INDONESIA

Geography

Indonesia consists of 17 508 islands, about 6000 of which are inhabited. These are scattered to the north
and south of the Equator over about 4200 km. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan
(the Indonesian part of Borneo), Irian Jaya (the Indonesian part of New Guinea) and Sulawesi. At
4884 m, Puncak Jaya on Irian Jaya is Indonesia’s highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest
lake, with an area of 1145 km2. The country’s largest rivers are in Kalimantan and include the Mahakam
and Barito; such rivers provide communication and transport links between the island’s river
settlements.

Indonesia’s location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian and Australian tectonic plates makes it the
site of numerous volcanoes and of frequent seismicity. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,
including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century.
Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami, generated by an earthquake off the
coast of north-western Sumatra, and the Yogyakarta earthquake of 2006.

Straddling the Equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry
seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies in the range 1 780–3 175 mm, with up to
6100 mm falling in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas — particularly those on the west coast of
Sumatra and in western Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Irian Jaya — receive the highest rainfall.
Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the
average daily temperature range of Jakarta being 26–30°C.

The services sector is the economy’s largest, followed by industry and agriculture. However, agriculture
employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million strong workforce Major
industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles and mining. Major agricultural products include
palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. The country has extensive mineral resources, including
tin, bauxite, coal, copper, gold, nickel and silver, as well as petroleum and natural gas. Indonesia is the
world’s largest tin producer. Although mineral production traditionally centred on bauxite, silver and
tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold and coal output for export markets [1].

Geology

The geology of the extensive and varied landmasses of Indonesia is extremely complex (Figure 1). The
continental setting has developed under mobile belts and island arcs. The various orogenic belts of
Indonesia are as follows:

(a) Malaya Orogen (the southern part of the Malaysian Tin Belt):

Although Permo–Triassic folding and granitic intrusion occurred, the major phase of plutonism and
folding dates to the Late Triassic–Jurassic, during which time the tin deposits were formed. Sediments
of Triassic age that are intruded by the granites are commonly carbonaceous shale; this is thought to be
a favourable host for uranium mineralization.

(b) West Kalimantan Orogen:

The relationships of this orogenic belt to the Malaya Orogen are not clear. The date of granite
emplacement is Jurassic and the intruded sediments are Triassic, which are locally carbonaceous and
weakly radioactive. Mineralization is much more varied than in the rocks of the main Malaya Orogen,
with widespread antimony, gold, iron, lead, molybdenum and zinc mineralization, all of which are, in
some environments, commonly associated with uranium mineralization.
 (c) Sumatra Orogen:

The oldest dated rocks are Permo–Carboniferous, but crystalline schists may be older. These and
Triassic marine slate and sandstone were folded and intruded by granite no later than the Upper Jurassic.
Lower Cretaceous limestone, with andesitic pyroclastics and lava, and shale, were folded and intruded
by granite prior to the deposition of Eocene strata. Oligocene–Miocene volcanics were strongly folded
and accompanied by a third intrusion of granites. Deformation continued into the Pleistocene, with
moderate folding and thrusting. An area in south-east Kalimantan with ultrabasic rocks and chromium
and iron mineralization is tentatively included within this orogenic belt, which is most characteristically
developed in the highland ‘backbone’ of Sumatra.

FIG. 1. Regional geological setting of Indonesia showing the distribution of selected uranium deposits and
occurrences. For the general uranium deposit and occurrence legend see World Uranium Geology, Exploration,
Resources and Production, IAEA, 2020. A general global geological legend is shown although not all geological
units necessarily occur on this particular map.

(d) Sunda Orogen:

The Sunda Orogen extends down through Sumatra and Java and the eastern islands and then up through
Sulawesi. The geology of the Sunda Orogen are characterized by Miocene rocks, predominantly
volcanic in character, but with some Middle Miocene plutonics. Mineralization appears to be weaker in
the middle part of the arc, in the Java region, and this is believed to be connected to the lack of plutonic
igneous activity in this part of the orogen. However, granodiorites do crop out near the Tjikotok gold
mine.

