase in deep-water sediment influx. I Rela ave Sea Level
This is 'related to sudden renewed occurrence of
Min i ~ k--
shelf-edge failure caused by sediment loading as- To Time Tn
sociated with the seaward shift of depocenters
accompanying relative sea-level falls. These first i Failed Shelf-Edge Deltas
II Excavated Canyons a n d Valleys
sediments transported into the deep-water envi- iII Fluvial Deposits from Hinterlands
ronment may be relatively sand-rich because they Fig. 15. Plot of s a n d / m u d ratio, sediment volume, and rela-
are derived from slumped shelf-edge lowstand tive sea level, with time in a sand-deficient setting. Note that
deltas of earlier sea-level cycles. Relatively sand- in this type of setting, the s a n d / m u d threshhold is never
rich sediment gravity flows likely will occur at this exceeded and consequently widespread braid-plain deposits
would be uncommon.
time and tend to form widespread tabular-be-
dded turbidite complexes. These early lowstand deep water sediments
will accumulate either on the basin floor or on
I-~- Early ~ Late " ~ the slope (e.g., within intraslope basins or
Max HST-~LowstandSystemsTract?TST ~n~ downdip of fault-related escarpments) depending
on local physiography. It may therefore be mis-
Prim~xy I IZ .... a!
Sediment Source I li nIII , I I I 111 Ill 7~ leading to refer to these deposits as either basin-
floor fans or slope fans as has been done by other
AIs=":M"~I y - i \ " /1 workers (Mitchum et al., 1990, 1993; Vail et al.,
~"1'4:E~i{oi/i'i.......? ..........<~....................~"iTY ....."i'..... A'
I , / \, \l i/ "~ 1991). The terms basin-floor fan and slope fan
I ~ . . . . =
merely allude to fan-shaped bodies of sediment that

I/i, /k', i occur on the basin floor or on the slope, respec-

tively, and should carry no connotation regarding
any distinctive log signature, sedimentation pattern,
I I I Reladve Sea Level II or position within the evolution of a depositional
[I '/',/ 1L_ sequence.
To Time Tn As relative sea level continues to fail, other
sediment sources progressively play a more im-
I Failed Shelf-Edge Deltas portant role. The supply of sand-rich sediments
II Excavated Canyons a n d Valleys
III Fluvial Deposits from Hinterlands derived from excavation of incised valleys as well
Fig. 14. Plot of s a n d / m u d ratio, sediment volume, and rela- as more mud-rich sediments derived from the
tive sea level, with time in a sand-rich setting. The horizontal hinterlands results in increased total volume of
dotted line represents a critical s a n d / m u d threshhold above sediment supplied to shelf-edge staging areas
which braid-plain depositional systems will dominate and be-
(Table 1; Figs. 14 and 15). When relative sea level
low which meandering channel depositional systems will dom-
reaches its low point and a gradual rise begins,
inate. Note that the position of this threshhold will vary with
local physiography (e.g., gradient, local relief, etc.). Also shown valley incision ends and late lowstand deposits
is the primary sediment source as it varies through time. begin to accumulate within the incised valleys.
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 103

These incised valleys preferentially trap sand-rich failure of diminishing magnitude. Though the vol-
fluvial sediments so that the s a n d / m u d ratio ume of these sediment gravity flows is not great,
delivered to the shelf edge will be lower relative their s a n d / m u d ratio would be relatively high
to the preceding early lowstand deposits. In re- because they are derived from wave-reworked
sponse to the decreasing s a n d / m u d ratio the sand-rich nearshore deposits. Consequently,
turbidity currents into the deep-water slope and deep-water deposition during the early transgres-
basin become more flow-efficient and leveed- sive systems tract may be characterized by low-ef-
channel turbidite complexes tend to be more ficiency turbidite systems of relatively limited
common. areal extent (Fig. 16).
Eventually, the rate of relative sea-level rise Figures 14 and 15 summarize the anticipated
overwhelms the fluvial sediment flux and trans- succession of depositional systems in sand-rich
gression occurs. At this time the incised valleys and sand-deficient basins, respectively. In both
are flooded and trap most of the incoming hinter- cases amalgamated tabular-bedded, turbidite
land sediments in the form of estuarine fills (Al- complexes characterize the basal parts of the
len, 1991; Allen and Posamentier, 1993). When deep-water lowstand systems tract. However, in
this happens, the sediment supply to the lowstand sand-deficient basins, the only occurrence of a
shoreline drops significantly. However, even after s a n d / m u d ratio sufficiently high to produce
the depocenter has shifted landward away from widespread unconfined-flow deposits is at the
the shelf edge, delayed response to sediment onset of relative sea-level fall, when the sediment
loading in addition to loading by the increased source is restricted to slumped shelf-edge delta
water column may result in further shelf edge systems. However, given the relatively small sedi-

