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ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

ENGR. LEA S. CAGUIAT, MSc

Instructor I
Institute for Climate Change and Environmental Management
College of Science, Central Luzon State University

I. INTRODUCTION

The Earth may seem enormous but its resources are finite. During the ancient time,
resources were still enough for the population. Back then, even while the population is continuously
increasing, more resources were able to utilize through the developments in science and
technology. However, at present, Earth’s resources continue to decline due to different
environmental problems. Its natural systems are now being pushed to their limits. Therefore,
integrating environmental science and ecology in the conservation and proper management of
agricultural and biological resources is very crucial to attaining sustainability.

II. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGY

Environment
The term Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounded”. The environment is the natural landscape together with the living and non-living
components, characteristics, and processes. The environment provides natural resources which is
defined as any natural substance or “goods” produced by nature. These goods are necessary for
survival. Natural resources can be grouped into two groups:
1. Renewable resources – natural resources that are constantly renewed or
replenished over time.
Example: Sunlight, wind, wave energy (perpetually replenished)
Timber, water, soil (replenished over a certain amount of time)
2. Nonrenewable natural resources – natural resources that become unavailable
after depletion.
Example: oil, coal, minerals, fossil fuels

Environmental science
Interdisciplinary discipline that highlights human interaction with natural ecosystems. It
combines physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Geography, and Atmospheric Science) to the study of the
environment, and the solution to different environmental problems.

Core Environmental Messages

1. Interdependence
Everything on Earth is connected to everything else. All organisms in an ecosystem
depend upon each other. If the population of one organism rises or falls, then this
can affect the rest of the ecosystem.

2. Diversity and Stability

All life forms are important. All ecosystems are important. Diversity increases the
resilience and stability of systems. The greater the diversity of species of plants
and animals in an ecosystem, the greater its stability.

3. Change
Everything changes. Some changes improve the quality of the environment, others
degrade it. Changes that reduce environmental quality have to be controlled or
avoided.

4. Balance
Nature knows best. It has its laws and processes to maintain itself. Disruptions
caused primarily by human actions can disrupt the cycle of nature, thus bringing
imbalance to the ecosystem.

The Earth and its Spheres

Spheres are systems that make up the planet Earth. Everything in Earth's system can be
placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems

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are called "spheres." The four spheres of the Earth drive all its processes and support life on our
unique planet. Earth’s spheres interact with each other to form an overall complex and connected
system.

Four Major Spheres of the Earth

1.Biosphere
Also called the “life zone of the Earth”. It includes all living organisms such as
plants, animals, and microorganisms, and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.

2.Atmosphere
The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth. It extends from less than one meter
from the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The
atmosphere plays an integral component in the hydrologic cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen
cycle, affects the earth’s energy balance, and provides a favorable climate to meet food
and energy demands.

 Permanent gases – gases in which concentrations are basically constant.

Examples of permanent gases near the earth’s surface are nitrogen and
oxygen.
 Variable gases – gases present in small and variable amounts. Near the
earth’s surface, variable gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water
vapor, and particulates among others.

Layers of the atmosphere

a. Troposphere
 The region of the atmosphere from the surface up to about 11 km which
contains all of the weather humans are familiar with on Earth.
 The region where temperature decreases with altitude.
 The boundary separating the troposphere from another layer is called the
tropopause.
b. Stratosphere
 The region of the atmosphere near 20 km.
 The air temperature begins to increase with height due to gas ozone,
producing a temperature inversion.
 The boundary separating the stratosphere from another layer is called the
stratopause.
c. Mesosphere
 Approximately 80 km above the Earth.
 The air here is extremely thin with only a small amount of ozone that
prevents the air from warming.
 This layer has an average temperature of -90°C but it can reach up to -
110°C, making it the coldest part of our atmosphere.
 The boundary separating the mesosphere from another layer is called the
mesopause.
d. Thermosphere
 Extends 640 km from the Earth.
 Temperature increases rapidly with altitude because of the absorption of
shortwave radiation by the ionization process.
 The oxygen molecules that absorb energetic solar rays warm the air.

3. Lithosphere
Also called geosphere. It is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean
as well as various layers of Earth’s interior.

