Experiment 1

HEAT EFFECTS AND CALORIMETRY1

Heat is a form of energy, sometimes called thermal energy, that can pass spontaneously from an
object at a high temperature to an object at a lower temperature. If the two objects are in contact, the hotter
object cools down and the colder object warms up. Given sufficient time, both objects reach the same
temperature which is between the two starting temperatures.
Heat flow is ordinarily measured in a calorimeter. A calorimeter is simply a container with insulating
walls, so that no heat is exchanged between the contents of the calorimeter and the surroundings. Heat
flow to and from anything contained in the calorimeter is confined within the calorimeter, so that

qtot = 0

However the calorimeter itself, and whatever is placed in it exchanges heat so that

qtot = 0 = qcalorimeter + q1 +
q2 + …

where q1, q2, … are the heat absorbed or evolved by the items in the calorimeter. The heat flow is
calculated from temperature changes and the object’s specific heat or heat capacity. In this experiment,
you will observe the heat changes (1) when a hot metal is placed in water, (2) when a solute is dissolved
in water, and (3) when a reaction takes place in aqueous solution. To simplify the experiment, we will
assume that the calorimeter itself will not absorb or lose heat, qcalorimeter = 0, leaving us with the following
equations for the three heat changes:

(1) qmetal + qwater = 0

qmetal = -qwater
mmetal × cmetal × (tf, metal – ti, metal) = -[mwater × cwater × (tf, water – ti, water)]
(2) qsolution + qwater = 0 qsolution = -qwater
qsolution = -[mwater × cwater × (tf, water – ti, water)]
(3) qreaction + qwater = 0 qreaction = -qwater
qreaction = -[mwater × cwater × (tf, water – ti, water)]

In the first part, you will calculate the specific heat, c, of an unindentified metal. The specific heat of an
elemental metal is related to its molar mass by the Dulong and Petit Law:

25
𝑀𝑀 =
𝐽
𝑐( 𝑜 )
𝑔 𝐶

where MM is the molar mass of the metal. The Dulong and Petit law shows that about 25 joules is
required to raise the temperature of one mole of many metal by 1°C. Once the specific heat of the metal
is known, the approximate molar mass can be calculated. The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C.

1 From Slowinski, E.J., Wolsey, W.C. and Rossi, R.C. 2014. Chemistry Laboratory Manual for Science
Majors, Philippine edition. Cengage Learning.
 In the second part, you will calculate the molar heat change or enthalpy of the dissolution of a salt in
water. Because the solution process involves replacing solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions with
solute-solvent interactions, energy change usually accompany the process as the nature of interactions
and distances between attracting bodies are changed.
Finally, in the last part of the experiment, you will measure the molar enthalpy of reaction between
an acid and a base. Chemical reactions involve the breaking and formation of bonds, processes that
respectively absorb and evolve energy. When the bonds formed are generally stronger than the bonds
that were broken, there will be a net evolution of heat and the reaction will be exothermic. This is
manifested by a rise in the temperature of the surroundings. When the bonds broken are stronger than
the bonds formed, there will be a net absorption of heat and the reaction is endothermic. The temperature
of the surroundings drop when endothermic reactions occur. Because the reactions are happening
between molecules and ions, the immediate surroundings in aqueous reactions is the water medium in
which the substances are dissolved.

PROCEDURE:
A. Specific Heat
Obtain a calorimeter, a sensitive thermometer, and a sample of metal in a large, stoppered tube. The
calorimeter consists of two nested polystyrene foam cups with a foam cover. There are two holes in the
cover: one for a thermometer and the other for a stirring rod.
Fill a 400-ml beaker two thirds full of water and begin heating it to boiling. While the water is heating,
weigh your sample of unknown metal in the stoppered tube. Remove the metal from the tube and weigh
the empty tube and stopper. Return the metal in the tube, and with the stopper loosely covering the tube,
put the tube in the hot water in the beaker. The metal should be below the surface of the water level in
the beaker. Continue heating the metal in boiling water for at least 10 minutes.
While the water in the beaker is boiling, weigh the calorimeter. Place 40 mL of water in the calorimeter
and weigh it again. Insert the stirrer and thermometer into the cover and put it on the calorimeter. Make
sure that the bulb of the thermometer is completely immersed in the water. Read the initial temperature
of the water in the calorimeter. Take the tube out of the boiling water and quickly dry the test tube. Open
the tube and drop the metal into the water in the calorimeter. Cover and stir the water in the calorimeter.
Take care that no water from the calorimeter splashes out of the calorimeter. Record the maximum
temperature reached by the water. Repeat the experiment using 50 mL of water. Be sure to dry the
metal before reusing it.

