Renewable Energy 1 (ME 314)

Tutorial Questions (with answers)

Question 1

a) Define the following terms giving examples

(i) renewable energy source [2]

Renewable energy is energy from sources that are naturally replenishing but flow-
limited; renewable resources are virtually inexhaustible in duration but limited in
the amount of energy that is available per unit of time.

(ii) carbon sequestration [2]

-a natural or artificial process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the
atmosphere and held in solid or liquid form.
-the long-term storage of carbon in plants, soils, geologic formations, and the

ocean. Carbon sequestration occurs both naturally and as a result of anthropogenic

activities and typically refers to the storage of carbon that has the immediate
potential to become carbon dioxide gas.
b) A Forestry Commission plantation produces wood with the following characteristics
on analysis:
Moisture content of wood on a wet basis = 40%
Ash content of wood on a wet basis = 1%
Dry ash free material = 59%
Hydrogen content =6%
High heat value on a dry ash free basis =20.4M J/kg
Density of wood =650kg/m3
Specific Heat capacity of water =24.42 kJ/kg °C

On a yearly basis ,600 m3 of wood, is used to generate electricity using a steam

engine coupled to an electricity generator, determine;
(i) Moisture content on a dry ash free basis [2]
(ii) Ash content on a dry basis [2]

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(iii) Lower Heat Value on a dry ash free basis [3]
(iv) Lower heating value on a wet basis [3]
(v) Amount of energy in (MJ) contained in 600 m3 of wood [3]

And

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c) Determine the amount of electricity that can be generated annually in (MJelec), if
the amount of energy in part (b) is used for electricity generation by combusting
the wood for steam engine with an overall system conversion efficiency of 5%. [3]

d) Given that the engine referred to in part (c) operates 8 hours for 150 days per year
at full load. Determine the electrical power production potential of the engine in
kW. [5]

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Question 2

a) Define the following terms that are useful in understanding the solar collector
energy balance:
(i) Air Mass [2]
When the sun is directly overhead, this length is referred to as the air mass (AM1).
Moving away from this overhead position, the travel distance required to hit the
collecting surface increases
(ii) Radiant Exposure [2]
Radiant exposure is a radiometric quantity calculated as the product of image-plane
irradiance and time, and is measured in units of Joule/m2. The radiant exposure is the
amount of energy that reaches a surface area due to irradiance, maintained for
particular time duration.
b) Given that the effective temperature of the Sun is 5777K, its diameter is 1.39×109
m and its average distance from the Earth is 1.495×1011 m, calculate the value of
the solar constant of the Earth. [5]

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 Consider the Stefan-Boltzmann constant is 5.67×10-8 W/m2/K4.

The equation of time can be obtained from Spencer’s expression:

360(𝑛𝑛−81)
𝐸𝐸 = 9.87𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛽𝛽 −7.5𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1.5𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, where 𝛽𝛽 = 364 and n is the day
number of the year.

c) On February 3, determine the correction to standard time. Hence give the solar
time for 10:30 AM Central Standard Time. [5]

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Where the longitude is 90.0◦ and the standard meridian is 90◦.
Solar time = standard time + 4(90 − 90) + E = standard time + 0 + E
On February 3, n = 34, and E = −13.5 min, so the correction to standard time is −13.5
min. Thus 10:30 AM Central Standard Time is 10:16.30 AM solar time.

d) Students located at two different schools noted that the equation of time and
displacement from the standard meridian are both usually specified in hours and
minutes and that there is a -/+ 60-min difference between daylight saving time
and standard time. By implying the necessary corrections determine the solar time
at 12 noon, standard time, on March 10 at the given two schools.

(i) Rombe Village; longitude 32.13o East. [4]

The ET for March 10 (n=69) is calculated using the ET equation.

The factor B obtaining
𝛽𝛽 = 360(𝑛𝑛−81)/364 =360(69−81)/364=-11.87
𝐸𝐸 = 9.87𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2(−11.87) − 7.5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(−11.87) − 1.5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(−11.87)
= -11.04 min
The standard meridian for Rombe is 30 degrees longitude. Therefore, the
Apparent Solar time at 12 noon is:
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 12: 00 − 4(30 − 32.23) − 11.04
= 11: 58 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(ii) Nyami-nyami; longitude 28.8 o East. [4]
The standard meridian for Nyami-nyami is 30 degrees longitude. Therefore, the
Apparent Solar time at 12 noon is:
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 12: 00 − 4(30 − 28.8) − 11.04
= 11: 44 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(iii) Determine the number of minutes it takes the sun after crossing the
local meridian at Nyami-nyami to cross the local meridian at Rombe
Village. [3]
= 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇Rombe − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇Nyami-nyami = 11: 58 − 11.44 = 14 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