4.Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.

Freshwater
Type of water that has low salt concentrations that is usually less than 1%.

a. Surface water
Body of water above ground, including streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs,
and creeks. Since surface water is more easily accessible than groundwater, it is
relied on for many human uses. It is an important source of drinking water and is
used for the irrigation of farmland.

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b. Groundwater
Water that soaks into the ground. It exists underground in saturated zones
beneath the land surface. Groundwater is also a major source of water for
irrigation and drinking water supplies.

c. Ice caps and Glaciers

Frozen freshwater

Saline water
Water that is salty because of the dissolved sodium chloride, magnesium, calcium,
and/or potassium.

Earth system science

Study of how the four spheres of the Earth system interact continually, each affecting the
other.

Ecology
Ecology, on the other hand, is a branch of biology that studies the pattern of life and
interactions between organisms and the environment. Environmental science and ecology are
important in the field of agricultural and biosystems engineering as they can help us better
understand the processes involving farming and food production in order to attain food security
while creating sustainable farming practices and maintaining a balanced and safe environment.

Some important concepts of ecology

 Organism - the smallest and basic unit of ecology. It includes all living organisms,
unicellular or multicellular having a fixed lifespan.
 Species or Population - A group of species of the same kind occupying a given
area at the same time.
 Biodiversity - Describes the enormous variety of life on Earth. It includes every living
things, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.
 Megadiversity - Nations that harbor most of Earth's species and high numbers of
endemic species.
 Biodiversity Hotspot - Have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics and have
lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation.
 Coral Triangle - Area with more species of corals, fish, and pharmaceutical marine
products than any other marine environment on Earth
 Endemic - A species that exist in a single defined geographic location and do not
occur naturally in any other part of the world.
 Biome - A large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
 Tragedy of the commons – first described by American ecologist Garret Hardin in
1968 which states that unregulated exploitation of public resources leads to depletion
and damage, posing risk to everyone involved.
 Ecological footprint - the environmental impact of a person or population.
 Carrying capacity - maximum population size the environment can support.
 Overshoot - Occurs when a population grows very quickly and exceeds its
environment's carrying capacity.
 Invasive alien species -Species that are capable of causing extinctions of native
plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited
resources, and altering habitats

III. ECOSYSTEM AND ITS SERVICES

A system is defined as a collection of elements or components that are organized for a

common purpose. An ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all organisms in a given area
interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to a clearly defined trophic
structure, biotic diversity, and material cycle within the system.

Different types of Ecosystem

1. Nature
a. Natural Ecosystem - forms naturally without interference from humans.
Example: pond, river, forest, ocean
b. Artificial Ecosystem - Ecosystem developed and maintained by humans.
Example: farm, backyard, aquarium
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2. Duration
a. Temporary ecosystem - short-lived; can be either man-made or natural.
Example: rain-fed pond
b. Permanent ecosystem - long-lived and self-supported natural ecosystem for a very
long period.
Example: forest, river

3. Size
a. Small - also known as microecosystem. It can be temporary or permanent.
Example: Pond, flowerpot
b. Large - also known as macroecosystem. They are mostly permanent and natural.
Example: Ocean, river, forest, and desert

Structure of Ecosystem
1.Biotic components - Living organisms present in an ecosystem. It includes
include plants, animals, and other organisms.

a. Producers (Autotrophs) – organisms that can make their own food.

 Photoautotrophs - consist of green plants which can trap sunlight to form

carbohydrates, simple sugar from carbon dioxide, and water. They fix energy
from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds (green plants, algae,
some bacteria). The process is known as photosynthesis.
 Chemoautotrophs - consist of a few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria and nitrifying
bacteria that can be able to utilize free energy released from the chemical
reactions to prepare organic food with it. The process is known as
chemosynthesis. Examples are methanogens, halophiles,
nitrifiers, thermoacidophiles, and sulfur oxidizers.

b. Consumers (Heterotrophs) – organisms unable to synthesize their own food

and depends on producers. They are also known as heterotrophs. Consumers are
mainly animals. It also includes crustaceans, worms, insect larvae, and fishes.

 Herbivore - an animal that eats plants.

