A PROJECT REPORT

ON
“PURIFICATION OF GROUND WATER INTO RO PURIFIED
WATER BY USING SOLAR POWER ”
SUBMITTED TO

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,

ANANTAPUR
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

B. SUMANTH 20KF1A0305
G. KRUPASAHITHYA 20KF1A0314
G. TEJA KUMAR 20KF1A0312
S. WASSEMUDDIN 20KF1A0333
A.THIPPESWAMY 21KF5A0301

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR. B.RAMESH, M. Tech.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SANSKRITHI SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapur, Approved by AICTE, Accreated
with NAAC”A” Grade, NEW DELHI)
PUTTAPARTHI-515134
2020-2024.
 SANSKRITHI SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapur, Approved by AICTE, NEW DELHI)
PUTTAPARTHI-515134.
2020-2024.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project entitled “PURIFICATION OF GROUND

WATER INTO RO PURIFIED WATER BY USING SOLAR POWER” is
submitted by

B. SUMANTH 20KF1A0305
G.KRUPASAHITHYA 20KF1A0314
G.TEJA KUMAR 20KF1A0312
S. WASSEMUDDIN 20KF1A0333
A.THIPPESWAMY 21KF5A0301

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of BACHELOR OF

TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, SANSKRITHI SCHOOL OF
ENGINEERING, PUTTAPARTHI-515134.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HoD Signature of Principal

MR. B. Ramesh,M.Tech Dr. A. Prasad Reddy, Ph.D Dr. A Senthil Kumar
B.E, M.E, M.B.A, PGDVLSI, DISM,
Department of Department of Mechanical
PDF(TUT, SA), Senior PDF(VSB TUO,
Mechanical Engineering,Sanskrithi School EUROPE), PGP AI
Engineering,Sanskrithi of Engineering & ML (University of Texas,
School of Engineering Austin)SanskrithiSchool of Engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our sincere thanks to Sri B. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy, Chairman, Sanskrithi
Group of Institutions, Puttaparthi for his inspiring all the way and for arranging all the
facilities and resources needed to completion of the course.

We thankfully acknowledge to Dr. A. Senthil Kumar, B.E., M.E., MBA., PGDVLSI., DISM., Ph.D.
(IITR)., PDF (TUT, SA)., Senior PDF (VSB-TUO, EUROPE)., PGPAI&ML (University of Texas, Austin). Principal,
Sanskrithi School of Engineering, Puttaparthi, for his valuable suggestions and advices
throughout the course.

We thankfully acknowledge to Dr. A. Prasad Reddy, Ph.D Head of the Department of

MECH, Sanskrithi School of Engineering, Puttaparthi, for his valuable suggestions and
advices throughout the course.

We express our special thanks to Mr.G. Sudhakar, M.Tech for his valuable coordination
and constructive suggestions to complete this project.

We express our special thanks to Mr.B.Ramesh, M.Tech Asst. Prof for his valuable guidance
and supervision and constructive suggestions to complete this project.

We express our heartfelt thanks to our parents and family members, who gave moral
support in completion of the course.

We express our heartfelt thanks and gratitude to all professors, lab coordinators, non
teaching staff and who have help me understanding, encouragement and support made this
effort worthwhile and possible.

B. SUMANTH
G.KRUPASAHITHYA
G.TEJA KUMAR
S. WASSEMUDDIN
A.THIPPESWAMY
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project report entitled “PURIFICATION OF GROUND WATER
INTO RO PURIFIED WATER BY USING SOLAR POWER” is the work done by

B. SUMANTH 20KF1A0305
G.KRUPASAHITHYA 20KF1A0314
G.TEJA KUMAR 20KF1A0312
S. WASSEMUDDIN 20KF1A0333
A.THIPPESWAMY 21KF5A0301

towards the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOROF TECHNOLOGY in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING and submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICALUNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR, the result
of the work carried out under the guidance of Mr.B.Ramesh, M.Tech.

I further declare that this project report has not been previously submitted before either
in part or full for the award of any degree or any diploma by any organization or any
universities.

B.SUMANTH(20KF1A0305)

G.KRUPASAHITHYA (20KF1A0314)

G.TEJA KUMAR (20KF1A0312)

S. WASSEMUDDIN (20KF1A0333)

A.THIPPESWAMY (21KF5A0301)
INDEX
TOPICS
• Certificates…………………………………………………………………………………
• Acknowledgement….....……………………………………………………………........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of the project ………………………………………………………………1-2
1.2 Selection of water purification system ………………………………………………….2-6

CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

2.1 Introduction with block diagram………………………………………………………….7
2.2 Reverse Osmosis (RO)……………………………………………………………………...7-8
Drinking Water Purification…………………………………………………………………9-16
2.3 Working of RO (Reverse Osmosis).........………………………………………………..16-18
2.4 Types of RO Membranes ………………………………………………………………..18-20
Specification of Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant ……………………………………………...20-21
2.5 RO Membrane Cleaning ………………………………………………………………...21-22
2.6 Maintenance of Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant ……………………………………………...22
2.7 Solar Panel...................................................................................................................................23
Categories Of Solar Panel……………………………………………………………………23-26
2.8 Advantages Of Solar Power Generation….……………………………………………..27-28
2.9 Solar Energy……………………………………………………………………………....28-30
2.9.1Advantages…………………………………………………………………………………..30
2.9.3Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………………….30
2.9.4Applications Of Solar Technology…………………………………………………………31
2.10 Battery.....................................................................................................................................32-36

CHAPTER 3: ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS REFERENCES

IMAGES WITH GEO TAGS………………………………………………………………39-40
Certificates Of International Journal Of Research Publication And Reviews………….41-43
References……………………………………………………………………………………....44
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction:
Water is essential for life. The amount of fresh water on earth is limited, and with the rapid
industrialization, its quality is under constant pressure. Preserving the quality of raw water is
important not only for the drinking-water supply, but also for food production and other water uses.
Water quality can be compromised by the presence of infectious agents, toxic chemicals, and
radiological hazards.
Water quality deterioration in distribution systems is mainly caused by inappropriate planning,
design and construction or inadequate operation and maintenance and water quality control. This
has been linked to a significant proportion of the burden of waterborne and water-related illness.
Stresses on these systems caused by rapid urbanization, population growth and aging infrastructure
further exacerbates the problems.
The integrity of well managed distribution systems is one of the most important barriers that protect
drinking-water from contamination. However, management of distribution systems often receives
little attention. Distribution systems can incorrectly be viewed as passive systems with the only
requirement being to transport drinking-water from the outlets of treatment plants to consumers.
Hence it is the prime responsibility of Civil Engineering Department to arrange adequate and safe
supply of water of acceptable quality to Railway premises as well Railway stations for the
passengers.

Reverse Osmosis is extensively applied in the water treatment industry as well as residential
purposes. These applications include both the industrial sector as well as (to a lesser extent) the
municipal sector. Reverse osmosis for the production of drinkable water is still not widely applied
despite high feed TDS and low flow rate requirements being the prevailing characteristics for
drinkable applications. The exception is of course the production of drinkable water from
seawater by reverse osmosis, but this has thus far found limited application in India.