B. Heat of Solution
Place about 50 mL of distilled water in the calorimeter and weigh as the previous procedure. Measure
the temperature of the water. In a small beaker weigh out about 5 g of the salt assigned to you. Add the
compound to the calorimeter. Stir continuously and occasionally swirl the calorimeter. Determine the
maximum or minimum temperature reached as the solid dissolves. Check to make sure that all the solid
is dissolved.

C. Heat of Reaction
Rinse out your calorimeter with distilled water, pouring the rinse into the sink. In a graduated cylinder,
measure out 25 mL of 2.00 M HCl; pour this into the calorimeter. Rinse out the cylinder with distilled water
and measure out 25 mL of 2.00 M NaOH. Measure the temperature of the acid and of the base, making
sure to rinse and dry the thermometer before dipping it into the solutions. Put the thermometer back into
the calorimeter cover.
Pour the NaOH solution into the HCl solution and cover the calorimeter. Stir the reaction mixture and
record the maximum temperature that is reached by the neutralized solution.
Calculate the enthalpy of neutralization. Since the masses of the solutions were not determined, use
a value of 1.02 g/mL average density for both solutions in this experiment to calculate the mass of the
solutions. Use 4.18 J/g°C for the specific heat of the solutions.
Group No.: ______________ Names: ______________________________________________
Section: ________________ ______________________________________________
______________________________________________

DATA SHEET
Heat Effects and Calorimetry

A. Specific Heat
Mass of stoppered test tube plus metal
Mass of test tube and stopper
Mass of calorimeter
Mass of calorimeter and water
Mass of water
Mass of metal
Initial temperature of water in calorimeter
Initial temperature of metal
Equilibrium temperature of metal and water in
calorimeter
Δtwater
Δtmetal
qwater
Specific heat of the metal
Approximate molar mass of metal
B. Heat of Solution
Mass of calorimeter plus water
Mass of beaker
Mass of beaker plus solid
Mass of water
Mass of solid
Initial temperature
Final temperature
qwater for the dissolution
ΔH for the dissolution
ΔH for the dissolution /g salt
ΔH for the dissolution /mol salt
C. Heat of reaction
Initial temperature of HCl solution
Initial temperature of NaOH solution
Final temperature of the neutralized mixture
Δt
qwater
ΔH for the reaction
ΔH for the reaction/per mole of H+ and OH-
reacting
 Experiment 2
COMBUSTION AND AIR QUALITY

OBJECTIVE: By the end of the activity, the student will be able to

1. Understand the nature of combustion, and;

2. Appreciate desirable combustion characteristics of fuels.

MATERIALS: matches, small candle, Bunsen burner (optional), alcohol burner, hexane, toluene,
naphthalene balls, blue and red litmus paper

PROCEDURE:

1. Light a match and place a moist blue litmus paper over the flame (hold the litmus paper with tongs).
Maintain enough distance between the flame and the paper so that it does not burn. The idea is to allow
the gaseous products of combustion to react with moisture and litmus dye. Note the color of the litmus
paper. Repeat the procedure using red litmus paper. Do the same with the other flame sources
(candle, Bunsen burner, alcohol burner). Write your observations.
2. CAUTION: The following must be done inside a fume hood. Place about 5 mL of hexane in an
evaporating dish and carefully ignite it with a lighted match or better yet an. Observe the color and
general appearance of the flame. Hold a second evaporating dish with tongs over the flame, allowing
the flame to come in contact with the bottom. Observe soot formation (if any). Do the same,
separately, for toluene and naphthalene. Compare with the flame of the alcohol lamp. Hold an
evaporating dish over the alcohol lamp flame. Note your observations.
 Group No.: ______________ Names: ______________________________________________
Section: ________________ ______________________________________________
______________________________________________

DATA SHEET
Combustion and Air Quality

Draw the Lewis molecular structures of the combustible materials tested, and the products of their
complete combustion, water and carbon dioxide.