(e) The Embalock Complex:

The Embalock Complex of northern central Borneo consists of strongly folded Permo–Carboniferous
to Eocene marine strata, which displays light metamorphism. The Permo–Carboniferous and Triassic
successions are geosynclinal and contain basic lava flows and pyroclastics.
 (f) Molluccan Orogen:

The west coast islands of Sumatra are linked through Timor to the eastern portion of Sulawesi. This
belt is characterized by the development of strongly folded and overthrust Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic
and Palaeogene rocks with large-scale development of ultrabasic intrusions. Folding persisted locally
and intermittently until the Pliocene. The sediments of Nias are potentially petroleum-bearing.

(g) Halmahera–North Irian Barat Orogen:

This is a zone of pre-Tertiary sediments with some ultrabasic and acidic intrusives. The environment is
not promising for the deposition of radioactive minerals [2].

Uranium exploration

Uranium exploration conducted by the Nuclear Minerals Development Centre of the Indonesian
National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN) started in the 1960s. The first stage regional reconnaissance
covered approximately 78% of the total area of 533 000 km2 considered to be favourable for hosting
uranium mineralization. Methods employed during the reconnaissance phase included integrated
geochemical stream sediment, heavy mineral and radiometric surveys. Several geochemical and
radiometric anomalies were found in granitic, metamorphic and sedimentary environments.
Subsequently, uranium occurrences were identified in Sumatra, the Bangka Tin Belt and Sulawesi. A
more detailed evaluation of these occurrences has not been made.

Efforts during the first 10 years were rather modest. This changed when France’s Commissariat à
l’Energie Atomique (CEA), and later the Compagnie Générale des Matières Nucléaires (COGEMA),
initiated exploration programmes in the early 1970s in Kalimantan (Borneo). Between 1976 and 1978
the Geological Survey of the then Federal Republic of West Germany carried out a regional
reconnaissance survey in western Sumatra. Additional areas surveyed were northern Sumatra (Sibolga),
southern Sumatra, Sulawesi (Hasamba) and eastern Indonesia (Ramsiki).

All exploration activities conducted since 1988 have been concentrated in the Kalan area of western
Kalimantan, where uranium deposits have been delineated. Geologically, they are associated with
volcanics, granites and metasediments. The best known are the deposits in metasediments located at
Kalan, where mineralization occurs over a length of 11 km. Uranium occurs as uraninite and brannerite
and is commonly associated with pyrite, arsenopyrite, magnetite, apatite and monazite in steeply
dipping fractures. Average grades are reported to be in the range 0.15–0.20% U.

During 1991–1992, exploration continued in this area and it was directed both at the districts
surrounding Kalan and at the uranium occurrence at Kalan itself. At Kalan, exploration was
concentrated in the Remaja, Rabau and Darab areas. The work included underground drilling at the
Remaja exploration adit. Surface drilling was completed at Darab and at Raban. The results of the
exploration were evaluated and incorporated in a pre-feasibility study for a possible uranium mining
operation at Kalan. Geological and radiometric mapping were completed over 752 km2 in the Kelawai,
Kembayan and Kahayon areas. A reconnaissance survey covering about 1300 km2 was conducted on
Irian Jaya. This work consisted of heavy mineral stream sediments geochemical and radiometric
surveys.

During 1993–1994, exploration, including drilling, was concentrated at several sectors of Kalan referred
to as Jeronang, Kelawai Inau and Bubu. In addition, work was carried out in the Seruyan and Mentawa
areas and in the districts surrounding Kalan, where similar geological conditions have been found. The
follow-up work, which has been carried out in the favourable areas since 1993, included systematic
geological and radiometric mapping, radon surveys, deep trenching and drilling of several hundred
metres. These programmes covered relatively small areas in Tanah Merah–Dendang Arai (0.06 km2),
the Mentawa sector (0.3 km2), and the Upper Rirang valley (0.008 km2).
Surface mapping discovered several uranium occurrences in veinlets. The thickness of the mineralized
veins ranges from some millimetres (Dendang Arai) to 1–15 cm (Tanah Merah) and 1–100 cm
(Jumbang I). The veins are filled with uraninite associated with haematite, ilmenite, magnetite,
molybdenite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. Several drill holes at Tanah Merah intersected 5 m of mineralization
at depths of about 33, 40 and 50 m. In the Mentawa sector, the mineralization intercepted was identified
as occurring as horizontal to vertical multiple lenticular zones. The radiometric surface expressions
registered 300–1 500 cps on an SPP2 scintillometer.