Reverse Osmosis has however found use in several small-town areas. Here, the treatment of
brackish water, with typically high levels of hardness or Fluoride content, has been favored by
Reverse Osmosis as opposed to Ion Exchange and other technologies. Typically the main water
source for such towns is an active borehole or aquifer. Unfortunately, though there is an abundance
of boreholes for possible treatment, these sites are often in remote areas with little or no
infrastructure to install a reverse osmosis treatment unit.
1
Existing RO system
This RO system is work on 230 V 50 Hz AC supply. This RO system is 5 stage system such as pre
filter, sediment filter, RO membrane, UV tube, and ultra-filtration. Following diagram shows the
existing RO system which is operated on AC supply.
In this RO system majority of elements are operated on DC supply hence 230 v AC is Converted
into 24 V DC with the help of AC to DC converter. To light a UV tube there is required UV chock
which is operated on AC supply and the water level switch is connected between the AC supply to
disconnect the given supply when tank is completely filled by water. There is also solenoid valve
to stop the flow of water when the tank is completely filled by water, to increase the pressure of the
water flow there is booster pump which forces the water to flow through the filters and membrane.
Objective of current system
Main purpose of RO system is to give purified water, where the water contamination is high or the
water is hard. majority of RO system are working on ac 230 V 50 Hz supply in India because easy
availability of AC supply But the basic structure of RO system containing booster pump or pressure
pump and other electrical element is mainly constructed to work on DC supply. So the working of
RO is involves mainly conversion of AC 230 V to 24 V DC in majority of RO units.
The RO units we are discussing here are home RO system with limited capacity.

The system on which we are going to work is 15 litre RO water purifier system. Objective of this
project involves development of standalone system. Which is a separate unit working on DC. By
doing so it gives us advantage of the system which is free from 230 V AC supply to DC supply
conversion. So with DC system having batteries one can also make it portable.

1.2 Selection of water purification system :

In Indian Railway, normally underground water is drawn through deep tubewell to provide the safe
drinking water to Railway premises. But where the extraction of underground water is not feasible
and other sources of water not readily available, the treated water is been taken through municipal
corporation of that area. Although Standards on the quality of drinking water has been laid down
by organizations like BIS, ISO, Ministry of Drinking water & sanitation/Govt. of India etc., no
standards has been laid regarding selection of appropriate/adequate purification system of water.
Standards of quality of drinking water as per IRWM Annexure 5.2 Para 531 (physical and chemical
standards) and Indian Standard - Drinking water - Specification (First Revision) IS:
10500 - 2012 is as under:

2
 Requirement

Permissible limit in the absence of

S.No. Characteristics (Desirable

limit) alternate source

1 Turbidity (NTU scale) 1 5

2 Colour Hazen units 5 15

3 Taste and odour Agreeable Agreeable

4 Ph value 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation

Total dissolved solids (mg/l)

5 500 2000
max.

Total hardness as
CaCo3(mg/l)
6 200 600
max

7 Chlorides as Cl2(mg/l) 250 1000

3
 8 Sulphates as SO4 (mg/l) max. 200 400**

9 Fluorides as F (mg/l)max. 1.0 1.5

10 Nitrates as NO3 (mg/l)max. 45 No relaxation

11 Calcium as Ca (mg/l) max. 75 200

12 Iron as Fe (mg/l) max. 0.3 No relaxation

13 Zinc as Zn (mg/l) max. 5.0 15.0

14 Mineral Oil (mg/l)max 0.5 No relaxation

15 Copper as Cu (mg/l) max. 0.05 1.5

Residual free Chlorine (mg/l)

16 0.2* 1.0
max

Toxic materials

17 Arsenic as As (mg/l) max. 0.01 0.05

18 Cadmium as Cd (mg/l) max. 0.003 No relaxation

4
 19 Lead as Pb (mg/l) max. 0.01 No relaxation

*When protection against viral infection is required, it should be min. 0.5 mg/l.

**Provided Magnesium (as Mg) does not exceed 30 mg/l.

Centre for Disease Control & Prevention, Atlanta (http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater)

has issued a Guide to Drinking Water Treatment Technologies for Household, which is
as under:
S.No. Point of Use Water Contaminants
technologies that Protozoa Bacteria Viruses Chemicals
may remove small/
all contaminants

1. Filtration

a) Microfiltration Very high Moderate Not Not effective

( approx. 0.1micron) effective effective effective

b) Ultra-filtration Very high Very high Moderate Low effective

( approx. 0.01micron) effective effective effective

c) Nano-filtration Very high Very high Very high Moderate effective

( approx. effective effective effective
0.001micron)

WILL COMM

2. Reverse Osmosis Very high Very high Very high REMOVE ON

5
 CONTAMINANTS
(metal ion, aqueous
salts), including
(RO) Systems effective effective effective sodium chloride ,
copper, chromium ,
and lead;
ALSO REDUCE
arsenic, fluoride,
radium, sulfate,
calcium , magnesium,
potassium, nitrate,
fluoride And
phosphorus.

3. Distillation Systems Very high Very high Very high Will reduce most
common
effective effective effective chemical contaminants
,
including arsenic,
barium, chromium,
lead, nitrate, sodium,
sulfate and many
organic chemicals

4. Ultraviolet Very high Very high high Not effective

Treatment
Systems effective effective effective

5. Water Softeners Ion exchange technology for chemical or ion removal to

reduce the amount of hardness (calcium, magnesium) in the
water , can also be designed to remove iron and manganese,
heavy metals, some radioactivity, nitrates, arsenic,
chromium, selenium and sulfates; does not protects against
protozoa, bacteria and viruses.

6
 CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

Block Diagram:

Fig: Block diagram of Solar powered water purification using reverse osmosis

2.2 Reverse Osmosis (RO):

Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable
membrane. This membrane technology is not exactly a filtration method. In reverse osmosis, an
applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property that is driven by
chemical potential which is a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis through a semipermeable
membrane can remove many types of molecules and ions from solutions, and is used in both
industrial processes and the production of potable water.

Reverse osmosis is most commonly known for its use in drinking water purification
from seawater and those areas where water contamination includes viruses and chemicals like metal
ions, lead, arsenic, fluoride, radium, sulfate, magnesium, potassium, nitrate, fluoride and
phosphorus.

7
HISTORY:

A process of osmosis through semi permeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by
JeanAntoine Nollet. For the following 200 years, osmosis was only a phenomenon observed in the
laboratory. In 1950, the University of California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of
seawater using semi permeable membranes. Researchers from both University of California at Los
Angeles and the University of Florida successfully produced fresh water from seawater in the
mid1950s, but the flux was too low to be commercially viable[3] until the discovery at University
of California at Los Angeles by Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan[4] at the National Research
Council of Canada, Ottawa, of techniques for making asymmetric membranes characterized by an
effectively thin "skin" layer supported atop a highly porous and much thicker substrate region of
the membrane. John Cadotte, of FilmTec Corporation, discovered that membranes with particularly
high flux and low salt passage could be made by interfacial polymerization of m-phenylene diamine
and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent on this process was the subject of litigation and has since

expired. Almost all commercial reverseosmosis membrane is now made by this method. By the end
of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the planning stages, worldwide.[2]
Reverse osmosis production train, North Cape Coral Reverse Osmosis Plant

8
In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO
process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 11.35 million liters (3 million US gal)
per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest
low pressure reverse-osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 56.8 million liters (15
millionUS gal) per day (MGD).

Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute
concentration through a semi permeable membrane to a region of low-solute concentration by
applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure. The largest and most important application
of reverse osmosis is the separation of pure water from seawater and brackish waters; seawater or
brackish water is pressurized against one surface of the membrane, causing transport of saltdepleted
water across the membrane and emergence of potable drinking water from the lowpressure side.

Drinking water purification

Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including a reverse osmosis step,
are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.