 Carnivore - an animal that eats other animals.
 Omnivore - an animal that eats both plants and animals.
 Primary Consumer - Animals that consume only plant matter.
 Secondary Consumer - Animals that eat primary consumers.
 Tertiary Consumer - Animals that eat secondary consumers.
 Predators - kill for food. They are either secondary or tertiary
consumers.
 Prey - are the organisms that predators feed on.
 Scavenger - a consumer that eats dead animals.

c. Decomposers - the primary purpose of the ecosystem is to decompose complex

organic material into simple inorganic material so that it can be used for producers to
prepare food. It mainly consists of bacteria and fungi.

2. Abiotic Components - Non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment.

Includes temperature, light, water, etc.

a. Inorganic substances - substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon

dioxide, calcium, phosphorus, and their inorganic compounds. These are available
in free form or dissolved in water and may be adsorbed on the soil particles.
b. Organic substances - substances like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic
acids, etc. This material is present in dead organic matter. These are broken into
simple compounds by decomposers in an ecosystem for the recycling of matter.
c. Climatic factors - factors present in the environment such as temperature,
humidity, light, wind, and rainfall.

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Food chain, Food web, and symbiotic relationships

Food chain
The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to
organism. It describes who eats whom in the wild.
a. Grazing food chain - food chain that starts from living green plants to grazing
herbivores and onto carnivores. Solar energy is entrapped by the plants, then
eaten by the herbivorous, and these are subsequently been consumed by a variety
of carnivorous. The death of all these organisms becomes the food for bacteria
and fungus to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the producers. An
ecosystem with such type of food chain directly depends upon solar energy for
their food requirements

b. Detritus food Chain - starts with the dead organic matter either from fallen
leaves or dead animal bodies. This food chain doesn’t directly depend on solar
energy.

Food web
The interconnected and interlocking pattern of the food chain in a single ecosystem.

Symbiotic relationship
Describes the relationship and interaction between species. It occurs when
different species in an ecosystem have activities or resource needs in common.

Types of Symbiotic Relationships

1. Commensalism
An interaction that benefits one species but neither harms nor helps the other
species.
Example: A bird making a nest in a tree

2. Mutualism
An interaction that involves two species involved in a relationship interacts in ways
that benefit both.
Example: Bee pollination

3. Parasitism
Interaction is beneficial to one and detrimental to another. It occurs when one
species (the parasite) feeds on part of another organism (the host) by living on or
in the host.
Example: Ticks in cattle

4. Predation
Interaction is beneficial to one and detrimental to another. This is a very active
symbiotic relationship and uses intense physical effort (hunt, kill, and feed over
their prey from the outside).
Example: Cheetahs preying on gazelles

Ecosystem Services
The ecosystem provides benefits to humans in the form of material and non-material
benefits. Any process, condition, output, and resources that directly or indirectly benefit humans
are called ecosystem services.

Classification of ecosystem services

1. Provisioning services
Type of benefit to people that can be extracted from nature. Provisioning services
are used for basic human needs such as food, freshwater, medicinal resources,
and raw materials. Along with food, other types of provisioning services include
drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural gas, oils, plants that can be made into
clothes and other materials, and medicinal benefits.
Example:
 Food - Virtually all ecosystems provide the conditions for growing, collecting,
hunting, or harvesting food.
 Medicinal resources - Natural ecosystems provide a variety of plants and
mushrooms which offer effective cures for many kinds of health problems.

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 Freshwater - No water, no life. Ecosystems play a vital role in providing the

flow and storage of fresh water.
 Raw materials - Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials including
wood, biofuels, and fibers from wild or cultivated plant and animal species.

2. Regulating services
The benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena.
These services carried out by ecosystems in regulating environmental processes
make life possible for people. All processes that make ecosystems clean,
sustainable, functional, and resilient to change are part of regulating services.
Example:
 Air and Water Purification - Ecosystems influence water and air quality.
 Carbon sequestration and storage - Ecosystems regulate the global climate by
storing greenhouse gases.
 Climate Regulation - Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers against
natural disasters.
 Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility - Vegetation cover prevents
soil erosion and ensures soil fertility through natural biological processes such
as nitrogen fixation.