Ten shallow non-core holes and deep trenches were excavated in the Upper Rirang valley, where
boulders with high-grade monazite-bearing mineralization had been discovered. The boulder type
mineralization was proven to be derived from in situ sources dispersed within the 30 m wide valley.

In 1993–1994, BATAN also carried out a reconnaissance over 3000 km2 in Irian Jaya. Exploration,
including drilling, was concentrated in several sectors referred to as Jeronang, Kelawai Inau and Bubu,
and aimed at increasing resources. In addition, work was undertaken in the Seruyan and Mentawa areas
and in the area surrounding Kalan, where similar geological conditions prevail. In 1995 and 1996,
reconnaissance mapping was completed over areas of 3 000 km2 and 3 050 km2, respectively. Owing
to economic circumstances, the exploration budget was reduced in 1997, which resulted in no
significant additional fieldwork being undertaken.

Verification of the mineral resources outlined in the Kalan area was the only activity performed during
1997 and 1998. This study included, essentially, the re-logging of mineralized drill holes and the
subsequent correlation of the radiometric values with chemical results. Only minor discrepancies
affecting the specific gravity of minerals and some logging data were found but these did not warrant a
revision of the previous resource estimates.

During 1998–1999, exploration activities resumed in the Tanah Merah and Mentawa sectors of the
Kalan area and in the surrounding areas. These activities consisted of systematic geological and
radiometric mapping and conduct of radon surveys in order to delineate mineralized zones.

Between 2000 and 2002, exploration drilling was carried out at upper Rirang (178 m), Rabau (115 m)
and Tanah Merah (181 m). In 2003–2004, BATAN carried out exploration drilling in Jumbang 1 (186
m) and Jumbang 2 (227 m) sectors. In 2005, exploration activities were planned in Jumbang 3 (expected
300 m) and Mentawa (expected 300 m) sectors.

In 2010, activities were devoted to evaluating drilling data from the Kawat sector to re-evaluate
estimates of speculative resources.

In 2015, uranium and thorium exploration continued in the Mamuju and Ella Ilir area. In the Mamuju
area, detailed ground radiometric mapping was conducted in the Takandeang, Taan, Ahu, Pangasaan,
and Hulu Mamuju sectors. Geophysical resistivity and induced polarisation surveys were conducted in
the Botteng and Takandeang sectors, and were followed by reconnaissance drilling for a total of
1 600 m. Exploration in the Ella Ilir area included geological and radiometric mapping, and 400 m of
reconnaissance drilling.

In 2016, a regional ground geomagnetic and gravity survey was conducted in the Mamuju area.
Geological and radiometric mapping, soil geochemistry, radon gas measurements, and trenching were
conducted in the eastern part of the Hulu Mamuju sector.

Exploration activities in 2017 [3] were carried out in Kalan–Kalimantan and Mamuju–West Sulawesi.
The activities in Kalan included a re-estimation of the resources. In Mamuju–West Sulawesi exploration
activities, including geological mapping, geochemical sampling, geophysical surveys, were carried out
in detailed stages. Estimation of uranium resources in Taan Sector based on 2015 drilling was also
carried out.
In 2018, exploration was carried out in Kawat–East Kalimantan. The mapping was aimed at identifying
the distribution of favourable uranium areas through radiometric measurements. In Kalan–West
Kalimantan, detailed structural geology mapping was conducted in Eko–Remaja exploration tunnel.
Exploration activity in Mamuju–West Sulawesi included detailed geological mapping in the sectors of
Hulu–Mamuju and Botteng. Geophysical investigations using seismic refraction methods were also
applied in the Botteng sector [3].

Figure 2 summarizes historical exploration data totalling USD $19 038 000, including 67 648 metres
of drilling (as well as radiometric and other surveys of 281 270 km2 and 159 165 km2 respectively).

FIG. 2. Domestic uranium exploration data for Indonesia. Comparison of exploration expenditures, drilling and
uranium market price (US$ current).