Such systems typically include a number of steps:

• a sediment filter to trap particles, including rust and calcium carbonate

• optionally, a second sediment filter with smaller pores

• an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine, which will attack and degrade
a thin film composite membrane

• a reverse osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane

• optionally, a second carbon filter to capture those chemicals not removed by the reverse osmosis
membrane
• optionally an ultraviolet lamp for sterilizing any microbes that may escape filtering by the
reverse osmosis membrane

The latest developments in the sphere include nano materials and membranes.

In some systems, the carbon prefilter is omitted, and a cellulose triacetate membrane is used. CTA
(cellulose triacetate) is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a synthetic layer and is made to
allow contact with chlorine in the water. These require a small amount of chlorine in the water
source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85–
95%.

9
Water and waste water purification
Rain water collected from storm drains is purified with reverse osmosis water processors and used
for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los Angeles and other cities, as a solution to the
problem of water shortages.

In industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants.[14] The water is
distilled multiple times. It must be as pure as possible so it does not leave deposits on the machinery
or cause corrosion. The deposits inside or outside the boiler tubes may result in underperformance
of the boiler, reducing its efficiency and resulting in poor steam production, hence poor power
production at the turbine.

It is also used to clean effluent and brackish groundwater. The effluent in larger volumes (more than
500 m3/day) should be treated in an effluent treatment plant first, and then the clear effluent is
subjected to reverse osmosis system. Treatment cost is reduced significantly and membrane life of
the reverse osmosis system is increased.

The process of reverse osmosis can be used for the production of deionized water.[15]

Reverse osmosis process for water purification does not require thermal energy. Flow-through
reverse osmosis systems can be regulated by high-pressure pumps. The recovery of purified water
depends upon various factors, including membrane sizes, membrane pore size, temperature,
operating pressure, and membrane surface area.

In 2002, Singapore announced that a process named NEWater would be a significant part of its
future water plans. It involves using reverse osmosis to treat domestic wastewater before
discharging the NEWater back into the reservoirs.

Desalination

Areas that have either no or limited surface water or groundwater may choose to desalinate. Reverse
osmosis is an increasingly common method of desalination, because of its relatively low energy
consumption.

In recent years, energy consumption has dropped to around 3 kWh/m3, with the development of
more efficient energy recovery devices and improved membrane materials. According to the
International Desalination Association, for 2011, reverse osmosis was used in 66% of installed

desalination capacity (0.0445 of 0.0674 km³/day), and nearly all new plants.[17] Other plants mainly

use thermal distillation methods: multiple-effect distillation and multi-stage flash.

10
Sea-water reverse-osmosis (SWRO) desalination, a membrane process, has been commercially
used since the early 1970s. Its first practical use was demonstrated by Sidney Loebfrom University
of California at Los Angeles in Coalinga, California, and Srinivasa Sourirajan of National Research
Council, Canada. Because no heating or phase changes are needed, energy requirements are low,
around 3 kWh/m3, in comparison to other processes of desalination, but are still much higher than
those required for other forms of water supply, including reverse osmosis treatment of wastewater,
at 0.1 to 1 kWh/m3. Up to 50% of the seawater input can be recovered as fresh water, though lower
recoveries may reduce membrane fouling and energy consumption.

Brackish water reverse osmosis refers to desalination of water with a lower salt content than sea
water, usually from river estuaries or saline wells. The process is substantially the same as sea water
reverse osmosis, but requires lower pressures and therefore less energy.[1] Up to 80% of the feed
water input can be recovered as fresh water, depending on feed salinity.

The Ashkelon sea water reverse osmosis desalination plant in Israel is the largest in the world. The
project was developed as a build-operate-transfer by a consortium of three international companies:
Veolia water, IDE Technologies, and Elran.

The typical single-pass sea water reverse osmosis system consists of:

• Intake

• Pretreatment

• High-pressure pump (if not combined with energy recovery)

• Membrane assembly

• Energy recovery (if used)

• Remineralisation and pH adjustment

• Disinfection
• Alarm/control panel

Pretreatment
Pretreatment is important when working with reverse osmosis and Nano filtration membranes due
to the nature of their spiral-bound design. The material is engineered in such a fashion as to allow
only one-way flow through the system. As such, the spiral-bound design does not allow for back
pulsing with water or air agitation to scour its surface and remove solids. Since accumulated
material cannot be removed from the membrane surface systems, they are highly susceptible to
fouling (loss of production capacity). Therefore, pretreatment is a necessity for any reverse osmosis

11
or nano filtration system. Pretreatment in sea water reverse osmosis systems has four major
components:

• Screening of solids: Solids within the water must be removed and the water treated to prevent
fouling of the membranes by fine-particle or biological growth, and reduce the risk of damage
to high-pressure pump components.
• Cartridge filtration: Generally, string-wound polypropylene filters are used to remove particles
of 1–5 µm diameter.
• Dosing: Oxidizing biocides, such as chlorine, are added to kill bacteria, followed by bisulfite
dosing to deactivate the chlorine, which can destroy a thin-film composite membrane. There are
also biofouling inhibitors, which do not kill bacteria, but simply prevent them from growing
slime on the membrane surface and plant walls.
• Prefiltration pH adjustment: If the pH, hardness and the alkalinity in the feedwater result in a
scaling tendency when they are concentrated in the reject stream, acid is dosed to maintain
carbonates in their soluble carbonic acid form.
CO 2− + H O+ = HCO − + H O
3 3 3 2

HCO3− + H 3O+ = H 2CO 3+ H 2O

• Carbonic acid cannot combine with calcium to form calcium carbonate scale. Calcium
carbonate scaling tendency is estimated using the Langelier saturation index. Adding too much
sulfuric acid to control carbonate scales may result in calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, or
strontium sulfate scale formation on the reverse osmosis membrane.
• Prefiltration antiscalants: Scale inhibitors (also known as antiscalants) prevent formation of all
scales compared to acid, which can only prevent formation of calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate scales. In addition to inhibiting carbonate and phosphate scales, antiscalants inhibit
sulfate and fluoride scales and disperse colloids and metal oxides. Despite claims that
antiscalants can inhibit silica formation, no concrete evidence proves that silica polymerization
can be inhibited by antiscalants. Antiscalants can control acid-soluble scales at a fraction of the
dosage required to control the same scale using sulfuric acid.[21]

• Some small-scale desalination units use 'beach wells'; they are usually drilled on the seashore
in close vicinity to the ocean. These intake facilities are relatively simple to build and the
seawater they collect is pretreated via slow filtration through the subsurface sand/seabed
formations in the area of source water extraction. Raw seawater collected using beach wells is
often of better quality in terms of solids, silt, oil and grease, natural organic contamination and

12
 aquatic microorganisms, compared to open seawater intakes. Sometimes, beach intakes may

The layers of a membrane

The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel with a membrane that allows
also yield source water of lower salinity.

High pressure pump

The high pressure pump supplies the pressure needed to push water through the membrane,
even as the membrane rejects the passage of salt through it. Typical pressures for brackish
water range from 1.6 to 2.6 MPa (225 to 376 psi). In the case of seawater, they range from
5.5 to 8 MPa (800 to 1,180 psi). This requires a large amount of energy. Where energy
recovery is used, part of the high pressure pump's work is done by the energy recovery
device, reducing the system energy inputs. Membrane assembly
feedwater to be pressed against it. The membrane must be strong enough to withstand
whatever pressure is applied against it. Reverse-osmosis membranes are made in a variety
of configurations, with the two most common configurations being spiral-wound and
hollow-fiber.