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Question 3

a) Define the term

(i) Solar Constant [2]
The solar constant is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received on a unit area
of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of radiation, at mean sun-
earth distance, outside the atmosphere
(ii) Emissive power and emissive power density [3]
Em issive pow er is the energy of thermal radiation emitted in all directions per unit
time at any given temperature
Em issive pow er density is the energy of thermal radiation emitted in all directions
per unit time per unit area of a surface at any given temperature

b) Derive an expression for the solar constant Gsc in terms of the sun’s temperature
Ts, the sun radius Rs and the sun-earth distance RES and the Stephan Boltzmann
constant δ. [5]

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c) A solar designer in the Northern hemisphere desires to install a solar collector at a
60◦ sloped surface facing 25◦ east on north at 4:00 PM solar time on March 16 at
a latitude of 43◦ North. Calculate for the respective case;
(i) hour angle at sunset, [3]

The hour angle at sunset is determined For March 16, δ =−2.4◦:

Ωs = cos−1[−tan 43 tan(−2.4)] = 87.8◦

(ii) number of daylight hours [3]

The sunrise hour angle is therefore −87.8◦. With the earth’s rotation of 15◦ per

hour, sunrise (and sunset) occurs 5.85 h (5 h and 51 min) from noon so number of
daylight hours = 5.85 by 2=11.7 hours or 11h and 42 m ins

(iii) the time of sunrise and sunset [4]

The sunrise hour angle is therefore −87.8◦. With the earth’s rotation of 15◦ per

hour, sunrise (and sunset) occurs 5.85 h (5 h and 51 min) from noon so sunrise is at
6:09 AM (and sunset is at 5:51 PM).

(iv) solar altitude and zenith [5]

The solar altitude angle αs is a function only of time of day and declination. At
4:00 PM, ω = 60◦. From recognizing that cos θz = sin(90 − θz) = sin αs ,

sin αs = cos 43 cos(−2.4) cos 60 + sin 43 sin(−2.4) = 0.337

αs = 19.7◦ and θz = 90 – αs = 70.3◦

Question 4

a) A solar energy collector with tilt angle 25 degrees and facing north is positioned at
a site in Gweru (latitude 19.5o S) at 3pm solar time on December 10.

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 (i) Determine the angle of incident of beam radiation on the collector surface
[5]
(ii) Determine on the same date and time, the transposition factor Rb (loss with
respect to optimum) and comment on the implications of your answer to
the design. [5]

b) It is proposed to install a solar collector at a level 4 m above the ground at Harare,

latitude 17.83° S. A rectangular building 9 m high located 6 m to the north of the
collector has its long dimension on an east-west axis as shown on the sketch below.

S Proposed collector
site

6m
BUILDING

(i) Calculate the necessary object azimuth and altitude angles to profile
the shading horizon. [6]

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(ii) Plot the building profile on the solar position chart (appended at the end
of this Question paper). [5]

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 (iii) Give to the times of the day and month of the year when the building
would shade the collector. [4]

Question 5

Most renewable energy sources are time-dependent energy resource. Energy needs
for a very wide variety of applications are also time dependent but in a different
fashion than the typical energy supply. Consequently, the storage of energy or other
products of a renewable energy process are necessary if the energy is to meet
substantial portions of these energy needs.

a) Discuss in detail the motivation and need for energy storage in most renewable
energy systems giving specific references to technologies of your choice. [15]

Storage is required as it addresses the following

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 • Variations in energy supply
• Variations in energy demand
• Interruptions in energy supply
• Energy and power exhibit significant daily and seasonal variations
• Reduce higher capital investments required on energy conversion equipment
to meet peak demand
• Efficiency of energy systems
• Value of intermittent renewable energy sources increases substantially if they
can be made available when needed
• Demand for portable energy

b) Explain why ‘matching supply to demand’ is a challenge for electricity suppliers

generally and when solar is a major proportion of the energy mix. [10]
Generally;
Variation of demand
Unpredictable nature of loads
Loss of loads/ load shifting/peak creeping
Future loads (increase in customers and demand centres)
Maintenance shutdowns

When solar is a major proportion of the energy mix.