Uranium resources

6.6.2.1. Identified resources

As of January 2017, reasonably assured resources totalled 7123 tU (as in situ resources, at costs <US$
260/kgU). Of this total, 2029 tU are recoverable at costs below US $80/kgU.

Inferred resources total 4065 tU (as in situ resources, at costs <US$ 260/kgU [6.3]. These resources,
associated with metamorphite-type deposits, occur in the Eko Remaja, Lembah Hitam, Lemajung and
Rabau sectors of the Kalan area in western Kalimantan [2].

Undiscovered resources

Undiscovered resources, mainly those of the Kalan prospect, are allocated to the prognosticated
resource category. The Mamuju sector has the same geological favourability as Kalan and it could host
additional potential. To evaluate this resource potential, a delineation-drilling programme is needed. As
of January 2017, prognosticated resources amount to 30 179 tU in the <US$ 260/kgU cost category.
Unconventional resources

Indonesia does not report unconventional resources.

Potential for new discoveries

In the Malaya Orogen, the Triassic sediments that have been intruded by Late Triassic and Jurassic
granites are commonly carbonaceous shale. This region, mainly the islands of Bangka and Billiton, is
thought to be favourable for the location of vein or disseminated deposits. The West Kalimantan Orogen
contains Triassic sediments, locally carbonaceous, that have been intruded by Jurassic granites. Weak
radioactivity has been detected and the area could be worthy of being prospected further. In the Sumatra
Orogen, the oldest dated rocks are Permo–Carboniferous, but certain crystalline schists may be older.
These rocks, and Triassic marine slate and sandstone, were folded and intruded by granites no younger
than Upper Jurassic. Lower Cretaceous limestone, with andesitic pyroclastics and lava, and shale, were
folded and intruded by granite prior to deposition of Eocene strata. Oligocene–Miocene volcanics were
strongly folded and accompanied by a third episode of granite intrusion. The south-western side of
Sumatra appears to be the more favourable and most of the known occurrences and anomalies have
been found there. The south-western part of Java is believed to have a similar geological environment
[6.4]. The potential for additional resources may be limited to these areas.

Uranium production

No uranium has been officially produced in Indonesia, either by the Government or by private
companies. However, some uranium may have been recovered during mining tests. Indonesia has two
established deposits, both in the west Kalimantan uranium district. The first, Remaja–Hitam, is a
uranium vein-type deposit hosted in fine-grained metamorphic rock and is thought to contain between
5000 and 10 000 tU with a grade range of 0.1–0.3% U. Also known as the Eko–Remaja prospect, this
reserve is reportedly capable of providing Indonesia with a supply of yellowcake sufficient to meet the
domestic needs of its planned reactors. The second deposit, Rirang–Tanah Merah, is also a vein type
deposit hosted in fine-grained metamorphic rock, though it is thought to contain less than 500 tU and
have a grade range of 0.3–1.0% U. While it is estimated that Indonesia could produce about 770 tU/year,
the aforementioned deposits are currently believed to be dormant. Should it prove economically viable,
or politically expedient, it is of the opinion of Indonesian specialists that Indonesia could probably mine
sufficient uranium from its domestic reserves to provide yellowcake for its planned nuclear power
reactors [5].

Comments

Indonesia has not reported any plans to produce uranium. No significant environmental issues relating
to uranium exploration and resource development have been identified.

References
[1] CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY, The World Factbook: Indonesia, Washington, DC,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html (accessed August 2009).
[2] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY/INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Uranium 2018:
Resources, Production and Demand (2018).
[3] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY/INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Uranium 2020:
Resources, Production and Demand (2020).
[4] OECD NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY–INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY JOINT STEERING
GROUP ON URANIUM RESOURCES, World Uranium: Geology and Resource Potential, Report on Phase 1,
International Uranium Resources Evaluation Project (IUREP), Miller Freeman Publications, San Francisco (1980) 5
[5] TAYLOR, C., FELDMAN, Y., MAHAFFEY, C., MARVIN B., BOURESTON J., Indonesia, Countries of Strategic
Nuclear Concern, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (2004).

Updated from INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, World Uranium Geology, Exploration, Resources and Production, IAEA, Vienna (2020) by J.R. Blaise & M. Fairclough (Dec.2020)