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- Oxidation of food materials (breaking of C-C bonds of - The compounds that are oxidized during respiration are
complex molecules) within the cell to release energy for called respiratory substrates. E.g. Carbohydrates (most
ATP synthesis is called cellular respiration. common), proteins, fats and organic acids.
- This energy is used for absorption, transport, movement, - The energy released is not used directly but is used to
reproduction, breathing etc. synthesize ATP. When energy is needed, ATP is broken
- Ultimate source of food that is respired is photosynthesis. down. Hence, ATP acts as energy currency of the cell.

BREATHING IN PLANTS
- For respiration, plants get O2 and give out CO2. - Complete combustion of glucose yields energy most of
- In plants, gas exchange occurs via stomata & lenticels. which is given out as heat.
- Plants need no specialized respiratory organs because C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
• Each plant part takes care of its own gas-exchange needs.
- This energy is utilized to synthesize other molecules.
So gas transport is very limited.
- During the glucose catabolism, not all the liberated energy
• Very low gas exchange as compared to that of animals.
goes out as heat. Glucose is oxidised in several small steps.
• Leaves are adapted for maximum gas exchange during
It enables some steps to couple released energy to ATP
photosynthesis. During this, O2 is released within the cell.
synthesis.
• Most living cells have contact with air. They are located
- During respiration, oxygen is utilized, and CO2, water &
close to plant surface. In stems, living cells are organized
energy are released.
in thin layers beneath the bark. They also have lenticels.
- Certain organisms are adapted to anaerobic conditions.
In leaves, stems & roots, parenchyma cells are loosely
Some are facultative anaerobes. Others are obligate.
packed that provides interconnected air spaces.

GLYCOLYSIS (EMP PATHWAY)

- It is the partial oxidation (breakdown) of glucose to 2
molecules of pyruvic acid (C3H4O3) in the absence of O2.
- It occurs in cytoplasm of all living organisms.
- Its scheme was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof
& J. Parnas. So it is also known as EMP pathway.
- In anaerobes, it is the only process in respiration.
- In plants, glucose is derived from sucrose (end product of
photosynthesis) or from storage carbohydrates. Sucrose is
converted to glucose & fructose by an enzyme, invertase.
These 2 monosaccharides readily enter glycolytic pathway.
- Glucose & fructose are phosphorylated to form glucose-6-
phosphate by the enzyme hexokinase. It is then isomerised
to produce fructose-6-phosphate. Subsequent steps of
metabolism of glucose and fructose are same.
Steps of glycolysis:
- It includes 10 steps under the control of different enzymes.
- ATP is utilized at 2 steps:
• In the conversion of glucose into glucose 6-phosphate.
• In the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,
6-diphosphate.
- Fructose 1, 6-diphosphate is split into dihydroxyacetone Pyruvic acid
phosphate (DHAP) & 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). (pyruvate) is the key
- PGAL is oxidised and with inorganic phosphate get product of glycolysis.
converted to 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPGA). During Its metabolic fate
this, 2 redox-equivalents (2 H-atoms) are removed from depends on the
PGAL and transferred to NAD+ forming NADH + H+. cellular need.

- BPGA becomes 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) yielding

energy. This energy is trapped by the formation of ATP. In different cells, pyruvic acid is handled in 3 ways:
- ATP is also formed when PEP converts to pyruvic acid. • Lactic acid fermentation.
- In glycolysis, 4 ATP molecules are directly synthesised • Alcoholic fermentation.
from one glucose molecule. • Aerobic respiration (Krebs’ cycle).