Hexane Toluene

Naphthalene Ethanol

Water Carbon dioxide

Based on your observations, what generalization can you make about the products of combustion?

Write the balanced chemical equations for the complete combustion of the four combustible
substances.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Look up the values for the heat of formation of the combustible materials tested and water and CO2. Also,
find the bond dissociation energies of the bonds in the combustion reactants and products.

ΔHf° Hexane _____________________ Bond dissociation energy C-C ________

ΔHf° Toluene _____________________ Bond dissociation energy C=C ________

ΔHf° Naphthalene _________________ Bond dissociation energy C-H ________

ΔHf° Ethanol _____________________ Bond dissociation energy O=O ________

ΔHf° Carbon dioxide _______________ Bond dissociation energy C=O ________

ΔHf° water _______________________ Bond dissociation energy O-H ________

Cite the sources of your thermochemical data:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Calculate the heats of reaction for the complete combustion of the four substances by Hess’s Law using
(a) heats of formation and (b) bond dissociation energies. Look up the heats of combustion of the four
substances and fill in the table below.

Heat of reaction
Heat of reaction
calculated from
Flame Heat of calculated from
Fuel bond dissociation
appearance combustion heat of formations
energies
ΔH in kJ/mol ΔH in kJ/mol
ΔH in kJ/mol
Hexane

Toluene

Naphthalene

Ethanol

Comment on the discrepancy or agreement of the calculated heats of reaction with tabulated heats of
combustion.

From the structures of the four substances used in this experiment and your observations, what
possible correlations of combustion properties with molecular structure exist?
 Experiment 3
SMOKING, HEALTH, and POLLUTION

The health issues associated with cigarette smoking has long established smoking as a strong risk
factor for many cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The identification of the specific causative
chemicals found in cigarette smoke could allow better safety measures that would limit exposure to the
more noxious compounds. In this experiment you are assigned to find out the experimental processes that
would identify the chemical components of cigarette smoke. This will involve trapping smoke and extracting
chemical constituents of smoke, isolation of the different compounds, and then finally identification of the
components. The isolation and identification usually involve instrumental methods and is assigned to the
students for submission at the end of the term. However, for the experiment during the lab period, the
students will perform the extraction of the smoke into a liquid solution using a procedure that they will adopt
from literature. Class time can be spent selecting the best method to employ from the students’ findings or
alternatively, the different groups can perform their experiments and the class can compare results to
determine which method gives the best outcomes.
OBJECTIVES: In this activity, the students
1. Will look up procedures that can be used to create a smoke machine model;
2. Will demonstrate their smoke machine set-up to the class, and;
3. Will explain the effect of the chemicals found in cigarette smoke to the health and the environment.

(Optional) Reading assignment:

Onor, I. O., Stirling, D. L., Williams, S. R., Bediako, D., Borghol, A., Harris, M. B., Darensburg, T. B.,
Clay, S. D., Okpechi,
C., … Sarpong, D. F. (2017). Clinical Effects of Cigarette Smoking: Epidemiologic Impact and Review
of Pharmacotherapy Options. International journal of environmental research and public health, 14(10),
1147. doi:10.3390/ijerph14101147
West R. (2017). Tobacco smoking: Health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions.
Psychology & health, 32(8), 1018-1036.
Saha, S. P., Bhalla, D. K., Whayne, T. F., & Gairola, C. (2007). Cigarette smoke and adverse health
effects: An overview of research trends and future needs. The International journal of angiology : official
publication of the International College of Angiology, Inc, 16(3), 77-83.
 Experiment 4
DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN A WATER SAMPLE (WINKLER METHOD)

The amount of dissolved oxygen is an indicator of the cleanliness of water. A high level of dissolved
oxygen in a water sample shows that the water is clean and unpolluted. In this experiment, Winkler method
is used to determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in water.
In an alkaline solution, dissolved oxygen will oxidize manganese(II) to the trivalent state.

8OH-(aq) + 4Mn2+(aq) + O2(aq) + 2H2O(l) →4Mn(OH)3(s)

The analysis is completed by titrating the iodine produced from potassium iodide by manganese(III)
hydroxide.
2Mn(OH)3(s) + 2I-(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 2 Mn2+ (aq) + I2(aq) + 6H2O(l)

Sodium thiosulphate is used as the titrant.