Only a part of the saline feed water pumped into the membrane assembly passes through
the membrane with the salt removed. The remaining "concentrate" flow passes along the
saline side of the membrane to flush away the concentrated salt solution. The percentage of
desalinated water produced versus the saline water feed flow is known as the "recovery
ratio". This varies with the salinity of the feed water and the system design parameters:
typically 20% for small seawater systems, 40% – 50% for larger seawater systems, and
80% – 85% for brackish water. The concentrate flow is at typically only 3 bar / 50 psi less
than the feed pressure, and thus still carries much of the high-pressure pump input energy.

The desalinated water purity is a function of the feed water salinity, membrane selection
and recovery ratio. To achieve higher purity a second pass can be added which generally
requires re-pumping. Purity expressed as total dissolved solids typically varies from 100 to
400 parts per million (ppm or mg/litre)on a seawater feed. A level of 500 ppm is generally

13
 accepted as the upper limit for drinking water, while the US Food and Drug Administration
classifies mineral water as water containing at least 250 ppm.

Energy recovery
Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more. Much of the high
pressure pump input energy can be recovered from the concentrate flow, and the increasing
efficiency of energy recovery devices has greatly reduced the energy needs of reverse
osmosis desalination. Devices used, in order of invention, are:

• Turbine or Pelton wheel: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, connected to
the high pressure pump drive shaft to provide part of its input power. Positive
displacement axial piston motors have also been used in place of turbines on smaller
systems.
• Turbocharger: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, directly connected to a
centrifugal pump which boosts the high pressure pump output pressure, reducing the
pressure needed from the high pressure pump and thereby its energy input, similar in
construction principle to car engine turbochargers.

hematics of a reverse osmosis desalination system using a pressure exchange r

1
: Sea water inflow, .
2 Fresh water flow (40%)
:
,

3: Concentrate flow (60%),

4: Sea water flow (60%),

5: Concentrate (drain),

A: Pump flow (40%),

B: Circulation pump,

C: Osmosis hanger unit with membrane,

D: Pressure exc
14
 • Pressure exchanger: using the pressurized concentrate flow, in direct contact or via a
piston, to pressurize part of the membrane feed flow to near concentrate flow pressure.
A boost pump then raises this pressure by typically 3 bar / 50 psi to the membrane feed
pressure. This reduces flow needed from the high-pressure pump by an amount equal
to the concentrate flow, typically 60%, and thereby its energy input. These are widely
used on larger low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m3 or less energy
consumption.

• Energy-recovery pump: a reciprocating piston pump having the pressurized concentrate

flow applied to one side of each piston to help drive the membrane feed flow from the
opposite side. These are the simplest energy recovery devices to apply, combining the
high pressure pump and energy recovery in a single self-regulating unit. These are
widely used on smaller low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m3 or less
energy consumption.

• Batch operation: Reverse-osmosis systems run with a fixed volume of fluid

(thermodynamically a closed system) do not suffer from wasted energy in the brine
stream, as the energy to pressurize a virtually incompressible fluid (water) is negligible.
Such systems have the potential to reach second-law efficiencies of 60%.[1]

Remineralisation and pH adjustment[edit]

The desalinated water is "stabilized" to protect downstream pipelines and storage, usually
by adding lime or caustic soda to prevent corrosion of concrete-lined surfaces. Liming
material is used to adjust pH between 6.8 and 8.1 to meet the potable water specifications,
15
 primarily for effective disinfection and for corrosion control. Remineralisation may be
needed to replace minerals removed from the water by desalination. Although this process
has proved to be costly and not very convenient if it is intended to meet mineral demand by
humans and plants. The very same mineral demand that freshwater sources provided
previously. For instance water from Israel's national water carrier typically contains
dissolved magnesium levels of 20 to 25 mg/liter, while water from the Ashkelon plant has
no magnesium. After farmers used this water, magnesium-deficiency symptoms appeared
in crops, including tomatoes, basil, and flowers, and had to be remedied by fertilization.
Current Israeli drinking water standards set a minimum calcium level of 20 mg/liter. The
postdesalination treatment in the Ashkelon plant uses sulfuric acid to dissolve calcite
(limestone), resulting in calcium concentration of 40 to 46 mg/liter. This is still lower than
the 45 to 60 mg/liter found in typical Israeli fresh water.

Disinfection
Post-treatment consists of preparing the water for distribution after filtration. Reverse
osmosis is an effective barrier to pathogens, but post-treatment provides secondary
protection against compromised membranes and downstream problems. Disinfection by
means of ultra violet (UV) lamps (sometimes called germicidal or bactericidal) may be
employed to sterilize pathogens which bypassed the reverse-osmosis process. Chlorination
or chloramination (chlorine and ammonia) protects against pathogens which may have
lodged in the distribution system downstream, such as from new construction, backwash,
compromised pipes, etc.

2.3 Working of RO (Reverse Osmosis) :

Reverse Osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on the salt side of
the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO membrane, leaving almost all (around
95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject stream. The amount of required pressure depends
on the salt concentration of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure
is required to overcome the osmotic pressure.

16
The desalinated water that is de-mineralized or de-ionized, is called permeate (or product) water.
The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants that did not pass through the RO
membrane is called the reject (or concentrate) stream. From the data collected from Reverse
Osmosis System manufacturers, normally 40-60% water is rejected during the Reverse Osmosis
process.
Reverse Osmosis membrane has a tight pore structure (less than 0.0001 micron) that effectively
removes up to 99% of all contaminants and impurities such as total dissolved solids, chemicals,
bacteria and viruses from drinking water. Anti-microbial filters used in Reverse Osmosis also help
to remove unwanted odors, colors and tastes from water.
Reverse Osmosis Systems have a very high effectiveness in removing protozoa, bacteria and viruses
in comparison to other systems. Reverse Osmosis Systems can also remove common chemical
contaminants (metal ions, aqueous salts), including sodium, chloride, copper, chromium, lead and
can reduce arsenic, fluoride, radium, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, nitrate, and
phosphorous.

17
Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles, colloids,
organics, bacteria and pyrogens/pathogens from the feed water (although an RO system should not
be relied upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses). Reverse osmosis removes impurities by
two distinct mechanisms. One is based on resistance to passage of ions, due to their electrical
charge. This mechanism is responsible for removal of ionic impurities. Even the smallest molecules
are rejected if they have ionic charge. The efficiency of removal by this mechanism is in the range
of 96-99%, but this depends on the particular membrane and the ionic charge. The other mechanism
of impurity removal is based on the ultrafiltration effect, in which the small pores of the reverse
osmosis membranes act like molecular filters. The cut-off molecular size is approximately 14-20
nanometers. Any impurity whose molecular size is above the cut-off point will be rejected almost
completely. Any impurity whose molecular size is below the cut-off point will pass through almost
totally. Few organics have molecular size below 14-20 nanometers. Examples are: methanol,
formaldehyde, formic acid, and ethanol.

Since RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their size and charge, many gases like carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and ethane that are not ionized (charged) also have very low
molecular weight will pass through reverse osmosis. Any contaminant that has a molecular weight
greater than 200 is likely rejected by a properly running RO system. Because an RO system does
not remove gases, the permeate water can have a slightly lower pH level depending on CO2 levels
in the feed water as the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid. Some pesticides, solvents and volatile
organic chemicals (VOCs) are also not removed by RO.