3. Cultural services
The ecosystem has guided our cultural, intellectual, and social development by
being present in our lives. Cultural services are non-material benefit that
contributes to the development and cultural advancement of people.
Example:
 Recreation - Nature-based opportunities for recreation play an important role
in maintaining mental and physical health, e.g. walking and playing sports in
parks and urban green spaces.
 Tourism - The enjoyment of nature attracts millions of travelers worldwide.
 Spiritual experience and sense of place - Nature is a common element in most
major religions.

4. Supporting Services
Ecosystem services do not provide direct benefits but are necessary for the
production of all other ecosystem services. Natural processes such as
photosynthesis and the hydrologic cycle are part of supporting services. These
processes allow the Earth to sustain basic life forms, let alone whole ecosystems
and people. Without supporting services, the other ecosystem services will not be
sustained.
Example:
 Nutrient cycling - The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle,
the carbon cycle, and the nitrogen cycle.
 Habitat for species - Ecosystems provide living spaces for plants and animals.
 Maintenance of genetic diversity - Genetic diversity (the variety of genes
between, and within, species populations)

IV. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

An environmental problem occurs when an environmental condition is seen as a problem
by a specific place and situation. People differ in their awareness of problems, depending on who
they are, where they live, and what they do.

Common Environmental problems

A. Biospheric-Related Problems
 Biodiversity loss - Forests cover now stands at only 18 percent with a small
portion of this being old-growth, or uncut virgin, forest. The Philippines also
ranks fifth in the world in terms of the number of plant species
 Extinction - Over the past century, 800 species have become extinct and at
least 10,000 species are now considered threatened.
 Shifting cultivation – the practice of clearing forest for shifting cultivation
through slash and burn.
 Overgrazing – the practice of intensive grazing of plants for extended periods
of time without sufficient recovery periods. It is often caused by livestock in
poorly managed agricultural operations or by overpopulations of the native or
native wild.
 Poaching - the practice of illegal trade of wildlife products.

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B. Atmospheric-related problems
 Air pollution - contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any
chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics
of the atmosphere.
 Climate change - a trend in one or more climatic variables characterized by a
fairly smooth continuous increase or decrease of the average value during the
period of record.
 Acid rain - occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) from
the burning of fossil fuels combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and
fall as precipitation. It poses significant risks to soils, rivers, forests, etc.

C. Geospheric related problems

 Land pollution - Waste generation from household solid waste and industrial
hazardous waste has risen significantly. This can be attributed to the lack of
environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment facilities. Chemical,
Textiles, Food and Drink and Engineering sectors are the main producers of
hazardous wastes.
 Soil erosion – naturally occurring processes through the action of water or
wind and is being accelerated by human exploitation. It often occurs due to
deforestation, overgrazing, industrialization, and desertification.
 Land degradation - any change in the land that alters its conditions or reduces
its
quality. It may be caused by natural disasters (e.g. volcanic eruptions, extreme
weather events, fire, etc.) or human-related activities.
 Ground subsidence – occurs when the sediments in the aquifer become
compacted due to the groundwater withdrawal being greater than the
recharge rate. It may cause damage to buildings and water supply systems.
 Landslide - the mass movement of rocks, debris, and soil down a slope of land.
It can be associated with steep slopes, heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic
activity, changes in groundwater movement, human activities, or any
combination of these factors.
 Desertification - process which turns productive into non- productive desert as
a result of poor land-management