2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) → S4O62-(aq) + 2I-(aq)

Success of the method is critically dependent upon the way the sample is manipulated. At all stages,
every method must be made to assure that oxygen is neither introduced to nor lost from the sample.
Furthermore, the sample must be free of any solutes that will oxidize iodide or reduce iodine.

MATERIALS:
1. Manganese(II) sulfate solution (MnSO4); (4 cm3) [prepared by dissolving 48 g of
MnSO4·4H2O in water to give 100 cm3 solution]
2. Alkaline potassium iodide solution; (4 cm3) [prepared by dissolving 15 g of KI in about 25
cm3 of water, adding 66 cm3 of 50% NaOH, and diluting to 100 cm3]
3. Concentrated sulfuric(VI) acid; (4 cm3)
4. 0.0125 M sodium thiosulfate solution; (100 cm3)
5. Freshly prepared starch solution.
PROCEDURE:
1. Use a 250 cm3 volumetric flask to collect a water sample. Fill the flask completely with water without
trapping any air bubbles.
2. Add 1.0 cm3 of manganese(II) sulphate solution to the sample using a pipette. Discharge the solution
well below the surface (some overflow will occur).
3. Similarly introduce 1.0 cm3 of alkaline potassium iodide solution. Be sure that no air becomes entrapped.
Invert the bottle to distribute the precipitate uniformly. [Hazard Warning: Care should be taken to avoid
exposure to any overflow, as the solution is quite alkaline.]
4. When the precipitate has settled at least 3 cm below the stopper, introduce 1 cm3 of concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid well below the surface. Replace the stopper and carefully mix until the precipitate
disappears. A magnetic stirrer is helpful here.
5. Allow the mixture to stand for 5 minutes and then withdraw 100 cm3 of the acidified sample into a 250
cm3 conical flask.
6. Titrate with 0.0125 M sodium thiosulphate until the iodine color becomes faint. Then add 1 cm3 of starch
solution and continue adding the thiosulphate solution until the blue color disappears.
7. Record the volume of thiosulphate solution used and calculate the dissolved oxygen content in the
sample in mg dm-3.
 Experiment 5
ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CORROSION

Chemical elements are usually classified by their properties into three groups: metals, non-metals and
metalloids. Most of the known elements are metals which are located at the left-hand side of the periodic
table. Their physical properties include high thermal and electrical conductivity, high luster, malleability (i.e.,
ability to be hammered flat without shattering), and ductility (i.e., ability to be drawn out into fine wire). Metals
all have relatively low ionization potentials and enter into chemical reactions with nonmetals by losing
electrons to become cations. This can be represented by the general equation:

M → M+ + e-

The reactivity of a metal is related to its ability to lose electrons (i.e., to be oxidized). In the process of oxidation,
M goes from 0 oxidation state to 1+ oxidation state. Oxidation therefore is a loss of electron(s) resulting in an
increase of oxidation number (OLE). Oxidation, however, usually takes place coupled to a reduction, or a gain
of electrons.

X + e- → X-

Reduction of X takes it from 0 oxidation state to 1- oxidation state. Reduction thus is a gain of electron(s)
resulting in a decrease of oxidation number. One cannot take place without the other and taken together, is
referred to as a redox reaction. Redox reactions involve transfer of electrons from the chemical species
oxidized to the species reduced.

M + X → M+ + X-

In the reactions above, M is oxidized but in so doing causes the reduction of X. For this reason, M is referred
to as a reducing agent or reductant. X is reduced but in so doing causes the oxidation of M. X is referred to
as an oxidizing agent or oxidant. Using these terms, redox reactions are always electron transfer reactions
from reducing agents to oxidizing agents. Because electron transfer in redox reactions is directional, they can
be tapped to generate electric current if the half reactions are physically separated. These set-ups are called
electrochemical cells (or less technically correct, batteries). Electrochemical cells have potentials dependent
on the tendency of the redox reaction to occur. Redox reactions with positive potential power different kinds
of voltaic or galvanic cells. The spontaneous flow of electrons from the redox reaction provides the current
that can be drawn from the electrochemical cell. When redox potentials are negative, the reaction is
nonspontaneous. These, however, can still be made to react when energy in the form of direct current is
provided to the reaction instead. Such reactions are the basis of electrolytic cells. Many of the reactive
elements are produced from their source compounds by electrolysis (aluminum from bauxite, chlorine from
salt, copper from chalcopyrite). Redox reactions that can be harnessed to proceed either in the spontaneous
or nonspontaneous direction allow rechargeable batteries. Lithium-ion batteries that power many of our
gadgets and devices today function as voltaic cells when being discharged but convert into electrolytic cells
when being charged.