Intermittence of solar
Day variation in solar power supply
Night time use
Storage requirements
Diurnal variations
Loss of power do to unforeseen circumstances
Shading
Question 6

Anaerobic digestion as applied to animal waste can be a valuable disruptive technology

to improve rural energy supply.

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a) Give a detailed account of the following stages in the production of biogas from
animal waste at a cattle ranch farm, hydrolysis, fermentation and methane
formation. Detail why cattle manure is often preferred as the primary. [15]

In the first step (hydrolysis), the organic matter is enzymolyzed externally

by extracellular enzymes (cellulose, amylase, protease and lipase) of
microorganisms. Bacteria decompose the long chains of the complex
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids into shorter parts. For example,
polysaccharides are converted into monosaccharides. Proteins are split into
peptides and amino acids. (3)
• Fermentation

In Acid producing bacteria, involved in the second step, converts the

intermediates of fermenting bacteria-complex organic compositions
(proteins, fats and carbohydrates) into more simple compounds. At the same
time in fermentation environment there appear primary products of
fermentation, -volatiles organic acids, alcohols, amino acids, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. These organic substances act as nutrients
for methane producing bacteria that convert organic acids into biogas. (3)
• Methane formation

Methane-producing bacteria, involved in the third step, decompose

compounds with a low molecular weight. For example, they utilize
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and acetic acid to form methane and carbon
dioxide. Under natural conditions, methane producing microorganisms
occur to the extent that anaerobic conditions are provided, e.g. under water
(for example in marine sediments), in ruminant stomachs and in marshes.
They are obligatory anaerobic and very sensitive to environmental changes
therefore, from the condition created for them depends how intensively they
produce gas. (3)
Cow manure is an excellent substrate for biogas production in anaerobic digesters
though the gas yield from a single substrate is not high. The manure contains active
methanogenesis bacteria and is often used as an inoculum for biodigesters. However,

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mixing cow manure with other kind of waste materials in co-digestion can optimize
the production of biogas. (4)
b) Describe in detail the conditions and activities that an energy engineer would
employ during the production of biodiesel to increase the energy harvest from
jatropha. You may state the chemical equations where necessary. [10]

Jatropha Biodiesel Process

Water Transesterification is the process of converting the oil produced from vegetables into
biodiesel. The process is less complex, and it is quite easy. Transesterification is a chemical-
based production of biodiesel from jatropha oil.
Raw materials required include Jatropha oil, Methanol, Potassium hydroxide, Isopropyl
alcohol, Distilled water, Phenolphthalein solution, Vinegar.
Pre-treatm ent
The oil yielding plant Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose and drought resistant large shrub,
which is widely cultivated in the tropics as a live fence. The Jatropha plant can reach a height
up to 5 m and its seed yield ranges from 7.5 to 12 tonnes per hectare per year, after five
years of growth. The oil content of whole Jatropha seed is 30-35 % by weight basis. Jatropha
oil is filtered to remove the solid particles present in it. Then it is heated to remove the water
contents if any present in it.
Production Process
Biodiesel is produced by transesterification of large, branched triglycerides in to smaller,
straight chain molecules of methyl esters, using an alkali or acid or enzyme as catalyst. There
are three stepwise reactions with intermediate formation of diglycerides and monoglycerides
resulting in the production of three moles of methyl esters and one mole of glycerol from
triglycerides. The overall reaction is:

Methanol and ethanol are used most frequently, especially methanol because of its low cost,
and physical and chemical advantages. They can quickly react with triglycerides and sodium

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hydroxide is easily dissolved in these alcohols. Stoichiometric molar ratio of alcohol to
triglycerides required for transesterification reaction is 3:1. In practice, the ratio needs to be
higher to drive the equilibrium to a maximum ester yield.

To determine the amount of catalyst that is required for catalyst. The accurate amount of
potassium hydroxide is mixed with methanol till the methanol completely dissolves to get
potassium methoxide. In the winter season additional jatropha oil is heated and is mixed with
the potassium methoxide. The mixture can settle. In this process glycerine settles at the
bottom and the biodiesel at the top. A complex fatty acid like triglyceride molecule is taken
and it is neutralized. The glycerine is removed, and an alcohol ester is created. This process
is completed when methanol is mixed with sodium hydroxide. This result in the production of
sodium methoxide which is then mixed with oil produced from the jatropha seeds.
R ecovery
When the mixture settles glycerine is left at the bottom and the biodiesel (methyl esters)
remains on the top. This methyl ester is washed and then filtered.

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