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FERMENTATION (ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION)

- It is the incomplete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic - The steps involved in fermentation are shown below:
condition.
- It occurs in many prokaryotes and unicellular eukaryotes.
- It is 2 types:
• Alcoholic fermentation: Here, the pyruvic acid formed
from glucose is converted to CO2 and ethanol. The
enzymes, pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol
dehydrogenase catalyse these reactions. E.g. Yeast.
Yeasts poison themselves to death when the
concentration of alcohol reaches about 13%.
• Lactic acid fermentation: Here, pyruvic acid is
converted to lactic acid. E.g. Some bacteria.
- The reducing agent (NADH+H+) is reoxidised to NAD+ in
both the processes.
- In animals, when oxygen is inadequate during exercise, Drawbacks of fermentation
pyruvic acid in muscle cells is reduced to lactic acid by • Energy production is limited. Less than 7% of the energy
lactate dehydrogenase. in glucose is released and not all of it is trapped as high
- Net ATP production from fermentation of one glucose energy bonds of ATP.
molecule = 2. (4 ATP from glycolysis – 2 ATP utilized). • Hazardous products (acid or alcohol) are formed.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- It is a complete oxidation of organic substances in the In a coupled reaction, GTP is converted to GDP with
presence of oxygen releasing CO2, water & energy. simultaneous synthesis of ATP from ADP.
- It occurs in mitochondria. 6. Oxidation of succinate to Fumarate and then to Malate.
- For this, the pyruvate (final product of glycolysis) is 7. Oxidation of malate to OAA.
transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria.
- The crucial events in aerobic respiration are:
• Complete oxidation of pyruvate by stepwise removal
of all the hydrogen atoms, leaving 3 CO2 molecules. It
takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
• Passing on of electrons removed as part of H-atoms to
molecular O2 with simultaneous synthesis of ATP. It
occurs on the inner membrane of mitochondria.
- Pyruvate (pyruvic acid) enters mitochondrial matrix and
undergoes oxidative decarboxylation in presence pyruvic
dehydrogenase. It needs coenzymes, NAD+ & Coenzyme A.
- During this process, 2 NADH molecules are produced
from 2 pyruvic acid molecules.
- At 3 points of TCA cycle, NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+.
At one point, FAD+ is reduced to FADH2.
- Acetyl CoA then enters tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. - Continued oxidation of acetyl CoA via TCA cycle requires
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle continued replenishment of OAA. It also requires
(Krebs’ cycle or Citric acid cycle) regeneration of NAD+ & FAD+ from NADH & FADH2.
TCA cycle was first elucidated by Hans Krebs. Summary equation of Krebs’ cycle:
Steps:
1. Condensation of acetyl group with oxaloacetic acid
(OAA) & water to form citric acid in presence of citrate Thus, a glucose is broken down to give 6 CO2, 8 NADH+H+,
synthase enzyme. A CoA molecule is released. 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP.
2. Citrate is isomerised to isocitrate.
Electron Transport System (ETS) & Oxidative
3. Decarboxylation of isocitrate to a-ketoglutaric acid.
Phosphorylation
4. Decarboxylation of a-ketoglutaric acid to succinyl-CoA.
- Electron transport system (ETS) is the metabolic
5. Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinic acid and a GTP
pathway present in the inner mitochondrial membrane
molecule is synthesised (substrate level phosphorylation).
through which electron passes from one carrier to another.
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- This is to release and utilize energy stored in NADH+H+ phosphorylation. It is not as photophosphorylation (Here,
and FADH2 (formed during TCA cycle) by oxidation. light energy is utilised to produce proton gradient for
- The electrons are passed on to O2 to form H2O. phosphorylation).
- Electrons from NADH are oxidised by an NADH - The energy released during the ETS is utilized to
dehydrogenase (complex I). synthesize ATP by ATP synthase (complex V).
- Electrons are then transferred to ubiquinone (UQ) located - ATP synthase has two major components: F1 & F0.
within the inner membrane. Ubiquinone also receives - F1 headpiece (peripheral membrane protein complex):
reducing equivalents via FADH2 (complex II) that is Site for ATP synthesis from ADP & inorganic phosphate.
generated during oxidation of succinate in citric acid cycle. - F0 (integral membrane protein complex): It forms a
- The reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol or UQH2) is then channel through which protons cross the inner membrane.