The standard potential for a redox reaction is the sum of the standard reduction and oxidation potentials.

Eoredox = Eored + Eoox

 Table 1. Selected reduction half-reactions and their standard reduction potentials.

The standard refers to 1 M concentrations for solutions, 1 atm partial pressure for gases, and 25°C
temperature conditions. Oxidation potentials share the same value but opposite sign of the reduction potential
for a specific reaction.

Eoox = - Eored

Because potentials are tabulated for the reduction half-reaction by convention, the redox potential is
sometimes taken as the difference of the potentials at the electrodes. Electrochemical cell electrodes are
defined by the reaction taking place in them. Oxidation always takes place in the ANODE; reduction occurs in
the CATHODE. Using the cell electrodes, redox potentials or cell potentials become the difference between
the cathode and anode reduction potentials.

Eoredox or Eocell= Eocathode - Eoanode

The more positive the potentials, the higher the tendency of the reaction to take place. Reduction and oxidation
potentials also qualify the nature of the reagents. The larger the positive values of the potential the stronger
the reagent. From the table of reduction potentials, the reactants in the half-reaction with positive potential are
the oxidizing agents. The more positive the potential the stronger the oxidizing agent. This makes F2 the
strongest oxidizing agent (E° = +2.87 V). The reactants in the half-reaction with negative potentials are weak
oxidizing agents. The reverse of these reactions, i.e., the oxidation reactions are the reactions with positive
potential. So, reactions from the table with negative potential favor the reverse reactions, making the product
in the reduction reactions reducing agents. The more negative the reduction potential, the stronger the
reducing agent. From the table, the strongest reducing agent is Li (E° = -3.05 V). The reaction between Li and
F2 would for example be very favorable with a redox potential of +5.92 V.

One undesirable redox reaction is corrosion. Corrosion is the term usually applied to the deterioration of
metals by an electrochemical process. Many metals are oxidized by oxygen in the presence of moisture. The
use of iron and steel in structures requires measures to counter or prevent corrosion. The mechanics of
corrosion has been studied extensively, and it is now known that the oxidation of metals occurs most readily
at points of strain (i.e., at the tip, head, and bend of an iron nail).

Iron oxidizes according to the half-equation:

Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e-

The electrons lost by Fe are gained by oxygen in the reduction:

O2(g) + 4e- + 2 H2O → 4 OH-(aq)

Together, the overall redox reaction takes place:

2 Fe(s) + O2(g) + 2 H2O → Fe2+ (aq) + 4 OH-(aq)

 These equations indicate that in order for metals to corrode (rust), two reactions occur; an oxidation that
converts metal to metal ions and electrons and a second reaction which consumes those electrons by
converting oxygen and water to hydroxide ions. In order for these reactions to occur, the electrons must be
transported from the place where the metal dissolves to the place where the oxygen is consumed, and an
ionic current must also flow between the sites to complete the circuit. This ionic current flows more easily
through water containing electrolytes (i.e., NaCl) accounting for the rapid rusting of unprotected steel in a salty
environment.

The final product of iron oxidation (rust) is usually ferric oxide (often hematite Fe2O3). The initial corrosion
product of the anodic reaction is ferrous (Fe2+) ion. This is subsequently oxidized to Fe3+ by exposure to
oxygen. In this experiment we are looking at the initial product only.

Phenolphthalein, typically clear, turns a bright pink color in the presence of OH− ions in solution. Thus, pink
appears where the reduction reaction occurs (the cathode). Similarly, potassium ferricyanide turns Prussian
blue when it reacts with Fe2+ in the solution to produce iron(II)hexacyanoferrate (III). As a result, sites that turn
blue indicate where the iron is being oxidized, and thus identify the anode. The anode is usually found at each
end of the object, or at any position at which the oxidation reaction can readily take place and is indicated by
blue spots. The remaining length of the nail is surrounded by pink, indicating the reduction reaction that takes
place in the water surrounding the nail.