D. Hydrospheric-related problems
 Coastal resources deterioration - Coral reefs are now threatened by siltation,
pollution, overfishing, and destructive fishing techniques.
 Water pollution - contamination of water sources by substances that make the
water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities.
Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, parasites, salts, metals,
metalloids, and pathogens.
 Water Scarcity – lack of water resources to meet the standard water demand.
a. Physical water scarcity
occurs when there is not enough water to meet all demands or the
demand of the population exceeds the available water resources of a
region.
b. Economic water scarcity
Occurs when water is adequate but is unavailable due to a lack of
significant investment in water infrastructure.
 Flooding - an overflow of water onto land that is normally dry. Flooding is
usually caused by heavy rainfall resulting from tropical weather disturbances
aggravated by deforestation, improper agricultural practices, inadequate
design of drainage channels and structures, inadequate maintenance of
drainage facilities, blockage by debris brought by flood waters, and
construction of settlements in flood plains.
 Water contamination - Contamination of water sources by substances that
make the water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other
activities. Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, parasites, salts, metals,
metalloids, and pathogens.
 Oil spills – occur when Crude petroleum and refined petroleum are accidentally
or deliberately released into the environment from different sources.
 Eutrophication – occurs when excessive nutrients (e.g. NPK fertilizers in
agricultural fields) are washed off or accumulated in different bodies of water.
It leads to harmful algal blooms and fish kills.

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World Food problems

Food security
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” - 1996 World Food
Summit

Four main dimensions of food security

1. Physical Availability of Food
Food availability addresses the “supply side” of food security and is determined
by the level of food production, stock levels, and net trade. Availability simply
refers to the existence of food within a community.

2. Economic access to food

Access to food depends on whether consumers have enough money to
purchase the food they require. Greater policy focus on incomes, expenditure,
markets, and prices in achieving food security objectives

3. Food utilization
To be food secure, it is crucial that the food being accessed is of good quality.
Combined with good biological utilization of food consumed, this determines
the nutritional status of individuals. It depends on the quantity, quality, and
diversity of food consumed in the household, as well as adequate health care
and sanitation services.

4. Stability of the other three dimensions over time

Stability is about being food secure at all times.

V. CLIMATE CHANGE

 Weather – short-term state of the atmosphere. It can change in a matter of minutes or

hours.
 Climate – long-term state of the atmosphere. It is the average weather over at least 30
years of weather data.

Climate change can be defined as a trend in one or more climatic variables

characterized by a fairly smooth continuous increase or decrease of the average value
during the period of record. Some gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat and stop it
from escaping into space. These gases are called 'greenhouse gases’. These gases act as a
warming blanket around the Earth, known as the 'greenhouse effect’.

Evidences of Climate Change

 Global warming - rise in the average temperature of Earth's air and oceans
 Sea level rise - increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of
global warming
 Extreme weather events - occurrences of unusually severe weather or climate
conditions that can cause devastating impacts on communities and agricultural
and natural ecosystems.
 Heatwave - a period of abnormally hot weather.
 Water scarcity - lack of sufficient water, or not having access to safe water
supplies.

Relative Contribution of Natural and Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases to

Greenhouse Effect

1. Water vapor
Water vapor is the most abundant GHG in the atmosphere and is the largest
contributor to the greenhouse effect. Warming is caused by increasing water vapor
in the atmosphere due to increased evaporation.
It does not last long in the atmosphere and is removed as precipitation and
condensation.

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2. Carbon Dioxide
Natural sources of carbon dioxide (approximately 770 billion mt of CO2/year)
include ocean, plant, and animal respiration, organic matter decomposition, forest
fire, and volcanic eruption. Anthropogenic sources (approximately 34 billion mt
CO2/year) include fossil fuel burning, cement production, and farmland plowing).
Although natural sources are higher than anthropogenic sources, natural biological
processes such as plant photosynthesis absorb all natural emissions plus 54% of
man-made emissions.

3. Ozone
Ozone is found in two (2) different atmospheric layers – stratosphere and
troposphere:
 Stratospheric ozone - protects life on Earth from the harmful effects of the
sun’s ultraviolet rays. This layer also causes cooling, however, it has been
partially destroyed by manmade chemicals such as CFCs formerly found in
aerosol spray cans and refrigerants.
 Tropospheric ozone is a GHG formed by the reaction of sunlight on air
containing hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides. Tropospheric ozone is created by
pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, and chemical plants.

4. Methane and Nitrous Oxide

Methane and nitrous oxide are formed from oil, coal, and gas extraction,
agriculture particularly rice cultivation, and biomass burning. Natural sources
include soil nitrification and denitrification, oceans, rivers, estuaries, and wildfires.
Anthropogenic emissions include fertilization and cultivation of farmland,
industrial, and fossil fuel use, and biomass burning.