2.4 Differences between RO and UV:

The most common type of purifier’s are Reverse Osmosis (RO) and UV water purifiers. It is
assumed that RO water purifiers are better than the UV purifiers. RO gives high level of purification
18
while the UV purifier are combined with various forms of filtration as UV light can kill bacteria
and viruses.

RO systems
In this purifier, water is purified using the RO technology that is opposite the osmosis technology.
Impurities like dissolved solids in water are removed. But there are less chances of reducing
invisible bacteria when compared to UV water purifier.

The RO purifier has a membrane that filters the dissolved solids and invisibles particles like
bacteria. It can reduce the germs in the water and is therefore a water cleansing process. With this
purifier, filtering of chemicals and microbes protect health of every family member, as children are
more prone to get infected to foreign particles.

The RO system moves the molecules from a region of higher solute concentration to lower solute
concentration by using the pressure of incoming water across the membrane and leaving the
impurities behind.

Osmosis allows the water molecules to flow across a semipermeable membrane from a low solute
concentration to high solute concentration.

As mentioned, that RO works the reverse of osmosis, so it moves the water molecules from high
concentration to low concentration with the pressure of incoming water that push across the
membrane. The left out water and particles are discharged through other outlet.

Ultra violet system(UV system):

These system work with UV rays where the germs and microbes are destroyed with the help of UV
rays after the RO stage and gives pure and healthy water. This system can kill harmful contaminants
and can be combined with other forms of filtration by reducing chlorine. The UV water purifier
makes water borne diseases inactive by exposing them to UV rays. It uses a UV light source which
is mounted in such a manner that when water passes through in a flow is exposed to UV rays,
penetrate the cells of bacteria and destroy their ability to reproduce. The germs are destroyed with
UV rays after the RO stage and gives pure drinking water.

19
RO water purifier compared to UF water purifier

RO and UF are both membranes. The difference between the two is in the size of the filtering holes.
In an RO membrane the filtering holes are so small that it can even filter out salt molecules from
the water. In the UF membrane the holes are larger and so it cannot filter out salt molecules. But
the UF membrane filtering holes are still smaller than the smallest of living organisms, Viruses.

The advantage of the UF water purifier is that it works without electricity and is sure to filter out
any disease causing germs, including the smallest of viruses. The UF membrane is also so small
that it will filter out all dust and other particles and make the water safe to drink.

The only problem with UF water purifier is that in case any harmful dissolved salts are in the water,
it cannot filter it out. Only an RO water purifier can filter out harmful dissolved salts from the water.
That is why the RO water purifier is considered the best type of water purifier.
Specification of Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant:
The technical specification of Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant can generally be as under or as decided
by tendering authority.

GENERAL FEATURES:

i) The system shall be completely assembled, pre-piped, pre-wired and preferably skid mounted.

ii) The system shall have microprocessor based control panel for ease of operation and inbuilt
process logic.

iii) The system shall have auto start/ stop based on water level in the supply tank.

iv) The system shall be equipped with Electrical panel/ MCB for plant protection and shall have
integrated raw water pump with the unit.

v) The system shall have integrated pretreatment modules for removal of suspended solids along
with pressure gauge.

20
vi) The system shall have inbuilt protection to high pressure pump by way of low/high pressure
switch.

vii) The system shall have the membrane of General Electric (GE) or Hydranutics make. Glycerin
filled Stainless Steel pressure gauge shall be provided for durability. Online rotameter shall be
provided for measuring flow. Blending cartridge shall be provided to adjust taste/TDS and
followed by UV disinfection for total safety. System should have automatic backwashing of
filters.

viii) The system shall be capable of working 24hrs.x365 days by using the semi treated water
provided through Borewell / Municipal water supply.

ix) Recovery of water (i.e. component of treated water) shall be in range of 40%-60%. If desired,
the waste/ rejected water may be separately stored by using suitable pump. This water may be
used for cleaning, gardening or toilet purpose.

2.5 RO Membrane Cleaning:

RO membranes will inevitably require periodic cleaning, anywhere from 1 to 3 times a year
depending on the feed water quality. As a general rule, if the normalized permeate flow has
decreased by 15% then it is time to clean the RO membranes. There are several different membrane
cleaning methods, such as forward flush, backward flush and air flush. Chemicals may also be
added in order to aid flushing.

Forward flush
When forward flush is applied, membranes are flushed with feed water in forward direction. The
feed water or permeate flows through the system more rapidly than during the production phase.
Because of the more rapid flow and the resulting turbulence, particles that are absorbed to the
membrane are released and discharged. The particles that are absorbed to membrane pores are
however not released. These particles can only be removed through backward flushing.

21
Backward Flush
Backward Flush is a reversed filtration process. Permeate is flushed through the feed water side of
the system under pressure. When backward flush is applied the pores of a membrane are flushed
inside out. The pressure on the permeate side of the membrane is higher than the pressure within
the membranes, causing the pores to be cleaned.

2.6 Following items/parts may require replacement during the service period of Reverse Osmosis
(RO)Plant:

S.No. Description of item Present market cost Frequency of

replacement

1. Membrane Rs. 22,170/- per 1 Year (normally)

candle

2. Micron Filter Rs. 260/- per candle During every

servicing i.e. 6 times
annually
3. Anti-scalant Chemical Rs. 6,620/- per pack 1 Year (normally)

22
2.7 Solar Panel:

Photovoltaic Cells: Converting Photons to Electrons

The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also called photovoltaic (PV) cells,
which as the name implies (photo meaning "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"), convert
sunlight directly into electricity. A module is a group of cells connected electrically and packaged
into a frame (more commonly known as a solar panel), which can then be grouped into larger solar
arrays.

Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which is
currently used most commonly. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is
absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed light is
transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely.

Solar Panel Setup:

The use of batteries requires the installation of another component called a charge
controller. Batteries last a lot longer if they aren't overcharged or drained too much. That's what a
charge controller does. Once the batteries are fully charged, the charge controller doesn't let current
from the PV modules continue to flow into them. Similarly, once the batteries have been drained to
a certain predetermined level, controlled by measuring battery voltage, many charge controllers will
not allow more current to be drained from the batteries until they have been recharged. The use of
a charge controller is essential for long battery life.

Categories of Solar Panel:

POLYCRYSTALLINE MODULES

Polycrystalline (or multicrystalline) modules are composed of a number of different crystals,

fused together to make a single cell (hence the term 'multi'). They have long been the most popular

23
type of solar module, due to the lower cost in manufacturing the cells. Recently, the cost of
monocrystalline has come down, making them more popular in the residential market.

As you can see in the image (left), the construction of these different crystals gives the solar
panel a visible crystal grain, or a 'metal flake effect'. They are slightly cheaper to produce than
Mono panels, but are also less efficient (anywhere from 0.5% to 2% less efficient depending on the
manufacturer). This is because the crystal grain boundaries can trap electrons, which results in lower
efficiency.

The BP Solar modules that EnviroGroup installs are approximately 13.5% efficient
(meaning that if 100 Watts of potential solar energy strikes the panel, it will produce approximately
13.5 Watts of solar electricity).

These panels are very popular in Australia, and offer a good balance of value vs
performance.

MONOCRYSTALLINE MODULES

24
 Monocrystalline, as the name suggests, is constructed using one single crystal, cut from
ingots. This gives the solar panel a uniform appearance across the entire module. These large single
crystals are exceedingly rare, and the process of 'recrystallising' the cell is more expensive to
produce.

This technology is now the most widely available in Australia, with the cost of producing
monocrystalline cells coming down every year. They are still more expensive than polycrystalline,
but can be up to 2% more efficient. EnviroGroup uses SunOwe (14.5%) and Suntech (16.5%)
monocrystalline solar modules for our installations.