This corrosion process can be prevented through the use of a sacrificial anode. In this case, a more reactive
metal (i.e. a metal that is more readily oxidized) is wrapped around the iron. This metal is then oxidized rather
than the iron, and rusting is prevented. Zinc coating is often used to protect iron in a process known as
galvanization, as it acts as a sacrificial anode in the place of iron and thus protects it from corrosion. In these
instances, the blue indicator will not be activated, as the iron has not been oxidized into Fe2+; however, the
solution will still turn pink, as the OH− has been produced through the reaction with the sacrificial anode and
the surrounding environment. In the same way, when a less reactive metal is wrapped around iron, the iron
will rust in the place of the more reactive metal.

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare about 100 mL of agar solution as follows: Heat about 100 mL of distilled water to a gentle boil.
Remove from the heat and stir in one gram of powdered agar. Continue heating with stirring until the agar
is dispersed.
2. Add about 10 drops of 0.1 M potassium ferricyanide and 5 drops of 0.1% phenolphthalein indicator to the
agar solution. Stir.
3. Prepare four finishing nails in the following manner. Take one nail and using pliers bend the nail. Better
results are obtained if the bend is repeated several times. Alternatively, the nail can be pounded with a
hammer repeatedly. To a second nail, twist a clean length of copper wire tightly around it so that the nail
is wrapped by the copper spiral. Ensure good contact between the nail and the copper wire. To the third
nail, wind a zinc strip around it. Leave the fourth nail as it is.
4. Place the bent nail and original nail in a petri dish. Place the copper-wound and zinc-wrapped nail in a
second petri dish. Make sure the nails do not touch each other.
5. Pour the agar solution carefully into the petri dishes until the nails are completely submerged. Set aside
and observe during the remaining period of the class.

Guide Questions for the Laboratory Report:

1. What is the redox potential for the corrosion of Fe? Of Zn? Of Cu?
2. Compare and explain the results obtained with the four nails. Are your observations consistent with the
redox potentials for the corrosion of the metals?
3. How does a coating of zinc on galvanized iron protect it from corrosion?
4. Why is it that a nail can stand for many days on the shelf and not rust, but when placed in tap water it
quickly rusts?
References:

Zayas, C.I. and Ricardo, R.R. 1990. Laboratory Manual for General Chemistry, De La Salle University Press
Atkins, P 2011, Reactions: The Private Life of Atoms, Oxford University Press, Oxford
Spence, R et. al. 2007, Chemistry: A Contextual Approach, Heinemann, Melbourne, Australia
Wong, I 2012, Teacher's Training, accessed 15 October 2012, http://berryberryeasy.com/2011/02/berryevent-
no-3-effective-chemistrypractical-course-johor-2010-kursus-amali-berkesan-kimia-johor-2010-
johorbahru-jabatan-pendidikan-negeri-johor/
Zekan, 2012, Corrosion Results, accessed 15 October 2012,
http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions/chemistry/redox/rusting %20agar%20results.htm
 Experiment 6
A SILLY POLYMER

OBJECTIVES:

1. Learn to cross-link a polymer and observe the changes in physical properties as a result of this cross-
linking;
2. Observe the changes in a cross-linked polymer at varying temperatures, and;
3. Learn concepts of molecular motion and intermolecular bond strength.

If a substance springs back to its original shape after being twisted, pulled or compressed, it is most likely a
polymer called an elastomer. The elastomer has elastic properties (i.e., it will recover its original size and shape
after being deformed). Examples of elastomers are rubber bands and car tires.

The liquid latex (Elmer’s glue) which you will use in this experiment is a solution consisting of the polymer
named polyvinyl acetate (PVA). The silly putty is formed by joining the globules of PVA using sodium borate
(a cross-linker). This cross-linking causes the mixture to undergo an irreversible gelation reaction. The silly
putty is held together by weak intermolecular bonds that provide flexibility and rotation about the chain of the
cross-linked polymer.

MATERIALS:

(L): 55% Elmer’s glue solution in water, 4% borax solution, food colors
(S): Styrofoam cups, plastic bags

Safety Precautions:

1. Borax (as solid or solution) can burn your eyes; it is absolutely necessary to wear safety goggles and
lab aprons at all times.
2. Wash hands thoroughly after handling the silly putty.