Fig. 16. 3D bathymetry of Mississippi Canyon area, Gulf of Mexico, showing small deep-sea fans close to the shelf edge. These
represent the last deposits associated with Pleistocene glaciation and presumably occurred shortly after shoreline transgression
initiated deposition of the transgressive systems tract. These deposits correspond to the last spike on the sand/mud ratio curve
shown in Fig. 14 and would likelybe characterized by a small, localizedtabular-bedded unit comprising small amalgamated channel
fill sediments.
104 H.W. POSAMENTIER AND G.P. ALLEN

Condensed Section Condensed Section

Small, Localized
!:~..-.:.-.....-.i~i Tabular-Bedded Deposits ~ Sinuous Channelized Deposits
-'-__" __-__-_
Widespread --_--7_
~ _-~ ~ Sinuous Channelized Deposits ---.2~.,7
~ -
~--I Widespread
Sinuous Channelized Deposits
•.-'... . ~ [.. Widespread
i.... ~ ~ Tabular-Bedded Deposits
~ ... ,
. , . . .
t ~
SB -',~ ! SB "*"
Condensed Section Condensed Section
A B
Fig. 17. Typical vertical lithological succession through deep-water deposits in both a sand-rich (A) and a sand-poor (B) system.
Note that in sand-rich systems a contrast occurs between widespread braid-plain deposits of the early lowstand systems tract and
widespread leveed-channel deposits of the late lowstand systems tract. Such a contrast commonly would not be in evidence in
sand-poor systems where the critical sand/mud threshhold shown in Figs. 14 and 15 is not exceeded.

ment flux available from this source, these uncon- ward (Bruun, 1962). Sediment transported land-
fined flow deposits would have relatively re- ward forms backstepping barrier deposits (Swift,
stricted areal distribution. Figure 17 shows a typi- 1975; Demarest and Kraft, 1987), whereas sedi-
cal vertical succession through both a sand-rich ment transported seaward develops a relatively
(Fig. 17A) and a sand-deficient (Fig. 17B) basin. coarse-grained sand sheet a n d / o r transgressive
lag overlying the erosional wave-ravinement sur-
Transgressive Deposits face (Swift, 1968), as well as a sigmoidally shaped
sedimentary wedge farther seaward that herein
The healing phase we call healing phase deposits (Posamentier and
Allen, 1993b) (Fig. 18). In general, of these eroded
The transgressive systems tract represents sediments, the coarsest sediments likely will be
those sediments deposited during intervals char- deposited as transgressive lag (these sediments
acterized by an overall landward migration of the may be later reworked to form such palimpsest
shoreline. During transgression, waves and tides features as shelf ridges), the intermediate grain
erode sediments from the substrate at the shore- size fraction may tend to form backstepping bar-
line and transport them both landward and sea- rier beaches, and the finest grain size fraction will

Backstepping
Barrier Beaches

~ ' ~ k d ~ "HealiPnhgase"

Fig. 18. Schematic depiction of the distribution of sediments derived from erosion of the substrate during shoreline transgression.
Some sediments migrate landward in the form of ephemeral backstepping barrier beach deposits, some sediments mantle the
ravinement surface in the form of transgressive lag deposits, and some sediments are transported seaward of the last elinoform of
the subjacent progradational deposits and form a wedge-shaped deposit referred to as the healingphase unit.
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCESTRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 105

Seaward-most
/ position of shoreline

Level

-- ~ " ~ Storm wave

~ s g r e s s i v e lag - ~ ~ ""~LOla-01
.... _- . - - . . . . .
Sheltered area where heeling phese sediments "~ base
am deposited (below storm wave base) I../
Accommodation
envelope
Fig. 19. Schematic depiction of longitudinal section across shelf, shoreface/delta front illustrating the space within which the
healing phase unit accumulates. This happens within the accommodation envelope that develops seaward of the last clinoform and
is defined below by the last progradational clinoform and above by effective storm wave base.