oxidised with the transfer of electrons to cytochrome c via The passage of protons is coupled to the catalytic site of
cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III). Cytochrome c is the F1 component for ATP production.
a small protein attached to the outer surface of the inner
membrane. It acts as a mobile carrier of electrons between
Diagrammatic
complex III and IV. presentation of
- Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) contains ATP
cytochromes a & a3, and 2 copper centres. synthesis in
mitochondria
- When the electrons pass from one carrier to another via
complex I to IV, they are coupled to ATP synthase
(complex V) for the ATP production.
- For each ATP produced, 2H+ passes through F0 from the
inter-membrane space to the matrix down the
electrochemical proton gradient.
THE RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET
- Net gain of ATP from each glucose molecule is calculated
based on the following assumptions:
• All steps in Glycolysis, TCA cycle & ETS occur
sequentially and orderly.
• The NADH synthesised in glycolysis is transferred into
mitochondria and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation.
• Intermediates in the pathway are not used to synthesise
other compounds.
• Only glucose is being respired. Other alternative
substrates are not entered in the pathway at any stages.
- Such assumptions are not valid because,
o All pathways work simultaneously and do not take place
one after another.
o Substrates enter the pathways and are withdrawn from
it as and when necessary.
o ATP is utilized as and when needed.
o Enzymatic rates are controlled by multiple means.
- Such calculations are useful to appreciate the efficiency of
the living system in extraction and storing energy.
Net gain of ATP molecules from one glucose molecule
2 ATP directly 2 ATP
Glycolysis
2 molecules of NADH 6 ATP
Oxidative
Number of ATP molecules produced depends on nature of 2 NADH 6 ATP
decarboxylation
electron donor. 6 NADH 18 ATP
Oxidation of 1 NADH → 3 ATP 2 FADH 4 ATP
TCA cycle
Oxidation of 1 FADH2 → 2 ATP 2 GTP 2 ATP
- In aerobic respiration, the role of oxygen is limited to the Total 38 ATP
terminal stage. Yet, oxygen is vital since it drives the whole 2 ATP molecules are spent for transporting 2 NADH
process by removing hydrogen from the system. Oxygen molecules formed during glycolysis to the mitochondria.
acts as the final hydrogen acceptor. Hence the net gain = 36 ATP molecules.
- In respiration, energy of oxidation-reduction is utilised
for the phosphorylation. So this process is called oxidative
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Comparison b/w fermentation & aerobic respiration - The respiratory pathway is generally considered as a
catabolic pathway. But it involves both anabolism
Fermentation Aerobic respiration (synthesis) and catabolism (breakdown). So it is better
Partial breakdown of Complete breakdown of called as an amphibolic pathway.
glucose. glucose to CO2 & H2O.
E.g. Fatty acids breakdown to acetyl CoA before entering
Net gain of only 2 ATP. Net gain of 36 ATP. the respiratory pathway. But when the organism needs to
NADH is oxidised to NADH is oxidised to NAD+ synthesise fatty acids, acetyl CoA withdraw from the
NAD+ rather slowly. very vigorously.
respiratory pathway.
AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY Similarly, during breakdown and synthesis of protein,
- Glucose is the favoured substrate for respiration. So, all respiratory intermediates are involved.
carbohydrates are first converted to glucose for respiration. RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT (RQ) OR
- Other substrates are also respired. RESPIRATORY RATIO
- It is the ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume
of O2 consumed in respiration.
Volume of CO2 evolved
RQ =
Volume of O2 consumed
- RQ depends upon the type of respiratory substrate.
- RQ for carbohydrates= 1, because equal amounts of CO2
and O2 are evolved and consumed, respectively.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
6 CO2
RQ = = 1.0
6 O2
- RQ for fats = < 1. Calculations for a fatty acid, (e.g.
tripalmitin) are shown:
2 (C51H98O6) + 145O2 → 102 CO2 + 98 H2O + energy
102 CO2
- Fats breakdown into glycerol & fatty acids. Fatty acids are RQ = = 0.7
145 O2
degraded to acetyl CoA and enter the pathway. Glycerol - RQ for proteins = 0.9.
is converted to PGAL and enters the pathway. - In living organisms, respiratory substances are often more
- Proteins are degraded by proteases into amino acids. Each than one. Pure proteins or fats are never used as respiratory
amino acid (after deamination) enters the pathway at some substrates.
stage in the Krebs’ cycle or as pyruvate or acetyl CoA.