Suntech have recently made some exciting developments in monocrystalline efficiency,

with the patent pending Pluto technology. Unique texturing technology, with lower reflectivity,
ensures more sunlight can be absorbed throughout the day even without direct solar radiation, and
thinner metal lines on the top surface reduces shading loss. Importantly, the process was developed
at the University of New South Wales, and has achieved lab efficiency of 25%, and verified
efficiency of approx 19%. These panels will be more expensive, but will offer far more solar
electricity for less area of solar panel.

AMORPHOUS MODULES

25
 Amorphous (or 'thin film') solar modules have recently become very popular in the
Australian market. They offer better performance in higher temperatures, and have some benefits
in shady locations. However, the benefits have been greatly exaggerated by some suppliers, and it
is important to weigh that up against the negatives of thin film technology.

The manufacture of these panels is highly automated - silicon is sprayed onto the substrate
as a gas (called 'vapour deposition'), which means that the silicon wafer is approx 1 micron thick
(compared to approx 200 microns for mono and poly). This means that the panel uses less energy
to produce therefore will pay itself back from an energy point of view in a shorter time. However,
it also means that the panels are far less efficient than mono or poly (approx 5-6% efficient).

The electrical connections are etched by a laser. Etching these as long horizontal cells across
the panel makes these less susceptible from being blocked by shade, but it's important to recognise
that there will still be a significant drop-off in performance when the panel is shaded.

One of the biggest selling points of thin film is the performance in hotter temperatures.
Unfortunately this has been misrepresented by some suppliers of thin film panels. As an example,
if you live in Melbourne, and you are shown a graph that indicates the performance of thin film
panels in Alice Springs, it's obvious that those panels won't provide the same advantage in a cooler
climate.

26
2.8 Advantages of Solar Power Generation

The greatest advantage of solar power generation is perhaps its minimal environmental
impact. It requires no water for cooling of the system, thus creating no large heat imbalance. Also,
no by-products are produced that are detrimental to the environment. Another advantage of solar
power generation is that bulky mechanical generators are not needed. The process of electricity
generation is quick and the arrays are available in a variety of sizes according to the specific use.

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts solar energy into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to
capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the source is
unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panel, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays.

Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self-power sustainable in the
sun. There are solar cell phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can
adopt for daily use

Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

27
The schematic symbol of a solar cell

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi conducting materials, such
as silicon.

2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow
through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, only allow
the electrons to move in a single direction. The complementary positive charges that are also created
(like bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar
panel.

3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.

2.9 Solar energy:

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since
ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary
solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for
most of the available renewable energy on earth Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar
energy is used.
Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaic. Solar energy's
uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating
and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, day lighting,
solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. To harvest
the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.[6] In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than
the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass.
28
The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about
twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil,
natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be sufficient
to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effect
on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into biofuel
production. As intermittent resources, solar and wind raise other issues
Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a
geographical location the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available. Solar
plate is a light sensitized steel backed polymer material used by artists as an alternative to hazardous
printing techniques. It is a simple, safer, and faster approach than traditional etching and relief
printing. It does not use grounds, acids or solvents. it is exposed with u.v. light (the sun) and
developed with ordinary tap water.

Fig: Solar cell/ plate

The opaque materials in the form of non-water based pigments, or... it may be utilized by
exposing the plate through a transparent film with artwork on it. The film may be created by
drawing on acetate, photocopying or scanning and printing on film, or darkroom techniques with
kodalith a positive transparency is for printing as an etching; a negative transparency is for printing
a relief impression. Photovoltaic (PV) cells utilize semiconductor technology to convert solar
radiation directly into an electric current which can be used immediately or stored for future use.
PV cells are often grouped in the form of “modules” to produce arrays which have the capability to
produce power for orbiting satellites and other spacecraft. Recently, with the continual decline of
manufacturing costs (declining 3% to 5% per year in recent years), uses of PV technology have
grown to include home power generation, and grid-connected electricity generation. Installations
of PV systems have also been increasing due in large part to comprehensive incentive programs
which help reduce the costs of these systems and also allow users to sell excess electricity back to

29
the public grid (feed-in). Solar panels generate electricity using the same principles of electronics
as chemical batteries or standard electrical outlets. With solar panels, it's all about the free flow of
electrons through a circuit.

To understand how solar panels generate electrical power, it might help to take a quick trip
back to high school chemistry class. The basic element of solar panels is the same element that
helped create the computer revolution -- pure silicon. When silicon is stripped of all impurities, it
makes a ideal neutral platform for the transmission of electrons. Silicon also has some atomic-level
properties which make it even more attractive for the creation of solar panels.

• This cement helps to prevent the panel from becoming too hot, though solar energy panels
can still overheat. Silicon solar energy panels are constructed differently than crystalline
solar energy panels.
• While years of free energy and decreased dependence on fossil fuels may sound great, no
examination of solar energy pros and cons is complete without a look at the price, which is
considered the largest barrier to conversion to solar energy use. Solar energy panels and
cells are very costly, and several may be required to power a home, business, or vehicle.

2.9.1Advantages:

1. Solar energy is free of pollution.

2. The plant requires little maintenance or help after setup.
3. It is economical.
4. When it is connected to the grid, solar energy can overtake the highest cost electricity at
peak demand and can also reduce grid loading, apart from getting rid of the need for local
battery power in darkness.

2.9.2 Disadvantages:

1. It is available only by day and not when the sky is cloudy, thereby reducing the chances of
it being totally reliable and requiring storage facilities.
2. It needs a backup power plant to be kept hot and to replace solar power stations as they stop
producing energy.
3. Keeping backup plants hot includes an energy cost which includes coal burning.
4. Places located at high altitudes or those that are often cloudy are not targets for solar power
use.

30
 5. It can only be used to power transport vehicles by converting energy into another form of
energy and recurring an energy penalty.
6. Solar cell technologies produce DC power which needs to be converted to AC power,
incurring an energy penalty.

Solar energy can be used to generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells and concentrated solar
power, apart from other means. You can use solar power in the house for domestic use.

2.9.3 Applications of solar technology:

Average insulation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world
primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insulation for
most people is from 150 to 300 W/m² or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m²/day.
Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all
renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the
way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels,
pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting
materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and
referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of
energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the
need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies Solar cells can
also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self-power sustainable in the sun. There are
solar cell phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that people can adopt for daily
use.

Solar power plants can face high installation costs, although this has been decreasing due to the
learning curve. Developing countries have started to build solar power plants, replacing other
sources of energy generation.

31
2.10 Battery:
12V Rechargeable Battery
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It
comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator. It is known as a
secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable
batteries come in many different shapes and sizes, ranging frombutton cells to megawatt systems
connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of
chemicals are commonly used, including: lead–acid,nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride
(NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable
batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types.
Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost but can be recharged very cheaply and used many
times.

Usage and applications

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light
vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools,
and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric
vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime.

Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use; newer low selfdischarge
NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically charged at the factory to about
70% of their rated capacity before shipping.

32
Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store
electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing
power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries
during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical
demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps
amortizethe cost of generators over more hours of operation.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demands for
rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non rechargeable.

Charging and discharging

Further information: Battery charger

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in
the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the
electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the
electrochemical reaction, as in lead–acid cells.

Diagram of the charging of a secondary cell battery.