Climate Change Mitigation

Measures taken to reduce and curb greenhouse gas emissions to address the
causes of climate change.
Example:
 Sustainable transportation
 Reduce, reuse, recycle
 Eat less meat
 Eliminate food waste
 Conserve water

Climate Change Adaptation

Measures are based on reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change.
Example:
 Green architectures
 More secure facility locations and infrastructures
 Preventive and precautionary measures

VI. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The solution to the different environmental problems is sustainability – management of
Earth’s resources without depleting them. The pathway to achieve this is through sustainable
development - the use of resources to satisfy current needs without compromising the future
availability of resources.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted
by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and
ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 SDGs are integrated—they
recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance
social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

 GOAL 1: No Poverty
End poverty in all its forms everywhere. This involves targeting the most
vulnerable, increasing basic resources and services, and supporting communities affected
by conflict and climate-related disasters.

 GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture. This involves promoting sustainable agriculture, supporting small-
scale farmers, and equal access to land, technology, and markets. It also requires

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international cooperation to ensure investment in infrastructure and technology to improve

agricultural productivity.

 GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Multisectoral, rights-
based, and gender-sensitive approaches are essential to address inequalities and to build
good health for all.

 GOAL 4: Quality Education

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all. This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and
secondary schooling by 2030. It also aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational
training, eliminate gender and wealth disparities, and achieve universal access to quality
higher education.

 GOAL 5: Gender Equality

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. It is vital to give women
equal rights to land and property, sexual and reproductive health, technology, and the
Internet. Today there are more women in public office than ever before, but encouraging
more women leaders will help achieve greater gender equality.

 GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
Safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires we invest in adequate
infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene. Protecting and
restoring water-related ecosystems is essential.

 GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

Safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires we invest in adequate
infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene. Protecting and
restoring water-related ecosystems is essential. Investing in solar, wind, and thermal
power, improving energy productivity, and ensuring energy for all are vital if we are to
achieve SDG 7 by 2030. Expanding infrastructure and upgrading technology to provide
clean and more efficient energy in all countries will encourage growth and help the
environment.

 GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment, and decent work for all.

 GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization,
and foster innovation.

 GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

Reduce inequality within and among countries.

 GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

 GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. The efficient
management of our shared natural resources, and the way we dispose of toxic waste and
pollutants, are important targets to achieve this goal. Encouraging industries, businesses,
and consumers to recycle and reduce waste is equally important, as is supporting
developing countries to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030.
 GOAL 13: Climate Action
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Supporting
vulnerable regions will directly contribute not only to Goal 13 but also to the other SDGs.
These actions must also go hand in hand with efforts to integrate disaster risk measures,
sustainable natural resource management, and human security into national development
strategies. It is still possible, with strong political will, increased investment, and using
existing technology, to limit the increase in global mean temperature to two degrees
Celsius above pre-industrial levels, aiming at 1.5°C, but this requires urgent and ambitious
collective action.

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 GOAL 14: Life Below Water

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for
sustainable development. The SDGs aim to sustainably manage and protect marine and
coastal ecosystems from pollution, as well as address the impacts of ocean acidification.
Enhancing conservation and the sustainable use of ocean-based resources through
international law will also help mitigate some of the challenges facing our oceans.

 GOAL 15: Life on Land

Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation
and halt biodiversity loss. Urgent action must be taken to reduce the loss of natural habitats
and biodiversity which are part of our common heritage and support global food and water
security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and peace and security.

 GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all
levels.

 GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for
Sustainable Development.

VII.REFERENCES
Alberto, A.M.P., & Guzman, J. (2002). Self Learning Module in Principles of Ecology. EMI
Publishing, Central Luzon State University.

Berg, L. & Hager, M.C. (2008). Visualizing Environmental Science (2nd Ed.) Wiley: Hoboken,
NJ, USA.

Berthouex, P.M., & Brown, L.C. (2015). Pollution Prevention and Control: Part 1, 1st Edition,
ISBN 978-87-403-0526-5

Botkin, L. & Keller, M.C. (2008). Environmental Science, Earth as a living planet (6 th ed.).
Wiley:Hoboken, NJ, USA.