PROCEDURE:
1. Pour 20 mL of Elmer’s glue emulsion into a Styrofoam cup and add enough food color to your preferred
shade (optional).
2. Add 8.5 mL of the cross-linker (borax solution) to the glue emulsion.
3. Immediately begin stirring the mixture together using a wooden stick.
4. When the mixture starts to come off the sides of the cup, the silly putty may be taken out and kneaded
in the hands. Continue to knead to a desired consistency then shape into a ball.
5. Drop the ball from a height of 30 centimeters. Measure (using a ruler) the height to which the ball
rebounds.
6. Stretch the silly putty slowly from each side.
7. Compress the silly putty back into a ball.
8. Pull the silly putty quickly from each side and compare the results.
9. Place the silly putty on regular newsprint paper and press down firmly.
10. Remove the silly putty from the newsprint and make observations.
11. Place the silly putty in a bag and keep in the refrigerator for 10 minutes.
12. Repeat step 5 and compare results.
13. Return the putty to the Styrofoam cup and add more borax solution incrementally. Mix and observe
changes on the putty.
 Group No.: ______________ Names: ______________________________________________
Section: ________________ ______________________________________________
______________________________________________

DATA SHEET
A Silly Polymer

1. Describe the results (steps 1-4)

2. Height of the rebound (step5)

3. Describe your observations (step 6)

4. Describe your observations (step 8)

5. Describe your observations (step 9-10)

6. Height of rebound (cold silly putty, step11-12)

Questions:

1. How do the physical properties of the glue-water mixture change as a result of adding sodium borate?

2. What would be the effect of increasing the concentration of sodium borate in the mixture?

3. In this experiment, how did you measure the elasticity of the polymer you prepared?
 Experiment 7
SURFACTANTS and WATER HARDNESS

OBJECTIVE:

In this experiment, you will explore the behavior of surfactants and the effects of certain ions on them.

MATERIALS: 400 ppm hard water, MgCl2, NaCl, Na2SO4, CaSO4, Na2CO3, test tubes, stoppers, beakers,
distilled water, piece of cardboard, (bath soap, shampoo, detergent, and water samples to be brought
by students from their homes)

PROCEDURE:

1. Mix some soap with distilled water in a small beaker. Put some water in a second beaker.
Simultaneously dip a finger of one hand into the soapy water, and a finger of your other hand into
the water. Transfer about the same amount of the liquids by touching both fingers on a piece of
cardboard. Ensure that the two liquids DO NOT touch or mix on the cardboard. Observe the behavior
of the two liquids on the cardboard. Repeat if necessary, but always transfer the liquids onto dry
spots on the cardboard. Do the comparison again but this time touch a nonabsorbent surface like
the laboratory bench (tile or resin).
2. Half fill two 50 mL beakers with distilled water, then add enough oil to cover the surface of the water.
Without stirring, add soapy water dropwise at the center of the oil layer in one beaker. Add water
with liquid detergent to the other beaker. Record your observations. Repeat the procedure using
hard water in the place of distilled water.
3. Add 5 mL of distilled water and 10 drops of oil to each of 2 test tubes. Shake one test tube
vigorously and observe. Stand the test tube and note what happens as the liquid settles. Now add
2 mL soapy water to one tube and 2 mL water with detergent to the other. Shake each tube again
and observe what happens when the mixture settles. Repeat the procedure using hard water
instead of distilled water.
4. Using your observations on the effect of hard water on the surfactants, determine whether your
water sample from home is hard or soft.
5. Prepare 5 test tubes by adding 5 mL of distilled water and a small amount of bar soap. To one test
tube add a pinch of MgCl2; to another, NaCl; to a third, Na2SO4; to a fourth, CaSO4, and to the
last, Na2CO3. Shake vigorously and observe.
 Group No.: ______________ Names: ______________________________________________
Section: ________________ ______________________________________________
______________________________________________

DATA SHEET
Surfactants and Water Hardness

1. What properties of water are affected by surfactants like soap or detergent?

2. What is the effect of surfactants on a mixture of oil and water?

3. How does soap differentiate between hard water and soft water?

4. Is our tap water at home hard or soft?

5. Which ions cause water hardness?