33
Battery charger

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
A solar-powered charger for rechargeable AA batteries
chargerusing AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power
outlet. Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source.
The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source
and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the
voltage output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much higher: the greater
the difference between the power source and the battery's voltage capacity, the faster the charging
process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and damaging the battery.

Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers
without voltage- or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14
hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours,
depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have
multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature,
etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs.
The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating.

34
Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The
C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20, while typical charging and discharging may
occur at C/2. (In practice, charging and discharging batteries incurs losses, so the "C" rate is more
of an approximation.) In general, the higher the current relative to battery capacity, the worse the
effective storage capacity and overall life of the battery will be. Flow batteries, used for specialized
applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid.

Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc–carbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with
use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than
alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.

Reverse charging
Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further,
rather than charge it, is called reverse charging; this damages cells. Reverse charging can occur
under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:

• When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
• When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.

When one cell completely discharges ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current
through the discharged cell. Instead of supplying a forward voltage to the load, the discharged cell
becomes part of the load and presents a reverse voltage to the rest of the circuit. This is known as
"cell reversal", and can happen even to a weak cell that is not fully discharged. If the battery drain
current is high enough, the weak cell's internal resistance can create a reverse voltage that is greater
than the cell's remaining internal forward voltage. This results in the reversal of the weak cell's
polarity while the current is flowing through the cells. "Pushing" current through a discharged cell
causes undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to
the cell.

In critical applications using Ni-Cad batteries, such as in aircraft, each cell is individually
discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal,
then charging the cells in series.

Depth of discharge
Main article: Depth of discharge

Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour

capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. Seeing as the usable capacity of a battery system depends
on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge
35
must be qualified to show the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and
aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of charge cycles. Generally
a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on
each cycle.[5]

Common rechargeable battery types:

Nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd)
Created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899, it used nickel oxide hydroxide and
metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the
European Union in 2004. Nickel–cadmium batteries have been almost completely superseded by
nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.

Nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH)

First commercial types were available in 1989.[20] These are now a common consumer and
industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of
cadmium.

Lithium-ion battery
The technology behind the lithium-ion battery has not yet fully reached maturity. However,
the batteries are the type of choice in many consumer electronics and have one of the best energyto-
mass ratios and a very slow loss of charge when not in use.

Lithium-ion polymer battery

These batteries are light in weight and can be made in any shape desired.

Less common types:

Lithium sulfur battery:
A new battery chemistry developed by Sion Power since 1994.[21] Claims superior energy to weight
than current lithium technologies on the market. Also lower material cost may help this product reach the
mass market.

Thin film battery (TFB):

An emerging refinement of the lithium ion technology by Excellatron The developers claim a very
large increase in recharge cycles, around 40,000 cycles. Higher charge and discharge rates. At least 5C charge
rate. Sustained 60C discharge, and 1000Cpeak discharge rate. And also a significant increase in specific
energy, and energy density.Also Infinite Power Solutions makes thin film batteries (TFB) for micro-
electronic applications, which are flexible, rechargeable, solid-state lithium batteries.

36
 CHAPTER 3: ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

Advantages:
• Water purification through renewable source like Solar
• High efficient system
• Low power consumption
• Easy installation
• Less maintenance issues

Applications:
• Domestic or Industry purpose
• Very useful in coastal area peoples

37
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Result:
After the calculation and survey we design such system which fulfill our requirements and made
solar powered water purifier (RO), this system consisting equipment such as solar panel, battery
backup, charge controller, RO unit, cables, UV tube with DC UV choke.

This system does not require inverter because whole system works on DC that’s why inversion
losses are reduces also cost of inverter is reduced. This system works in whole day as well as night
also because battery backup is given to the system. In this system input is given from solar panels
and then fed to the charge controller. Battery also connected to the charge controller to set the
references voltage of the system. Here our system is works on 24 Volt DC that’s why we connect
two 12 V batteries in series to set 24 V reference voltage, charge controller regulate the voltage of
solar panel to the battery which varies in day due to position of sun.

Conclusion:
This work of operating is simple assembly which is a good prototype to have a portable source of
RO purified water this has less weight. And smaller size. And testing calculation showed that this
is quite a good product to have in situations of floods and remote areas where the water purification
is needed to be done. Future purifiers may be less costly and convenient to use. This paper conclude
fully utilization of renewableenergy by using small RO unit which reduce energy cost and totally
independent from grid network.

38
 Images with Geo tags

39
40
41
42
43
 References

Design and economics of RO seawater desalination

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0011916496000811

Advances in seawater desalination technologies

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0011916407006789

Economics of seawater desalination by reverse osmosis

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0011916494001189

Thermodynamic and thermoeconomic analyses of seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant with
energy recovery
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544213009997

A Review of the Water Desalination Systems Integrated with Renewable Energy

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610217301686

44
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 4, pp 9103-9107 April 2024

International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews

Journal homepage: www.ijrpr.com ISSN 2582-7421

Purification of Ground Water into RO Purified Water by Using Solar

Power

B. Sumanth, G. Krupasahithya, G. Teja Kumar, S. Wassemuddin, A. Thippeswamy, G. Sudhakar,

B. Ramesh1
1Guide,Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering , Sanskrithi School Of Engineering College ,Puttaparthi , Sri Sathya Sai (district),Andhra pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT:-

In our world access to clean drinking water is a fundamental human right, yet many regions face challenges due to groundwater contamination. This study proposes
a solar-powered purification system to address this issue, focusing on the conversion of contaminated groundwater into portable water by using reverse osmosis
(RO) technology. The proposed system harnesses solar energy to power the purification process, offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution. Solar
panels are employed to generate electricity, providing the necessary energy for the RO filtration system. This approach reduces reliance on conventional energy
sources and minimizes the system's carbon footprint.

The purification process involves several stages, including pre-treatment to remove larger contaminants, membrane filtration through RO to eliminate dissolved
impurities, and post-treatment to ensure water quality meets drinking standards. By leveraging solar power, the system operates efficiently even in off-grid areas,
making it suitable for remote or underserved communities. The effectiveness of the solar-powered RO system is evaluated through laboratory experiments and field
trials. Parameters such as water quality, purification efficiency, and energy consumption are monitored to assess performance and optimize system design.

The results demonstrate the viability and efficacy of the proposed approach in purifying groundwater into safe drinking water. Furthermore, the use of solar energy
enhances the system's resilience and sustainability, contributing to long-term water security and public health improvement in affected regions.

Keywords:-Solar power, Groundwater purification, Reverse osmosis, Drinking water, Sustainability.

I – INTRODUCTION

Water is essential for life. The amount of fresh water on earth is limited, and with the rapid industrialization, its quality is under constant pressure.
Preserving the quality of raw water is important not only for the drinking-water supply, but also for food production and other water uses. Water quality
can be compromised by the presence of infectious agents, toxic chemicals, and radiological hazards.

Reverse Osmosis is extensively applied in the water treatment industry as well as residential purposes. These applications include both the industrial
sector as well as (to a lesser extent) the municipal sector. Reverse osmosis for the production of drinkable water is still not widely applied despite high
feed TDS and low flow rate requirements being the prevailing characteristics for drinkable applications. The exception is of course the production of
drinkable water from seawater by reverse osmosis, but this has thus far found limited application in India.

Here's a basic introduction of the system:

Solar panel:

Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, are devices that convert sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. These panels are
made up of multiple solar cells, typically composed of silicon, which absorb photons from sunlight and generate an electric current.