Jones, C. (2014). Atmospheric Pollution 1st Edition., ISBN 978-87-7681-416-8

Moir P. (2015) A wet look at Climate Change: Hurricanes to House Mites, ISBN 978-87-
403-006305.

Lukenga, W. (2019) Water Resource Management 2nd Edition, ISBN 978-87-403-2971-1

Tyller, G., Miller, J.R., & Scott, E. (2011). Library of Congress Control Number:
2008933001, ISBN-13: 978-0-495-55795-1. ISBN-10: 0-495-55795-1

Withgoth, J. & Brenhan, S. (2014). The science Behind the Stories: 5th edition., published
by Addison Wesley Paperback Materials. https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-
education/product/Withgott-Environment-The-Science-behind-the-Stories-5th-
Edition

Zehnder C., Manoylov, K., Mutiti, S., Mutiti C., VandeVoort A., & Bennett D. (2018).
Introduction to Environmental Science: 2 nd Edition., Galileo Open Learning
Materials: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/biology-textbooks/4

United Nations. (2015). The 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.
https://sdgs.un.org/goals

ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES QUESTIONS

1. The environmental impact of a person or population is called ___________.

a. Overshoot b. Ecosystem services c. Ecological footprint d. Overexploitation

2. Which of the following is NOT a biotic component?

a. Fungi b. Water c. Bacteria d. Plants

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3. Which is NOT a sustainable solution?

a. Use of fossil fuels c. Greenhouse gas mitigation technologies
b. Reduce, reuse, recycle d. Renewable energy

4. Which of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?

a. Solar b. Wind c. Wave d. Natural gas

5. The use of resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future availability of
resources is called __________________.
a. Environmental sustainability c. Renewable development
b. Economic sustainability d. Sustainable development

6. Erosion prevention belongs to which ecosystem services?

a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

7. The hydrologic cycle belongs to which ecosystem services?

a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

8. Basic human needs people get from the ecosystem belong to which ecosystem services?
a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

9. Processes that make ecosystems clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient to change
belong to which ecosystem services?
a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

10. Ecosystem services that do not provide direct benefits but are necessary for the production
of all other ecosystem services.
a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

11. Development and cultural advancement of people belong to which ecosystem services?
a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services

12. What symbiotic relationship is exhibited by a spider making its web on a tree?
a. Mutualism b. Commensalism c. Predation d. Parasitism

13. Mosquitos and humans exhibit what kind of symbiotic relationship?

a. Mutualism b. Commensalism c. Predation d. Parasitism

14. What symbiotic relationship is exhibited by plants and pollinators?

a. Mutualism b. Commensalism c. Predation d. Parasitism

15. The maximum population size the environment can support.

a. Population limit c. population dynamics
b. Carrying capacity d. Absolute population

16. Structural and functional unit of the biosphere, comprising living and non-living factors
and their interaction.
a. Ecosystem b. Environment c. Biosphere d. Ecology

17. ___________ occurs when humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity to support.
a. Overexploitation b. Ecological footprint c. Overshoot d. Ecosystem services

18. It describes the enormous variety of life on Earth.

a. Stability b. Biodiversity c. Endemic d. Ecological balance
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19. A species that exist in a single defined geographic location and do not occur naturally in
any other part of the world.
a. Stable species b. Invasive c. Endemic species d. Alien species

20. Any process, condition, output, and resources that the ecosystem provide to humans
directly or indirectly.
a. Ecosystem services c. Biodiversity
b. Environmental benefit d. Ecological balance

21. Species that are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing
biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.
a. Exotic species c. Invasive species
b. Native species d. Endemic species

22. Which of the following is an abiotic component?

a. Air b. Bacteria c. Animals d. Tree

23. Ozone layer depletion is associated to which sphere?

a. Geosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere

24. Extinction is associated to which sphere?

a. Geosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere

25. Climate change __________ are measures that are taken to reduce and curb greenhouse
gas emissions.
a. Solution b. Mitigation c. Adaptation d. Emergency

26. Climate change __________ are measures that reduce vulnerability to the effects of
climate change.
a. Solution b. Mitigation c. Adaptation d. Emergency