tend to be transported predominantly by suspen- sand is made up of storm deposits and accumu-
sion and traction, offshore into a deeper water lates on the shelf seaward of the shoreline at or
setting, to form the healing phase unit. below wave base. As the shoreline migrates land-
As shown by a number of authors (e.g., Fisch- ward (i.e. transgresses) over the top of a regres-
er, 1961; Swift, 1974; Sanders and Kumar, 1975), sive unit, waves erode the delta plain or lagoonal
when a prograding shoreface is transgressed, the deposits that have accumulated behind the shore-
upper part of the regressive section is eroded by line. These depositional environments yield fine-
waves and some of the sediment is transported grained sediments that are transported by sus-
seaward to form a transgressive sand sheet. This pension seaward by storms. These fine-grained

- : .~Pa L~vel n
'U
t-

v-;

5km
3 miles

NW SE
Fig. 20. Multichannel seismic reflection profile across modern shelf edge, Gulf of Mexico. Features shown include lowstand deltas
formed by the process of forced regression and healing phase deposits that developed seaward of the last clinoform of the Iowstand
progradational units. Note the landward pinchout of the progradational phase deposits. This pinchout suggests the occurrence of
zones of sedimentary bypass landward of this location.
106 H.W. POSAMENTIER AND G+P. ALLEN

Transgressive Systems Tract

Transgressive Surface (IfFALINGPHASE)
Top Viking Formation (/Ravinement Surxface ~ l.owstand Systems Tract ]_ &-~c [ - ~-- - - [ I
Southwest [ , i "*
l ~ " * ~ . . . . . . . . --- Northeast

lh'ghstartdSys --4 ~ ' ~ -~ -

r [ " ' r + ,
Fig. 21. Well-log cross-section across interpreted healing phase deposits within the Upper AJhian Viking Formation at Joarcam
Field, Alberta, Canada (from Posamentier and Chamberlain, 1993, reprinted by permission).

sediments are deposited at a relatively large dis- LSW of the Pink 1 sequence, Fig. 2 in Greenlee
tance seaward below storm wave base (Fig. 19), et al., 1992). However, healing-phase deposits
and comprise the bulk of the healing phase unit. typically are finer-grained than the preceding
Healing phase deposits eventually form a progradational phase and therefore contain infe-
wedge-shaped unit seaward of and onlapping the rior-quality reservoir deposits (Figs. 21 and 22).
"last clinoform" of the older regressive shore- Presumably, the healing phase unit will de-
f a c e / d e l t a front (Fig. 19). Suspension as well as velop better under certain circumstances than
traction transport mechanisms can be effective in others. This unit will be best expressed in areas
transporting sediments into this setting. The characterized by relatively high wave energy suffi-
thickness of this wedge can approach that of the cient to erode significant amounts of sediment
prograding shoreface. This wedge-shaped unit is during transgression. The volume of the healing
referred to as the healing phase because the area phase unit will be enhanced if large amounts of
seaward of the relatively steeply dipping shoreface fine-grained sediments are present in the upper
or delta front is partly infilled or "healed over" part of the subjacent regressive unit. The poten-
as a lower-gradient shelf equilibrium profile is tial for preservation of healing phase units will be
re-established (Fig. 19). increased if the slopes seaward of the last regres-
Seismic, as well as well-log and core data, sive phase clinoform are not overly steep. In
indicate that the strata within the healing phase addition, the absence of strong contour currents
unit commonly are characterized by significantly also will favor preservation of healing phase de-
lower gradients and onlap the shoreface (Fig. 20). posits.
Because of their onlapping relationship with the Of significance for hydrocarbon exploration is
underlying progradational phase, these deposits that the healing phase unit constitutes the final
could be mistaken for lowstand deposits (e.g., the seaward-most wedge of a progradational succes-