The basic structure of a solar panel consists of several layers:

1. Solar Cells: These are the heart of the panel. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which generate electricity when
exposed to sunlight. When sunlight strikes the solar cell, it excites electrons, creating an electric current.

2. Anti-reflective Coating: This layer reduces reflection and increases light absorption, maximizing the efficiency of the solar cells.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 4, pp 9103-9107 April 2024 9104

3. Front Contact: Typically made of a thin layer of metal, this contact layer collects the electrons generated by the solar cells and transfers them out
of the panel as usable electricity.

4. Encapsulation: Solar cells are encapsulated between layers of protective material, usually tempered glass on the front and a durable polymer on
the back, to shield them from environmental damage and ensure longevity.

5. Back Sheet: The back sheet provides insulation and protection against moisture, ensuring the durability of the panel.

6. Frame: A sturdy frame surrounds the solar panel, providing structural support and facilitating installation.

Battery:

A 24-volt battery is a type of rechargeable battery that provides a nominal voltage of 24 volts when fully charged. These batteries are commonly used in
various applications, including automotive, marine, renewable energy systems, and industrial equipment.

Reverse Osmosis (RO) pump:

A Reverse Osmosis (RO) pump is a critical component of a reverse osmosis water filtration system. It is responsible for pressurizing the feed water and
forcing it through the semi-permeable membrane to separate impurities from the water. Here are some key points about RO pumps:

Function: The primary function of an RO pump is to create the necessary pressure to overcome the osmotic pressure and push water molecules through
the RO membrane. This pressure forces water through the membrane, leaving behind contaminants such as dissolved solids, salts, heavy metals, and
microorganisms.

FIG: 1. process of reverse osmosis

Types: There are two main types of RO pumps: electric and non-electric. Electric pumps use a motor to generate pressure, while non-electric pumps rely
on hydraulic power, typically from water pressure in the incoming feed water line or from a separate pump.

Pressure: The pressure generated by an RO pump is typically measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or bars. The required pressure depends on factors
such as the quality of the feed water, the type and condition of the RO membrane, and the desired flow rate and rejection rate.

Efficiency: The efficiency of an RO pump is important for the overall performance and energy consumption of the RO system. High-efficiency pumps
can deliver the required pressure with minimal energy consumption, reducing operating costs and environmental impact.

Installation: RO pumps are typically installed downstream of pre-filtration stages in an RO system. They may be integrated into the system's pressure
vessel or installed as a separate component, depending on the system design and configuration.

Maintenance: Proper maintenance of an RO pump is essential to ensure reliable operation and longevity. This may include periodic inspection, cleaning,
lubrication (for electric pumps), and replacement of worn or damaged parts. Regular maintenance helps prevent downtime and ensures the continued
effectiveness of the RO system.

Overall, the RO pump plays a crucial role in the operation of a reverse osmosis water filtration system, enabling the production of clean, purified water
for various applications, including drinking water, industrial processes, and wastewater treatment.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 4, pp 9103-9107 April 2024 9105

Carbon Filter:

A carbon filter, also known as activated carbon filter or charcoal filter, is a type of filtration system that utilizes activated carbon to remove impurities
from air or water. Here are some key points about carbon filters:

1. Activated Carbon: Activated carbon is a highly porous form of carbon with a large surface area, which makes it effective at adsorbing (not
absorbing) various impurities. The activation process involves treating carbon with steam or chemicals to create a network of pores that can
trap contaminants.

2. Filtration Mechanism: Carbon filters work through a process called adsorption, where contaminants adhere to the surface of the activated
carbon. The porous structure of the carbon provides a large surface area for impurities to adhere to, effectively removing them from the air or
water passing through the filter.

3. Removal of Contaminants: Carbon filters can remove a wide range of contaminants, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), chlorine,
odors, taste, and some dissolved gases. They are commonly used to improve the taste and odor of drinking water and to remove chemicals and
odors from indoor air.

4. Types of Carbon Filters: There are different types of carbon filters designed for specific applications:

 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Consists of loose granules of activated carbon, commonly used in point-of-use water filters
and whole-house filtration systems.

 Carbon Block Filters: Compressed blocks of activated carbon, offering higher filtration efficiency and longer lifespan compared
to GAC filters. They are often used in under-sink water filters and refrigerator water filters.

 Impregnated Carbon: Carbon filters may be impregnated with other substances, such as silver or potassium permanganate, to
enhance their ability to remove specific contaminants or inhibit bacterial growth.

5. Maintenance: Regular maintenance is important to ensure the effectiveness of carbon filters. Over time, the pores of the activated carbon
may become filled with contaminants, reducing filtration efficiency. Depending on usage and water quality, carbon filters may need to be
replaced every few months to a year.

6. Applications: Carbon filters are used in various applications, including residential water filtration, commercial and industrial air purification,
aquarium filtration, automotive cabin air filters, and respiratory masks.

Overall, carbon filters offer an efficient and versatile solution for removing impurities from air and water, improving both quality and safety for various
applications.

Processes of drinking water purification:

Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking
and cooking. Such systems typically include a number of steps:

• a sediment filter to trap particles, including rust and calcium carbonate

• optionally, a second sediment filter with smaller pores

• an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine, which will attack and degrade a thin film composite membrane

• a reverse osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane

• optionally, a second carbon filter to capture those chemicals not removed by the reverse osmosis membrane

• optionally an ultraviolet lamp for sterilizing any microbes that may escape filtering by the reverse osmosis membrane The latest developments in the
sphere include nano materials and membranes.

In some systems, the carbon prefilter is omitted, and a cellulose triacetate membrane is used. CTA (cellulose triacetate) is a paper by-product membrane
bonded to a synthetic layer and is made to allow contact with chlorine in the water.

These require a small amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is
85– 95%.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 4, pp 9103-9107 April 2024 9106

FIG:1.model of the RO purifier with solar panel

Advantages:

• Water purification through renewable source like Solar

• High efficient system

• Low power consumption

• Easy installation

• Less maintenance issues

Applications:

• Domestic or Industry purpose

• Very useful in coastal area peoples

Result:

After the calculation and survey we design such system which fulfill our requirements and made solar powered water purifier (RO), this system consisting
equipment such as solar panel, battery backup, charge controller, RO unit, cables, UV tube with DC UV choke.

This system does not require inverter because whole system works on DC that’s why inversion losses are reduces also cost of inverter is reduced. This
system works in whole day as well as night also because battery backup is given to the system. In this system input is given from solar panels and then
fed to the charge controller. Battery also connected to the charge controller to set the references voltage of the system. Here our system is works on 24
Volt DC that’s why we connect two 12 V batteries in series to set 24 V reference voltage, charge controller regulate the voltage of solar panel to the
battery which varies in day due to position of sun. The main function of charge controller is to regulate the voltage which fed to battery and also prevent
battery from over charging. In our charge controller protection is given such as short circuit protection, overload protection, overvoltage protection,
polarity protection. The charge controller number of output terminals such as solar terminal, battery terminal and load terminal. The load terminal of
charge controller is connected to RO Unit. Total system consume 30.2 W and operated at 12 V DC.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 5, no 4, pp 9103-9107 April 2024 9107

Conclusion:

This work of operating is simple assembly which is a good prototype to have a portable source of RO purified water this has less weight. And smaller
size. And testing calculation showed that this is quite a good product to have in situations of floods and remote areas where the water purification is
needed to be done. Future purifiers may be less costly and convenient to use. This paper conclude fully utilization of renewableenergy by using small RO
unit which reduce energy cost and totally independent from grid network.