27. Which of the following is a climate change mitigation measure?

a. Survival skills c. Secure infrastractures
b. Responsible consumption d. Emergency responses

28. Which of the following is a climate change adaptation measure?

a. First aid training c. Water conservation
b. Recycling d. Sustainable transportation

29. Type of water scarcity which occurs when water is adequate but is unavailable due to a
lack of significant investment in water infrastructure.
a. Global water scarcity c. Economic water scarcity
b. Physical water scarcity d. Environmental water scarcity

30. Type of water scarcity which occurs when when there is not enough water to meet all
demands or the demand of the population exceeds the available water resources of a
region.
a. Global water scarcity c. Economic water scarcity
b. Physical water scarcity d. Environmental water scarcity

31. Which is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and is the largest
contributor to the greenhouse effect?
a. Carbon dioxide b. Methane c. Water vapor d. Nitrous oxide

32. Body of water above ground, including streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs, and
creeks.
a. Freshwater b. Saltwater c. Groundwater d. Surface water

33. Body of water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.

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a. Freshwater b. Saltwater c. Groundwater d. Surface water

34. Global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
a. Sustainability goals c. Biodiversity goals
b. United Nations’ goals d. Sustainable development goals

35. Sustainable development goals that urge to take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts.
a. SDG 13 b. SDG 14 c. SDG 15 d. SDG 16

36. Sustainable development goals that urge to protect, restore and promote sustainable use
of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
a. SDG 13 b. SDG 14 c. SDG 15 d. SDG 16

37. Sustainable development goals that urge to conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. The SDGs aim to sustainably
manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems from pollution, as well as address the
impacts of ocean acidification.
a. SDG 13 b. SDG 14 c. SDG 15 d. SDG 16

38. It is also called geosphere and it consists of the solid Earth that includes the continental
and ocean. as well as various layers of Earth’s interior.
a. Hydrosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Lithosphere

39. A rice field is an example of ____________.

a. Natural ecosystem c. Temporary ecosystem
b. Artificial ecosystem d. Macroecosystem

40. Sierra Madre mountain ranges is an example of ____________.

a. Natural ecosystem c. Temporary ecosystem
b. Artificial ecosystem d. Microecosystem

41. Animal that eats both plants and animals.

a. Herbivore b. Carnivore c. Omnivore d. Scavenger

42. Mushroom is an example of ___________ ?

a. Producer b. Consumer c. Predator d. Decomposer

43. Branch of biology that studies the pattern of life and interactions between organisms and
the environment.
a. Ecology c. Zoology
b. Environmental science d. Environmental physiology

44. Area with more species of corals, fish, and pharmaceutical marine products than any other
marine environment on Earth
a. Biome b. Ocean c. Coral Triangle d. Freshwater

45. Occurs when excessive nutrients (e.g. NPK fertilizers in agricultural fields) are accumulated
in different bodies of water that leads to algal blooms and fish kills.
a. Nitrification c. Desertification
b. Eutrophication d. Water degradation
46. Practice of practice of illegal trade of wildlife products.
a. Poaching b. Smuggling c. Trafficking d. Encroahing

47. How many goals does the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have?
a. 16 b. 17 c. 18 d. 19

48. Affordable and Clean energy belong to what Sustainable Development Goals?
a. SDG 1 b. SDG 3 c. SDG 7 d. SDG 13

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49. Dimesion of food security that depends on whether consumers have enough money to
purchase the food they require.
a. Availability b. Access c. Use and Utilization d. Stability

50. Dimesion of food security that refers being food secure at all times.
a. Availability b. Access c. Use and Utilization d. Stability

ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ANSWER KEY

1. C 11. D 21. C 31. C 41. C

2. B 12. B 22. A 32. D 42. D
3. A 13. D 23. B 33. C 43. A
4. D 14. A 24. C 34. D 44. C
5. D 15. B 25. B 35. A 45. B

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6. C 16. A 26. C 36. C 46. A

7. A 17. C 27. B 37. B 47. B
8. B 18. B 28. A 38. D 48. C
9. C 19. C 29. C 39. B 49. B
10. A 20. A 30. B 40. A 50. D

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