A B C

_ Ato
N
I~ ~
A

vnase Phase

Fig. 22. Schematic cross-section across progradational and healing phase deposits showing hypothetical well-log responses. Note
that the healing phase deposits are dominated by fine-grainedsediments with stringers of sandstone.
VARIABILITY OF THE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC MODEL 107

sion and may contain significantly less sand than both at the outer shelf as well as on the slope and
the immediately preceding and underlying regres- in the basin. The link between sedimentary pro-
sive phase deposits. The healing phase unit is cess, physiography, and relative sea-level change
commonly composed of deposits derived from is significant in shallow marine environments as
sediments eroded from the progradational shore- well. A clear understanding of the transgressive
face and delta plain/coastal plain. These latter systems tract healing phase unit requires the inte-
deposits may be relatively fine grained and be a gration of both sedimentological as well as phys-
significant contributor to the healing phase unit. iographic concerns with relative sea-level change.
Geochemically, the deposits of the healing We review herein some of the effects on stratal
phase unit may be distinctively different from architecture of eustasy, sea-floor subsidence/
those of the underlying progradational phase be- uplift, sediment supply, and physiography. In gen-
cause of the addition of sediments from the po- eral, eustasy and sea-floor subsidence/uplift com-
tentially organic-rich delta plain/coastal plain bine to determine the timing of sequence bounding
(Posamentier and Chamberlain, 1993). From a surfaces, whereas sediment supply and physiogra-
biostratigraphic perspective, the healing phase phy combine to determine the stratal architecture
unit should also have a distinctive signature be- between these bounding surfaces. These factors can
cause the sediments are derived from cannibal- result in stratal geometries that bear little resem-
ized shallow water/non-marine regressive de- blance to earlier-published idealized sequence
posits. stratigraphic models (e.g., Vail, 1987; Posamen-
tier and Vail, 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
Conclusions It is important to note, however, that despite
these variations, the first principles upon which
Sequence stratigraphic concepts have been the application of sequence stratigraphic con-
widely applied in recent years in a broad variety cepts are based are robust and nearly universally
of physiographic and tectonic settings (Mac- applicable. Given a set of geologic/climatic con-
donald, 1992; Einsele et al., 1992; Posamentier et ditions there always exists in both subaqueous
al., 1993; Loucks and Sarg, 1993; Weimer and and subaerial environments a potential dynamic
Posamentier, 1993). Despite these applications, equilibrium surface that either lies above, below,
however, confusion remains regarding how the or at the same level as the existing surface.
general sequence stratigraphic models should be Changes in eustasy, sea-floor movement, and sed-
modified to take into account different physio- iment flux, will result in shifts of either the dy-
graphic and tectonic settings (Posamentier and namic equilibrium profile or the actual profile, or
James, 1993). As the assumptions inherent in the both. These shifts, in turn, will determine whether
general models come under scrutiny, new varia- aggradation, erosion, or steady state conditions
tions on the general theme will be developed. will prevail. The sequence stratigraphic approach
This paper emphasizes the role of sedimentary involves an integration of these first principles
processes in sequence stratigraphic analyses and with a sound understanding of local conditions in
the link between these processes and physiogra- order to establish a stratigraphic framework and
phy as well as relative sea-level change. An un- model. As pointed out by Posamentier et al.
derstanding of this link is critical to the under- (1988), the general models must first be modified
standing of sea-level control on stratal architec- to account for local effects before sequence
ture. For example, the significance of this link is stratigraphic analyses can successfully be accom-
apparent in the analysis of the type and timing of plished.
deep-water depositional systems. Clearly, the type
of deposition that occurs in the deep-water depo- Acknowledgements
sitional environment depends strongly on the type
and volume of sediment available at shelf-edge The authors thank ARCO Exploration and
staging areas as well as the existing physiography Production Technology and Total Centre Scien-
108 HW. POSAMENTIERAND G.P. ALLEN

tifique et Technique for permission to publish Cycles and events in stratigraphy. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
this paper. We also acknowledge the many dis- 955 pp.
Elliott, T., Martinsen, O., Pulham, A.J. and Collinson, J.D.,
cussions that we have had with our colleagues
1990. Turbidite, slope and deltaic depositional systems in
through the years, from which we gained an ap- the Namurian Basin of western Ireland: A Field Guide
preciation for the existence of innumerable varia- prepared for the 13th International Sedimentological
tions of the sequence stratigraphic theme. The Congress, 1990, 67 pp.
comments of reviewers Tom Aigner, Janok Bhat- Fischer, A.G., 1961. Stratigraphic record of transgressing seas
in the light of sedimentation on the Atlantic coast of New
tacharya, Cai Puigdefabregas, Wolfgang Schlager,
Jersey. AAPG Bull., 45: 1656-1666.
and Finn Surlyk, contributed significantly to the
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Galloway, W.E., 1989. Genetic stratigraphic sequences in basin
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